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71-971: The discovery of iron ore in Luxembourg in the 1850s and the introduction of metallurgy in 1876 led to the development of an important national steel industry, especially in the south of the country, and provided Luxembourg with sustained economic growth during the second half of the 19th century. This economic growth was greatly boosted during the two decades preceding World War I when large integrated steelworks, able to convert cast iron into steel and rolled steel, were constructed. Steel production surged from 145 313 tonnes in 1900 to 1,115,004 tonnes in 1913, and steel-making accounted for around 60% of total industrial employment in Luxembourg before World War I. The close economic relationship between Luxembourg and its neighbours, especially Germany , enabled investors to develop cross-border projects. As early as 1856, Luxembourg industrialists and members of parliament founded

142-793: A takeover for Arcelor that led to the creation of ArcelorMittal . Iron ore Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow, or deep purple to rusty red. The iron is usually found in the form of magnetite ( Fe 3 O 4 , 72.4% Fe), hematite ( Fe 2 O 3 , 69.9% Fe), goethite ( FeO(OH) , 62.9% Fe), limonite ( FeO(OH)·n(H 2 O) , 55% Fe), or siderite ( FeCO 3 , 48.2% Fe). Ores containing very high quantities of hematite or magnetite, typically greater than about 60% iron, are known as natural ore or direct shipping ore , and can be fed directly into iron-making blast furnaces . Iron ore

213-528: A 33% to 40% recovery of magnetite by weight, to produce a concentrate grading in excess of 64% iron by weight. The typical magnetite iron ore concentrate has less than 0.1% phosphorus , 3–7% silica , and less than 3% aluminium . As of 2019, magnetite iron ore is mined in Minnesota and Michigan in the United States , eastern Canada , and northern Sweden . Magnetite-bearing banded iron formation

284-696: A benchmark to be followed by the rest of the industry. Singapore Mercantile Exchange (SMX) has launched the world's first global iron ore futures contract, based on the Metal Bulletin Iron Ore Index (MBIOI) which uses daily price data from a broad spectrum of industry participants and independent Chinese steel consultancy and data provider Shanghai Steelhome's widespread contact base of steel producers and iron ore traders across China. The futures contract has seen monthly volumes over 1,500,000 t (1,500,000 long tons; 1,700,000 short tons) after eight months of trading. This move follows

355-575: A blast furnace more efficient. Others are added because they make the iron more fluid, harder, or give it some other desirable quality. The choice of ore, fuel, and flux determines how the slag behaves and the operational characteristics of the iron produced. Ideally, iron ore contains only iron and oxygen. In reality, this is rarely the case. Typically, iron ore contains a host of elements which are often unwanted in modern steel. Trente Glorieuses Les Trente Glorieuses ( French pronunciation: [le tʁɑ̃t ɡlɔʁjøz] ; 'The Glorious Thirty')

426-524: A global actor through the magnitude of its operations. The 1973 oil crisis and its global repercussions had a dramatic impact on Luxembourg and on ARBED in particular, as it coincided with worldwide global steel overproduction. Despite ARBED's international sales network's restructuring in 1976 ( Columeta was renamed TradeARBED ) and the establishment of TrefilARBED Korea in 1978, by 1983, steel production had slumped back to 1955 levels (3.2 million tonnes, compared with 6.45 million tonnes in 1974). By 1985,

497-452: A good average of 3.9% until 1975. During the first half of the 1970s, the steel industry represented close to 30% of the total sum of added value in the national Luxembourg economy, and more than half the total added value of industry. By 1974, Luxembourg steelworks and iron mines provided work for around 25,000 employees in 1974 (16% of the total national). During these three decades, ARBED not only developed its local plants but also increased

568-417: A people still scarred by World War II. These decades of economic prosperity combined high productivity with high average wages and high consumption, and were also characterized by a highly developed system of social benefits. According to various studies, the real purchasing power of the average French worker's salary went up by 170% between 1950 and 1975, while overall private consumption increased by 174% in

639-424: A premium price. Due to the high density of hematite relative to associated silicate gangue, hematite beneficiation usually involves a combination of beneficiation techniques. One method relies on passing the finely-crushed ore over a slurry containing magnetite or other agent such as ferrosilicon which increases its density. When the density of the slurry is properly calibrated, the hematite will sink and

710-453: A relatively low-grade ore, they are also inexpensive to collect, as they do not have to be mined. Because of this, companies such as Magnetation have started reclamation projects where they use iron ore tailings as a source of metallic iron. The two main methods of recycling iron from iron ore tailings are magnetizing roasting and direct reduction. Magnetizing roasting uses temperatures between 700 and 900 °C (1,292 and 1,652 °F) for

781-616: A source of iron ore. Prior to the industrial revolution, most iron was obtained from widely-available goethite or bog ore , for example, during the American Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars . Historically, much of the iron ore utilized by industrialized societies has been mined from predominantly hematite deposits with grades of around 70% Fe. These deposits are commonly referred to as "direct shipping ores" or "natural ores". Increasing iron ore demand, coupled with

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852-519: A subsidiary company specialized in the production of long steel products and ARBED Americas, a subsidiary of TradeARBED, in 1994, to manage all United States commercial activities. ARBED also expanded by taking over other companies; in 1995, it obtained the majority of shares of German Klöckner Stahl , now Stahlwerke Bremen , and, in 1997, it developed a strategic partnership with Spanish steel company Aceralia (formerly CSI ). However, during this period of geographic expansion and division of sectors,

923-606: A switch to index-based quarterly pricing by the world's three largest iron ore miners— Vale , Rio Tinto , and BHP —in early 2010, breaking a 40-year tradition of benchmark annual pricing. Iron is the most abundant element on earth but not in the crust. The extent of the accessible iron ore reserves is not known, though Lester Brown of the Worldwatch Institute suggested in 2006 that iron ore could run out within 64 years (that is, by 2070), based on 2% growth in demand per year. Geoscience Australia calculates that

994-418: A time of under 1 hour to produce an iron concentrate (Fe 3 O 4 ) to be used for iron smelting. For magnetizing roasting, it is important to have a reducing atmosphere to prevent oxidization and the formation of Fe 2 O 3 because it is harder to separate as it is less magnetic. Direct reduction uses hotter temperatures of over 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) and longer times of 2–5 hours. Direct reduction

1065-655: A typically titanium -bearing magnetite, often with vanadium . These ores form a niche market, with specialty smelters used to recover the iron, titanium, and vanadium. These ores are beneficiated essentially similarly to banded iron formation ores, but usually are more easily upgraded via crushing and screening . The typical titanomagnetite concentrate grades 57% Fe, 12% Ti, and 0.5% V 2 O 5 . For every one ton of iron ore concentrate produced, approximately 2.5–3.0 tons of iron ore tailings will be discharged. Statistics show that there are 130 million tons of iron ore tailings discharged every year. If, for example,

1136-659: A value of $ 2.3 billion. 46% of Canada's iron ore comes from the Iron Ore Company of Canada mine, in Labrador City , Newfoundland , with secondary sources including the Mary River Mine in Nunavut . According to the U.S. Geological Survey's 2021 Report on iron ore, India is estimated to produce 59,000,000 t (58,000,000 long tons; 65,000,000 short tons) of iron ore in 2020, placing it as

1207-511: Is a high-volume, low-margin business, as the value of iron is significantly lower than base metals. It is highly capital intensive, and requires significant investment in infrastructure such as rail in order to transport the ore from the mine to a freight ship. For these reasons, iron ore production is concentrated in the hands of a few major players. World production averages 2,000,000,000 t (2.0 × 10 long tons; 2.2 × 10 short tons) of raw ore annually. The world's largest producer of iron ore

1278-428: Is expected to rise by a CAGR of 2% between 2023 and 2027, and industry analyst Fitch Solutions forecasted in 2021 that Brazil's annual production will reach 592,000,000 t (583,000,000 long tons; 653,000,000 short tons) by 2030. In 2017, Canadian iron ore mines produced 49,000,000 t (48,000,000 long tons; 54,000,000 short tons) of iron ore in concentrate pellets and 13.6 million tons of crude steel. Of

1349-510: Is followed by Japan and Korea, which consume a significant amount of raw iron ore and metallurgical coal . In 2006, China produced 588,000,000 t (579,000,000 long tons; 648,000,000 short tons) of iron ore, with an annual growth of 38%. Over the last 40 years, iron ore prices have been decided in closed-door negotiations between the small handful of miners and steelmakers which dominate both spot and contract markets. Until 2006, prices were determined in annual benchmark negotiations between

1420-603: Is in the iron ranges around Lake Superior . These iron ranges occur in Minnesota and Michigan, which combined accounted for 93% of the usable iron ore produced in the United States in 2014. Seven of the nine operational open pit mines in the United States are located in Minnesota as well as two of the three tailings reclamation operations. The other two active open pit mines were located in Michigan . In 2016, one of

1491-709: Is mined extensively in Brazil as of 2019, which exports significant quantities to Asia , and there is a nascent and large magnetite iron ore industry in Australia . Direct-shipping iron ore (DSO) deposits (typically composed of hematite ) are currently exploited on all continents except Antarctica , with the largest intensity in South America , Australia, and Asia. Most large hematite iron ore deposits are sourced from altered banded iron formations and (rarely) igneous accumulations. DSO deposits are typically rarer than

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1562-463: Is the raw material used to make pig iron , which is one of the main raw materials to make steel —98% of the mined iron ore is used to make steel. In 2011 the Financial Times quoted Christopher LaFemina, mining analyst at Barclays Capital, saying that iron ore is "more integral to the global economy than any other commodity, except perhaps oil ". Metallic iron is virtually unknown on

1633-481: Is the Brazilian mining corporation Vale , followed by Australian companies Rio Tinto Group and BHP . A further Australian supplier, Fortescue Metals Group Ltd, has helped bring Australia's production to first in the world. The seaborne trade in iron ore—that is, iron ore to be shipped to other countries—was 849,000,000 t (836,000,000 long tons; 936,000,000 short tons) in 2004. Australia and Brazil dominate

1704-425: Is used to produce sponge iron (Fe) to be used for steel-making. Direct reduction requires more energy, as the temperatures are higher and the time is longer and it requires more reducing agent than magnetizing roasting. Lower-grade sources of iron ore generally require beneficiation , using techniques like crushing, milling , gravity or heavy media separation , screening, and silica froth flotation to improve

1775-905: The Chichester Range , the Hamersley Range and Koolyanobbing , Western Australia . Other types of ore are coming to the fore recently, such as oxidised ferruginous hardcaps, for instance laterite iron ore deposits near Lake Argyle in Western Australia. The total recoverable reserves of iron ore in India are about 9,602,000,000 t (9.450 × 10 long tons; 1.0584 × 10 short tons) of hematite and 3,408,000,000 t (3.354 × 10 long tons; 3.757 × 10 short tons) of magnetite . Chhattisgarh , Madhya Pradesh , Karnataka , Jharkhand , Odisha , Goa , Maharashtra , Andhra Pradesh , Kerala , Rajasthan , and Tamil Nadu are

1846-602: The Earth 's surface except as iron-nickel alloys from meteorites and very rare forms of deep mantle xenoliths . Although iron is the fourth-most abundant element in the Earth's crust , composing about 5%, the vast majority is bound in silicate or, more rarely, carbonate minerals, and smelting pure iron from these minerals would require a prohibitive amount of energy. Therefore, all sources of iron used by human industry exploit comparatively rarer iron oxide minerals, primarily hematite . Prehistoric societies used laterite as

1917-564: The Pilbara region of Western Australia is approximately 844,000,000 t (831,000,000 long tons; 930,000,000 short tons) per year and rising. Gavin Mudd ( RMIT University ) and Jonathon Law ( CSIRO ) expect it to be gone within 30–50 years and 56 years, respectively. These 2010 estimates require ongoing review to take into account shifting demand for lower-grade iron ore and improving mining and recovery techniques (allowing deeper mining below

1988-675: The Saarbrücker Eisenhüttengesellschaft - Société en participation des Forges de Sarrebruck (" Saarbrücken Ironworks shareholding company"). Similarly, German industrialists invested funds in the development of Luxembourg steel companies. South Luxembourg's important economic development due to steel production led to the creation of several steel-producing companies. In 1882, the Société Anonyme des Hauts Fourneaux et Forges de Dudelange ("High Furnace and Forging Mills of Dudelange Shareholding Company")

2059-627: The Société anonyme des Mines du Luxembourg et Forges de Sarrebruck and the Société en commandite des Forges d'Eich, Le Gallais, Metz et Cie. into the Dudelange company. The new shareholding company, merging the three largest local steel companies, was named ARBED S.A. , the acronym for Aciéries Réunies de Burbach -Eich- Dudelange , Société Anonyme . At its founding, ARBED operated 21 blast furnaces , 3 electric furnaces, 2 steelmaking plants and several rolling mills. In 1912, raw steel production from

2130-407: The silicate mineral fragments will float and can be removed. Iron is the world's most commonly used metal—steel, of which iron ore is the key ingredient, represents almost 95% of all metal used per year. It is used primarily in structures, ships, automobiles, and machinery. Iron-rich rocks are common worldwide, but ore-grade commercial mining operations are dominated by the countries listed in

2201-420: The 13,600,000 t (13,400,000 long tons; 15,000,000 short tons) of steel 7,000,000 t (6,900,000 long tons; 7,700,000 short tons) was exported, and 43,100,000 t (42,400,000 long tons; 47,500,000 short tons) of iron ore was exported at a value of $ 4.6 billion. Of the iron ore exported, 38.5% of the volume was iron ore pellets with a value of $ 2.3 billion, and 61.5% was iron ore concentrates with

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2272-691: The 62–64% Fe range. Granite and ultrapotassic igneous rocks were sometimes used to segregate magnetite crystals and form masses of magnetite suitable for economic concentration. A few iron ore deposits, notably in Chile , are formed from volcanic flows containing significant accumulations of magnetite phenocrysts . Chilean magnetite iron ore deposits within the Atacama Desert have also formed alluvial accumulations of magnetite in streams leading from these volcanic formations. Some magnetite skarn and hydrothermal deposits have been worked in

2343-725: The ARBED works reached 824 500 tonnes. Although steel production almost halted during World War I, the following decades prove to be very successful. In order to further develop, ARBED took an international dimension and acquired and absorbed several companies in Belgium and Germany in the 1920s. At the end of World War I, German capital was withdrawn, and steelworks were taken over by groups with Franco - Belgian -Luxembourg capital. Two companies, Société Metallurgique des Terres Rouges and Société Minière des Terres Rouges , were specifically created by ARBED and other French and Belgian companies for

2414-642: The Soviet Union, France, Belgium, Poland, and Italy with the forced labor camp at the sheet metal rolling mill in Burbach. During the three decades following the end of World War II, ARBED played a key role in the development of the Luxembourg economy. During this period, called Les Trente Glorieuses ("The Thirty Glorious"), national raw steel production rose from 2.45 million tonnes in 1950 to 6.45 million tonnes in 1974, and Luxembourg reached an exceptional annual growth rate of 6.7% between 1946 and 1951, then

2485-429: The United States is estimated to have accounted for 2% of the world's iron ore output. In the United States there are twelve iron ore mines, with nine being open pit mines and three being reclamation operations. There were also ten pelletizing plants, nine concentration plants, two direct-reduced iron (DRI) plants, and one iron nugget plant that were operating in 2014. In the United States the majority of iron ore mining

2556-411: The concentration of the ore and remove impurities. The results, high-quality fine ore powders, are known as fines. Magnetite is magnetic , and hence easily separated from the gangue minerals and capable of producing a high-grade concentrate with very low levels of impurities. The grain size of the magnetite and its degree of commingling with the silica groundmass determine the grind size to which

2627-533: The country's " economic demonstrated resources " of iron currently amount to 24 gigatonnes , or 24,000,000,000 t (2.4 × 10 long tons; 2.6 × 10 short tons). Another estimate places Australia's reserves of iron ore at 52,000,000,000 t (5.1 × 10 long tons; 5.7 × 10 short tons), or 30% of the world's estimated 170,000,000,000 t (1.7 × 10 long tons; 1.9 × 10 short tons), of which Western Australia accounts for 28,000,000,000 t (2.8 × 10 long tons; 3.1 × 10 short tons). The current production rate from

2698-584: The depletion of high-grade hematite ores in the United States, led after World War II to the development of lower-grade iron ore sources, principally the use of magnetite and taconite . Iron ore mining methods vary by the type of ore being mined. There are four main types of iron ore deposits worked currently, depending on the mineralogy and geology of the ore deposits. These are magnetite, titanomagnetite , massive hematite, and pisolitic ironstone deposits. The origin of iron can be ultimately traced to its formation through nuclear fusion in stars, and most of

2769-494: The diversification of its activities. In 1962, ARBED became a partner in the creation of the maritime SIDMAR complex in Belgium, and later obtained a majority stake in the new company. In 1974, ARBED created TrefilARBED, as part of the extension of wire drawing activities, and Samarco, created through the mining company Samitri to develop iron ore resources in Brazil. A powerful regional European economic actor, ARBED gradually became

2840-555: The economic expansion of ARBED occurred in the 1990s. In 1990, ARBED jointly acquired Yates, a U.S. company specialising in the production of copper foil , with Japanese group Furukawa Electric. The following year, the Luxembourg company founded TrefilARBED Arkansas (USA), a steelcord plant in Pine Bluff, Arkansas . In 1992, it founded long steel products company Stahlwerk Thüringen in Germany. In 1993, ARBED founded ProfilARBED,

2911-468: The framework of the Marshall Plan , such as West Germany , Italy , and Japan . From 1946 to 1950, France, paralyzed by an obsolete economy and infrastructures, did not achieve real growth, and living conditions remained very difficult after the war and the penury which resulted from it. The cost of living rose. Rationing (present until 1947–1948) and the housing crisis accentuated the problems of

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2982-442: The gangue is separated during the beneficiation process and is removed as tailings . Taconite tailings are mostly the mineral quartz , which is chemically inert. This material is stored in large, regulated water settling ponds. The key parameters for magnetite ore being economic are the crystallinity of the magnetite, the grade of the iron within the banded iron formation host rock, and the contaminant elements which exist within

3053-800: The groundwater table). Brazil is the second-largest producer of iron ore after Australia, accounting for 16% of the world's iron ore production. After a somewhat sluggish production volume 2010-2020, partly due to the Mariana dam disaster in 2015 and the Brumadinho dam disaster in 2019, which halted the production at the two involved mines, production has increased steadily since 2021, when Brazil produced 431,000,000 t (424,000,000 long tons; 475,000,000 short tons). In 2022 it increased to 435,000,000 t (428,000,000 long tons; 480,000,000 short tons) and in 2023 to 440,000,000 t (430,000,000 long tons; 490,000,000 short tons). The Brazilian production

3124-450: The iron and carbon smelting must be kept in an oxygen-deficient (reducing) state to promote the burning of carbon to produce CO and not CO 2 . The inclusion of even small amounts of some elements can have profound effects on the behavioral characteristics of a batch of iron or the operation of a smelter. These effects can be both good and bad, some catastrophically bad. Some chemicals are deliberately added, such as flux, which makes

3195-413: The iron from the oxygen, a stronger elemental bond must be presented to attach to the oxygen. Carbon is used because the strength of a carbon-oxygen bond is greater than that of the iron-oxygen bond at high temperatures. Thus, the iron ore must be powdered and mixed with coke , to be burnt in the smelting process. Carbon monoxide is the primary ingredient of chemically stripping oxygen from iron. Thus,

3266-895: The iron is thought to have originated in dying stars that are large enough to explode as supernovae . The Earth's core is thought to consist mainly of iron, but this is inaccessible from the surface. Some iron meteorites are thought to have originated from asteroids 1,000 km (620 mi) in diameter or larger. Banded iron formations (BIFs) are sedimentary rocks containing more than 15% iron composed predominantly of thinly-bedded iron minerals and silica (as quartz ). Banded iron formations occur exclusively in Precambrian rocks, and are commonly weakly-to-intensely metamorphosed . Banded iron formations may contain iron in carbonates ( siderite or ankerite ) or silicates ( minnesotaite , greenalite , or grunerite ), but in those mined as iron ores, oxides ( magnetite or hematite ) are

3337-423: The magnetite concentrate. The size and strip ratio of most magnetite resources is irrelevant, as a banded iron formation can be hundreds of meters thick, extend hundreds of kilometers along strike , and can easily come to more than three billion or more tonnes of contained ore. The typical grade of iron at which a magnetite-bearing banded iron formation becomes economic is roughly 25% iron, which can generally yield

3408-476: The magnetite-bearing BIF or other rocks which form its main source, or protolith rock, but are considerably cheaper to mine and process as they require less beneficiation due to the higher iron content. However, DSO ores can contain significantly higher concentrations of penalty elements, typically being higher in phosphorus, water content (especially pisolite sedimentary accumulations), and aluminium ( clays within pisolites). Export-grade DSO ores are generally in

3479-399: The main iron ore producers ( BHP Billiton , Rio Tinto , and Vale S.A. ) and Japanese importers. In 2006, Chinese company Baosteel began handling negotiations for the importer side. The Chinese government replaced Baosteel with China Iron and Steel Association as lead negotiator in 2009. Traditionally, the first deal reached between these the major producers and the major importers sets

3550-410: The mine tailings contain an average of approximately 11% iron, there would be approximately 1.41 million tons of iron wasted annually. These tailings are also high in other useful metals such as copper , nickel , and cobalt , and they can be used for road-building materials like pavement and filler and building materials such as cement, low-grade glass, and wall materials. While tailings are

3621-509: The past as high-grade iron ore deposits requiring little beneficiation . There are several granite-associated deposits of this nature in Malaysia and Indonesia . Other sources of magnetite iron ore include metamorphic accumulations of massive magnetite ore such as at Savage River , Tasmania , formed by shearing of ophiolite ultramafics . Another, minor, source of iron ores are magmatic accumulations in layered intrusions which contain

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3692-408: The period 1950–74. The French standard of living , which had been damaged by both World Wars , became one of the world's highest. The population also became far more urbanized; many rural départements experienced a population decline while the larger metropolitan areas grew considerably, especially that of Paris . Ownership of various household goods and amenities increased considerably, while

3763-480: The principal Indian producers of iron ore. World consumption of iron ore grows 10% per year on average with the main consumers being China, Japan, Korea, the United States, and the European Union. China is currently the largest consumer of iron ore, which translates to be the world's largest steel producing country. It is also the largest importer, buying 52% of the seaborne trade in iron ore in 2004. China

3834-481: The principal iron mineral. Banded iron formations are known as taconite within North America. The mining involves moving tremendous amounts of ore and waste. The waste comes in two forms: non-ore bedrock in the mine ( overburden or interburden locally known as mullock), and unwanted minerals, which are an intrinsic part of the ore rock itself ( gangue ). The mullock is mined and piled in waste dumps , and

3905-692: The purpose of acquiring plants and mines west of the Rhine which had to be sold by Germany as a consequence of the Treaty of Versailles . ARBED, already a major regional steel producer, further developed its international reach by establishing with the Société Metallurgique des Terres Rouges company a joint sales company called COLUMETA in 1920, and a joint shipping company called TRANSAF in 1922. In order to develop its international reach, an ARBED offshoot called Companhia Siderúrgica Belgo-Mineira

3976-429: The quartz is left behind when the resultant powder is passed under a magnetic separator. Generally, most magnetite banded iron formation deposits must be ground to between 32 and 45 μm (0.0013 and 0.0018 in) in order to produce a low-silica magnetite concentrate. Magnetite concentrate grades are generally in excess of 70% iron by weight and usually are low in phosphorus, aluminium, titanium, and silica and demand

4047-586: The remaining Luxembourg blast furnaces gradually stopped operating, the last one, in Belval , definitely halting its operations in 1997. Despite the end of its Luxembourg steel production, ARBED remained a global economic actor. Its diversification and development of its international scope enabled ARBED to remain competitive. In 2002, ARBED and two other European steel-producing and manufacturing companies, Spanish strategic partner Aceralia and French Usinor , merged into Arcelor . In 2006 Mittal Steel launched

4118-407: The rock must be comminuted to enable efficient magnetic separation to provide a high-purity magnetite concentrate. This determines the energy inputs required to run a milling operation. Mining of banded iron formations involves coarse crushing and screening, followed by rough crushing and fine grinding to comminute the ore to the point where the crystallized magnetite and quartz are fine enough that

4189-446: The seaborne trade, with 72% of the market. BHP, Rio and Vale control 66% of this market between them. In Australia , iron ore is won from three main sources: pisolite " channel iron deposit " ore derived by mechanical erosion of primary banded-iron formations and accumulated in alluvial channels such as at Pannawonica, Western Australia ; and the dominant metasomatically altered banded iron formation -related ores such as at Newman ,

4260-464: The seventh largest global center of iron ore production, behind Australia, Brazil, China, India, Russia, and South Africa. Producers of iron ore in Ukraine include Ferrexpo , Metinvest , and ArcelorMittal Kryvyi Rih . In 2014, mines in the United States produced 57,500,000 t (56,600,000 long tons; 63,400,000 short tons) of iron ore with an estimated value of $ 5.1 billion. Iron mining in

4331-451: The seventh-largest global center of iron ore production, behind Australia, Brazil, China, Russia, South Africa, and Ukraine. India's iron ore production in 2023 was 285,000,000 metric tonnes and was the fourth largest producer in the world. According to the U.S. Geological Survey's 2021 Report on iron ore, Ukraine is estimated to have produced 62,000,000 t (61,000,000 long tons; 68,000,000 short tons) of iron ore in 2020, placing it as

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4402-463: The steel industry employed only half of its 1974-level work force. In 1978 ARBED became a 25% shareholder in Métallurgique et Minière de Rodange-Athus (MMRA), mining and hot steel production were shut down and in 1994 MMRA merged with ARBED-Esch Schifflange (AES) to form Aciéries Rodange Esch-Schifflange (ARES) a subsidiary of ProfilARBED From 1982 to 1983, the Luxembourg steel industry

4473-401: The table aside. The major constraint to economics for iron ore deposits is not necessarily the grade or size of the deposits, because it is not particularly hard to geologically prove enough tonnage of the rocks exist. The main constraint is the position of the iron ore relative to market, the cost of rail infrastructure to get it to market, and the energy cost required to do so. Mining iron ore

4544-542: The three days of revolution on 27–29 July 1830 in France. As early as 1944, Charles de Gaulle introduced a dirigiste economic policy, which included substantial state-directed control over a capitalist economy. This was followed by thirty years of unprecedented growth, known as the Trente Glorieuses . Over this thirty-year period, France's economy grew rapidly like economies of other developed countries within

4615-602: The two mines shut down. There have also been iron ore mines in Utah and Alabama ; however, the last iron ore mine in Utah shut down in 2014 and the last iron ore mine in Alabama shut down in 1975. Iron ores consist of oxygen and iron atoms bonded together into molecules. To convert it to metallic iron, it must be smelted or sent through a direct reduction process to remove the oxygen. Oxygen-iron bonds are strong, and to remove

4686-457: The wages of the French working class rose significantly as the economy became more prosperous. As noted by the historians Jean Blondel and Donald Geoffrey Charlton in 1974, If it is still the case that France lags in the number of its telephones, working-class housing has improved beyond recognition and the various 'gadgets' of the consumer society—from television to motor cars—are now purchased by

4757-575: The working class on an even more avid basis than in other Western European countries. In his book Capital in the Twenty-First Century , French economist Thomas Piketty describes the Trente Glorieuses as an exceptional 'catch up' period following the two world wars. He cites statistics showing that normal growth in wealthy countries is about 1.5–2%, whereas in Europe growth dropped to 0.5% between 1913 and 1950, and then 'caught up' with

4828-600: Was a thirty-year period of economic growth in France between 1945 and 1975, following the end of the Second World War. The name was first used by the French demographer Jean Fourastié , who coined the term in 1979 with the publication of his book Les Trente Glorieuses, ou la révolution invisible de 1946 à 1975 ('The Glorious Thirty, or the Invisible Revolution from 1946 to 1975'). The term is derived from Les Trois Glorieuses ('The Glorious Three'),

4899-589: Was established in Sabará , Minas Gerais , Brazil , in 1921. As ARBED's growth continued, ARBED and Société Metallurgique des Terres Rouges finally merged in 1937. World War II severely affected steel production, and many steel mills were either destroyed or heavily damaged. Luxembourg had been officially absorbed into Germany, and ARBED was temporarily renamed Hüttenwerke Burbach-Eich-Dudelingen (Burbach-Eich-Dudelange Metallurgical Plants). The company group used several hundred forced laborers and prisoners of war from

4970-480: Was founded by the Société en commandite des Forges d'Eich, Le Gallais, Metz et Cie , founded in 1838, and the main shareholders of the Saarbrücken shareholding company. As steel production increased exponentially, it soon became necessary to merge companies. In 1911, at an extraordinary general corporate meeting of the Société anonyme des Hauts Fourneaux et Forges de Dudelange , decision was taken to incorporate

5041-469: Was restructured and the Luxembourg government invested heavily in ARBED, finally owning 42.9% of the company's shares. Furthermore, during the following two decades, ARBED developed its international activities as well as its production of long steel products (steel bars and rods produced for a variety of uses such as building and bridge construction) and electric arc furnace steel while reducing its domestic steel-producing operations. Certain key events in

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