128-616: Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia ( ASALA ) was a militant organization active between 1975 and the 1990s whose stated goal was "to compel the Turkish Government to acknowledge publicly its responsibility for the Armenian genocide in 1915, pay reparations , and cede territory for an Armenian homeland ." ASALA itself and other sources described it as a guerilla and armed organization. Some sources, including
256-500: A Cypriot newspaper in 1983 that it supported the Soviet Union and aimed to garner support from other Soviet republics toward the cause of eliminating Turkish colonialism. These goals helped shape the following political objectives: Historian Fatma Müge Göçek describes the stated aims of ASALA as "righteous" but the means sought for these aims, i.e. the "wilful murder [of] innocent people" as not righteous, and thus argues that it
384-792: A development company established in 1994 by Prime Minister Rafic Hariri . The city has hosted both the Asian Club Basketball Championship and the Asian Football Cup, and has hosted the Miss Europe pageant nine times: 1960–1964, 1999, 2001–2002, and 2016. Rafic Hariri was assassinated in 2005 near the Saint George Hotel in Beirut. A month later about one million people gathered for an opposition rally in Beirut. The Cedar Revolution
512-515: A growing international threat. The majority of the investigations in the Western countries where the attacks took place were inconclusive and the cases remained unresolved. Australian government told the media that they reopened their investigation into the 1980 assassination of two Turkish diplomats made by ASALA. $ AUS 1 million reward was offered by the Australian government for the capture of
640-570: A huge fire erupted in an oil and tyre warehouse in the port's duty-free zone, on 10 September 2020. Beirut sits on a peninsula extending westward into the Mediterranean Sea . It is flanked by the Lebanon Mountains and has taken on a triangular shape, largely influenced by its situation between and atop two hills: Al- Ashrafieh and Al-Musaytibah. The Beirut Governorate occupies 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi), and
768-482: A massive garbage crisis, mainly from July 2015 up to March 2016. The issue began when authorities shut down the main landfill site originally used for Beirut's garbage south-east of the city and failed to provide any alternative solutions for months. As a result, garbage mounted in the streets in Greater Beirut and caused protests to erupt, which sometimes invoked police action. This problem was commonly blamed on
896-731: A new national government involving all the political adversaries. As a result of the Doha Agreement , the opposition's barricades were dismantled and so were the opposition's protest camps in Martyrs' Square . On 19 October 2012, a car bomb killed eight people in the Beirut's neighborhood of Achrafiyeh , including Brigadier General Wissam al-Hassan , chief of the Intelligence Bureau of the Internal Security Forces . In addition, 78 others were wounded in
1024-401: A private company called Venus Towers Real Estate Development Company to destroy the ruins (archaeological site BEY194) in the $ 500 million construction project of three skyscrapers and a garden behind Hotel Monroe in downtown Beirut. Two later reports by an international committee of archaeologists appointed by Layoun, including Hanz Curver, and an expert report by Ralph Pederson, a member of
1152-677: A regional intellectual capital, becoming a major tourist destination and a banking haven, especially for the Persian Gulf oil boom. Beirut International Airport was opened on 23 April 1954. This era of relative prosperity ended in 1975 when the Lebanese Civil War broke out throughout the country, During most of the war, Beirut was divided between the Muslim west part and the Christian east. The downtown area, previously
1280-607: A simple majority in the Parliament vote to override the veto. On the approval of the President, laws are published in the Official Gazette and they come into force by virtue of that publication unless a specific effective date is stipulated within the law itself. The President has also the ability to introduce pieces of legislation by issuing presidential decrees. However, laws introduced by the Parliament prevail over
1408-465: A soldier. A second French unit was assembled under MİT operative Sabah Ketene. The Lebanese contingent, consisting only of MİT operatives and members of the "Special Warfare Department" ( special forces ), was led by MİT officer Hiram Abas . The bomb that Çatlı's team had planted in Ara Toranyan's car on 22 March 1983 did not explode. A follow-up attempt also failed. Toranyan said they had planted
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#17327797476011536-620: A symbol representing the end of the conspiracy of silence which since 1915 had surrounded the Armenian Genocide. ASALA was founded in 1975 (thought to correspond to the 60th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide) in Beirut , Lebanon during the Lebanese Civil War by Hagop Hagopian (Harutiun Tagushian) and Kevork Ajemian , a prominent contemporary writer, with the help of sympathetic Palestinians . Another major figure in
1664-650: Is described as a Marxist-Leninist Armenian terrorist group formed in 1975. The European Parliament named the New Armenian Resistance Group , a secular terrorist group active in Belgium during 70s and 80s, as a key ally to ASALA. In January 1984, the CIA labeled members of the ASALA militant organization as terrorists, deeming ASALA a continuing international threat. The Terrorism Analysis Branch of
1792-468: Is mild and rainy; frost has never been recorded. Summer is prolonged, hot and humid. The prevailing wind during the afternoon and evening is from the west (onshore, blowing in from the Mediterranean); at night it reverses to offshore, blowing from the land out to sea. The average annual rainfall is 825 millimetres (32.5 in), with the large majority of it falling from October to April. Much of
1920-504: Is required to amend a law and a three-fifth majority to amend the constitution. Bills can be introduced by any member of parliament. The duties and powers of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey are to enact, amend, and repeal laws; to debate and adopt the budget bills and final accounts bills; to decide to declare war; to approve the ratification of international treaties, to decide with the majority of three-fifths of
2048-530: Is the capital and largest city of Lebanon . As of 2014 , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, just under half of Lebanon's population, which makes it the fourth-largest city in the Levant region and the sixteenth-largest in the Arab world . The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast. Beirut has been inhabited for more than 5,000 years, making it one of
2176-453: The 5th Macedonian and the 3rd Gallic Legions . Berytus's law school was widely known; two of Rome's most famous jurists, Papinian and Ulpian , were natives of Phoenicia and taught there under the Severan emperors. Ecclesiastical historian Sozomen studied at the law school in Beirut between 400-402. When Justinian assembled his Pandects in the 6th century, a large part of
2304-551: The Armenian Revolutionary Army ), the groups are often compared or confused; however, ASALA sets itself apart from JCAG because of its Marxist/leftist ideology. ASALA often aligned itself with the Soviet Union , while JCAG's nationalist goals were more focused on establishing an independent Armenian state. Whereas JCAG wanted a free and independent Armenia separate from the Soviet Union, ASALA considered
2432-637: The Battle of Tigranocerta , Armenia forever lost their holdings in Syria and Beirut was conquered by Roman general Pompey . Laodicea was conquered by Pompey in 64 BC and the name Berytus was restored to it. The city was assimilated into the Roman Empire , soldiers were sent there, and large building projects were undertaken. From the 1st century BC, the Bekaa Valley served as a source of grain for
2560-788: The Cabinet (the executive). According to the Constitution, Turkey's government system is based on a separation of powers . The Constitution states that the legislative power is vested in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (art. 7), that the executive power is carried out by the President of Turkey (art. 8) and that the judicial power is exercised by independent and impartial courts (art. 9) It also states that parliamentary elections and presidential elections shall be held every five years (art. 77). The parliament accepts
2688-517: The Constitution . The courts operate within the framework of civil law . The Constitutional Court checks whether laws are in accordance with the constitution. Since 2005, the legal principles as laid down in the various international human rights treaties have also been assessed. Government institutions, governing parties, and the opposition have direct access to the Court. Citizens can also plead
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#17327797476012816-570: The Constitutional Court for the annulment of all or certain provisions of laws on the grounds that they are unconstitutional in form or in content (art. 104/7). In such a case, the decision of the Constitutional Court is final (art. 153). Legislative power is vested in a single-chamber parliament (the Grand National Assembly of Turkey ) with 600 members. The members are elected for a period of five years according to
2944-416: The D'Hondt method . Every citizen over the age of eighteen is eligible to be a deputy. Members of the Grand National Assembly can not hold office in state departments and other public corporate bodies and their subsidiaries. Members of parliament can sit on behalf of a political party or as an independent parliamentarian . They are also delegates for the province in which they are elected. A simple majority
3072-737: The Directorate of Communications , Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency and the Presidency of Strategy and Budget . There are also state-owned enterprises such as the Turkish Electricity Transmission Corporation . The Constitutional Court , the Court of Cassation , the Council of State , and the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes are the supreme courts mentioned in the judicial section of
3200-790: The German Crusade of 1197 . John of Ibelin , known as the Old Lord of Beirut, was granted the lordship of the city in 1204. He rebuilt the city after its destruction by the Ayyubids and also built the House of Ibelin palace in Beirut. In 1291 Beirut was captured and the Crusaders expelled by the Mamluk army of Sultan al-Ashraf Khalil . Under the Ottoman sultan Selim I (1512–1520),
3328-612: The Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982 the group lost much of its organization and support. Previously sympathetic Palestinian organizations, including the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), withdrew their support and passed materials to the French intelligence services in 1983, detailing ASALA operatives. One of the group's last attacks, on 19 December 1991, targeted the bullet-proof limousine carrying
3456-501: The Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide (JCAG), who, while a right-wing nationalist group that often competed with ASALA, had similar political goals regarding wanting Turkey to acknowledge its role in the Armenian Genocide and wanting the establishment of an Armenian homeland. Because ASALA shared similar political goals with the right-wing militant group the Justice Commandos for the Armenian Genocide (also known as
3584-548: The Roman provinces of the Levant and even for Rome itself. Under Claudius , Berytus expanded to reach the Bekaa Valley and include Heliopolis (Baalbek) . The city was settled by Roman colonists who promoted agriculture in the region. As a result of this settlement, the city quickly became Romanized , and the city became the only mainly Latin-speaking area in the Syria-Phoenicia province . In 14 BC, during
3712-606: The United States Department of State , as well as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan listed it as a terrorist organization . The principal goal of ASALA was to establish a United Armenia that would include the formerly Armenian -inhabited six vilayets of the Ottoman Empire ( Western Armenia ) and Soviet Armenia . The group sought to claim the area (called Wilsonian Armenia ) that
3840-661: The death marches found refuge in other countries in Western Asia , as well as in Western Europe and North America; forces of the Turkish nationalist movement killed or expelled surviving Armenians that tried to return home. The Republic of Turkey denied that any crime had been committed against the Armenian people, actively campaigning against any and all attempts to publicise the events and bring about recognition in
3968-478: The denial by Turkey and the failure by their parents' generation to effect change, sought new approaches to bringing about recognition and reparations. In 1973, two Turkish diplomats were assassinated in Los Angeles by Kourken Yanigian , an elderly man who survived the Armenian genocide . This event might have been forgotten had it not initiated a chain of events which turned it, and its perpetrator, into
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4096-534: The oldest cities in the world. Beirut is Lebanon's seat of government and plays a central role in the Lebanese economy , with many banks and corporations based in the city. Beirut is an important seaport for the country and region, and rated a Beta + World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network . Beirut was severely damaged by the Lebanese Civil War , the 2006 Lebanon War , and
4224-512: The president 's proposal to Parliament recommending funding levels for the next fiscal year , beginning January 1 and ending on December 31 of the year following. The expenditure of the State and of public corporations other than state-owned enterprises (SOE's) are determined by annual central government budgets. Beirut Beirut ( / b eɪ ˈ r uː t / bay- ROOT ; Arabic : بيروت , romanized : Bayrūt )
4352-645: The 1983 Orly attack, ASALA is said to have continued in a lesser capacity into the 1990s, even after the group suffered further disorganization after Hagopian's assassination in 1988. In addition to the ASALA-claimed 1991 attack on the Turkish ambassador in Budapest, ASALA members last attack is claimed to have been in Brussels in 1997 (although ASALA hasn't claimed responsibility) where bombers attacking under
4480-559: The 1984 Alfortville monument and Salle Pleyel concert room attacks. It is unknown whether the Lebanese contingent did anything at all. The militant organization is referred to as a terrorist organization in some instances. The United States Department of State classified ASALA militant group as a terrorist organization in their 1989 report archived by National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism . ASALA militant group
4608-560: The 2020 massive explosion in the Port of Beirut . Its architectural and demographic structure underwent major change in recent decades. The English name Beirut is an early transcription of the Arabic name Bayrūt ( بيروت ). The same name's transcription into French is Beyrouth , which was sometimes used during Lebanon's French mandate . The Arabic name derives from Phoenician bēʾrūt ( 𐤁𐤀𐤓𐤕 bʾrt ). This
4736-718: The ASALA attack against the Esenboğa International Airport in August 1982 the then President of Turkey Kenan Evren issued a decree for the elimination of ASALA. The task was given to the National Intelligence Organization 's Foreign Operations Department. Evren's own daughter, a member of the MİT, ran the operation together with Foreign Intelligence Department chief Metin (Mete) Günyol, and Istanbul region director Nuri Gündeş . Levon Ekmekjian
4864-626: The Armenian Apostolic Patriarchate in Istanbul on October 19 in retaliation. In 1980, the Turkish government arrested Armenian priest Fr. Manuel Yergatian at the Istanbul airport for the alleged possession of maps that indicated Armenian territory within modern-day Turkey and was sentenced to 14 years in prison for possible ties with ASALA. Amnesty International adopted him as a prisoner of conscience, concluding that
4992-410: The Beirut camps of the Palestine Liberation Organization , is the best known of the guerrilla groups responsible for assassinations of at least 36 Turkish diplomats. Since 1975, a couple of dozen Turkish diplomats or members of their families had been targeted in a couple of dozens of attacks, with the outcome that the Armenian vengeance, as well as the background to the Armenian struggle, have made it to
5120-410: The CIA reported that ASALA posed a growing threat to various U.S. policy interests. It noted that some West European nations were accused of reaching accommodations with ASALA, allowing the militants freedom to target Turkish interests in exchange for promises not to attack their own citizens. A previous report from September 29, 1983, also highlighted Armenian terrorists, specifically mentioning ASALA, as
5248-679: The Diaspora (whose parents and/or grandparents were survivors of the genocide), the organization followed a theoretical model based on leftist ideology . ASALA was critical of its political predecessors and Diasporan parties, accusing them of failing to deal with the problems of the Armenian people. The apex of the group's structure was the General Command of the People of Armenia ( VAN ). The group's activities were primarily assassinations of Turkish diplomats and politicians in Western Europe,
Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia - Misplaced Pages Continue
5376-454: The Empire. The council was elected by an assembly of city notables and played an instrumental role governing the city through the following decades. In 1888, Beirut was made capital of a vilayet (governorate) in Syria, including the sanjaks (prefectures) Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Bekaa. By this time, Beirut had grown into a cosmopolitan city and had close links with Europe and
5504-407: The Grand National Assembly of Turkey to proclaim amnesty and pardon; and to exercise the powers and carry out the duties envisaged in the other articles of the Constitution. The executive power in the Turkish government is vested in the president of Turkey, where power is often delegated to the Cabinet members and other officials. The executive branch, under Part III of the Constitution, consists of
5632-431: The IDF targeted Hezbollah's main media outlets. There were then artillery raids against targets in southern Lebanon, and the Israeli cabinet held Beirut responsible for the attacks. Then on 13 July 2006 Israel began implementing a naval and air blockade over Lebanon; during this blockade Israel bombed the runways at Beirut International Airport and the major Beirut-Damascus highway in Eastern Lebanon. In May 2008, after
5760-443: The Levant immediately claimed responsibility for the attacks. On 4 August 2020, a massive explosion in the Port of Beirut resulted in the death of at least 203 people (with an additional three missing) and the wounding of more than 6,500. Foreigners from at least 22 countries were among the casualties. Furthermore, at least 108 Bangladeshis were injured in the blasts, making them the most affected foreign community. The cause of
5888-503: The Liberation of Armenia at Wikimedia Commons Government of Turkey The Government of Turkey ( Turkish : Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Hükûmeti ) is the national government of Turkey . It is governed as a unitary state under a presidential representative democracy and a constitutional republic within a pluriform multi-party system . The term government can mean either the collective set of institutions (the executive , legislative , and judicial branches) or specifically
6016-415: The Ottoman parliament and President of the Municipality of Beirut. Given his modern way of life, the emergence of Salim Ali Salam as a public figure constituted a transformation in terms of the social development of the city. In his 2003 book entitled Beirut and its Seven Families , Yussef Bin Ahmad Bin Ali Al Husseini says: The seven families of Beirut are the families who bonded among each other and made
6144-412: The Ottomans conquered Syria including present-day Lebanon . Beirut was controlled by local Druze emirs throughout the Ottoman period. One of them, Fakhr-al-Din II , fortified it early in the 17th century, but the Ottomans reclaimed it in 1763. With the help of Damascus , Beirut successfully broke Acre's monopoly on Syrian maritime trade and for a few years supplanted it as the main trading center in
6272-467: The Rue el Arz area, are two sites discovered by Lorraine Copeland, Peter Wescombe , and Marina Hayek in 1964 and examined by Diana Kirkbride and Roger Saidah. One site was behind the parking lot of the Byblos Cinema and showed collapsed walls, pits, floors, charcoal, pottery and flints. The other, overlooking a cliff west of the Rivoli Cinema, was composed of three layers resting on limestone bedrock. Fragments of blades and broad flakes were recovered from
6400-639: The Soviet Union a "friendly country;" because of this, ASALA was content with remaining a part of the USSR so long as the other parts of the Armenian homeland could be united within the entity of the Armenian S.S.R. In addition to having different ideologies, ASALA and JCAG also carried out their attacks in different styles. ASALA was much more prone to using explosives in its attacks rather than firearms as JCAG favored. ASALA used explosives in 146 of 186 incidents/attacks compared to using firearms in only 33 attacks. By comparison, JCAG used explosives in 23 of its 47 attacks and used firearms in 26 of its 47 attacks. With
6528-403: The Soviet Union of provoking or possibly funding ASALA. Although they publicly distanced themselves from ASALA, Turkey's Armenian community came under attack by Turkish nationalists in reaction to the group's actions. This became apparent after the assassination of Ahmet Benler on October 12, 1979, by Armenian militants in the Hague . The reaction to the attack led to the bombing of the church of
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#17327797476016656-432: The Sports Arbitration Committee and the Turkish Football Federation Arbitration Committee. All Turkish citizens over 18 years of age have the right to vote in elections and to take part in referendums. Turkish women achieved voting rights in local elections in 1930. Four years later, universal suffrage was implemented in all Turkish elections. Turkey has been a multi-party democracy since 1950. A brief summary of
6784-470: The Turkish Ambassador to Budapest . The ambassador was not injured in the attack, which was claimed by ASALA in Paris. ASALA's founder Hagop Hagopian was assassinated on a sidewalk in an affluent neighborhood in Athens , Greece on April 28, 1988. He was shot several times while he was walking with two women at 4:30 in the morning. Veteran member Hagop Tarakchian died of cancer in 1980. Assassinations of former members of ASALA-RM continued in Armenia into
6912-541: The Turkish Embassy in September 1981 were given light sentences." France was free of ASALA attacks after this concession until the government arrested suspected bomber Vicken Tcharkutian. ASALA only agreed to temporarily halt its attacks once more when France did not extradite Tcharkutian to the United States. ASALA interacted and negotiated with a number of other European governments during its peak in order to make political or organizational gains. ASALA stopped its attacks in Switzerland on two occasions in order to expedite
7040-401: The United States and Western Asia. Their first acknowledged killing was the assassination of the Turkish diplomat, Daniş Tunalıgil , in Vienna on October 22, 1975. A failed attack in Geneva on October 3, 1980, in which two Armenian militants were injured resulted in a new nickname for the group, the 3 October Organization. ASALA's eight-point manifesto was published in 1981. ASALA, trained in
7168-414: The United States. It also became a centre of missionary activity that spawned educational institutions such as the American University of Beirut . Provided with water from a British company and gas from a French one, silk exports to Europe came to dominate the local economy. After French engineers established a modern harbour in 1894 and a rail link across Lebanon to Damascus and Aleppo in 1907, much of
7296-425: The West. It blamed Armenians for instigating the violence and falsely claimed that Armenians had massacred thousands of Turks, prompting the commencement of their deportations. In 1965, Armenians around the world publicly marked the 50th anniversary and began to campaign for world recognition. As peaceful marches and demonstrations failed to move an intransigent Turkey, the younger generation of Armenians, resentful at
7424-646: The alleged unconstitutionality of a particular law in an ongoing lawsuit. International treaties, on ratification by the Parliament, have hierarchically the same effect as codes and statutes. However, international treaty provisions involving basic rights and freedoms prevail against domestic codes and statutes. There are also specialised courts for certain legal areas within the scope of the powers of civil courts such as cadastral courts, commercial courts, consumer courts, intellectual and industrial property courts, and labour courts. In certain disputes, some quasi-legal authorities must be used before applying to court such as
7552-480: The area. Beirut IV ( Furn esh-Shebbak , river banks) was also on the left bank of the river and on either side of the road leading eastwards from the Furn esh Shebbak police station towards the river that marked the city limits. The area was covered in red sand that represented Quaternary river terraces . The site was found by Jesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen, Raoul Describes and Auguste Bergy. Collections from
7680-476: The attack in its aftermath and appealed to other members of ASALA to stop the violence. On August 10, 1982, Artin Penik a Turk of Armenian descent , set himself on fire in protest of this attack. On July 15, 1983, ASALA carried out an attack at the Orly Airport near Paris, in which 8 people were killed and 55 were injured, most of them not being Turks. The attack resulted in a split in ASALA, between those individuals who carried it out, and those who believed
7808-523: The attack to be counterproductive. The split resulted in emergence of two groups, the ASALA-Militant led by Hagopian and the 'Revolutionary Movement' ( ASALA-Mouvement Révolutionnaire ) led by Monte Melkonian . While Melkonian's faction insisted on attacks strictly against Turkish officials and the Turkish government, Hagopian's group disregarded the losses of unintended victims and regularly executed dissenting members. Afterwards, French forces promptly arrested those involved. Moreover, this attack eliminated
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#17327797476017936-436: The autumn and spring rain falls in heavy downpours on a limited number of days, but in winter it is spread more evenly over many days. Summer receives very little rainfall, if any. Snow is rare, except in the mountainous eastern suburbs, where snowfall occurs due to the region's high altitudes. Hail (which can often be heavy) occurs a few times per year, mostly during winter. Lebanon, especially Beirut and its suburbs, suffered
8064-418: The blast is believed to be from government-confiscated and stored ammonium nitrate . As many as 300,000 people have been left homeless by the explosion. Protesters in Lebanon called on the government on 8 August 2020 for the end of the alleged negligence that resulted in the 4 August explosion. On 10 August 2020, as a result of the protests, Prime Minister Hassan Diab announced his resignation. Weeks later,
8192-420: The bomb in the wrong car. Likewise, Henri Papazyan's car bomb on 1 May 1984 did not explode. Çatlı claimed credit for killing Hagop Hagopian , however he was in a French prison (again, on narcotics charges) at the time of the attack. Papazyan is now believed to have been killed as a result of infighting. The second French team (led by Ketene) did carry out some attacks (which Çatlı also claimed credit for), such as
8320-453: The bombing. It was the largest attack in the capital since 2008. On 27 December 2013, a car bomb exploded in the Central District killing at least five people, including the former Lebanese ambassador to the U.S. Mohamad Chatah , and wounding 71 others. In the 12 November 2015 Beirut bombings , two suicide bombers detonated explosives outside a mosque and inside a bakery, killing 43 people and injuring 200. The Islamic State of Iraq and
8448-434: The central government. Moreover, Beirut has a lack of green areas with just two main public gardens (sanayeh and horch Beirut). In fact, concrete roofs cover 80% of the capital area. Beirut is divided into 12 quarters ( quartiers ): These quarters are divided into 59 sectors ( secteurs ). Badaro is an edgy, bohemian style neighborhood, within the green district of Beirut ( secteur du parc ) which also include
8576-410: The city into a major port and commercial center. This boom in cross-regional trade allowed certain groups, such as the Sursock family , to establish trade and manufacturing empires that further strengthened Beirut's position as a key partner in the interests of imperial dynasties. Meanwhile, Ottoman power in the region continued to decline. Sectarian and religious conflicts, power vacuums, and changes in
8704-443: The city's metropolitan area 67 square kilometres (26 sq mi). The coast is rather diverse, with rocky beaches, sandy shores and cliffs situated beside one another. Beirut has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csa , bordering on As , Trewartha : Csal ) characterized by mild days and nights, as its coastal location allows temperatures to be moderated by the sea . Autumn and spring are warm, but short. Winter
8832-495: The corpus of laws was derived from these two jurists, and in AD 533 Justinian recognised the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire. In 551, a major earthquake struck Berytus, causing widespread damage. The earthquake reduced cities along the coast to ruins and killed many, 30,000 in Berytus alone by some measurements. As a result, the students of the law school were transferred to Sidon . Salvage excavations since 1993 have yielded new insights in
8960-500: The country's political situation. This garbage crisis birthed a movement called " You Stink " which was directed at the country's politicians. In March 2016, the government came up with a so-called temporary solution to establish two new landfills East and South of the city to store the garbage, while several municipalities across the country, in an unprecedented move, began recycling and managing waste more efficiently, building waste-management facilities and relying on themselves rather than
9088-449: The eastern quarter of the city, but Christian militias defeated multiple attempts by Syria's elite forces to capture the strategic area in a three-month campaign later known as the Hundred Days' War . Another destructive chapter was the 1982 Lebanon War , during which most of West Beirut was under siege by Israeli troops. In 1983, French and US barracks were bombed , killing 241 American servicemen, 58 French servicemen, six civilians and
9216-412: The electoral systems used for each type of election is as follows: The Constitution enumerates local governments as municipalities, special provincial administrations and villages. The administration of the provinces is based on the principle of devolution of powers . The regulatory and budgetary autonomy of local governments is secured in the Constitution. A governor is representing the government in
9344-477: The establishment of ASALA was Hagop Darakjian, who was a driving force in the earlier operations of the group. Darakjian headed the group for a period of time between 1976 and 1977 when Hagopian was unable to lead due to injuries sustained from his involvement with the Palestinians. At the beginning, ASALA bore the name of "The Prisoner Kurken Yanikian Group". Consisting primarily of Lebanese-born Armenians of
9472-408: The evidence against him was baseless. According to Tessa Hofmann , Turkish officials frequently used the accusation of collaboration with ASALA and foreign Armenian circles to incriminate extreme left-wing Turkish opposition groups. Israel used the attacks of ASALA against Turkey as a diplomatic tool to heal rifts in relations between Israel and Turkey; Israeli diplomats condemned terrorist acts such as
9600-614: The famous historical agreement with the governor of the Syrian Coast in 1351 to protect and defend the city of Beirut and its shores, and chase the invaders and stop their progress towards it. After World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Beirut, along with the rest of Lebanon, was placed under the French Mandate . Lebanon achieved independence in 1943, and Beirut became the capital city. The city remained
9728-468: The first layer of black soil, above which some Bronze Age pottery was recovered in a layer of grey soil. Pieces of Roman pottery and mosaics were found in the upper layer. Middle Bronze Age tombs were found in this area, and the ancient tell of Beirut is thought to be in the Bourj area. The Phoenician port of Beirut was located between Rue Foch and Rue Allenby on the north coast. The port or harbour
9856-597: The first operation of its kind. Militants demanded release of political prisoners in Turkey including two Armenian clergymen, 5 Turks and 5 Kurds. Coverage of the takeover received one of the highest television ratings in France in 1981. Among those who supported the militants during the trial were Henri Verneuil , Mélinée Manouchian, the widow of the French resistance hero, Missak Manouchian , and singer Liz Sarian . One of
9984-599: The government decided to disband Hezbollah's communications network (a decision it later rescinded), violent clashes broke out briefly between government allies and opposition forces, before control of the city was handed over to the Lebanese Army . After this a national dialogue conference was held in Doha at the invitation of the Prince of Qatar. The conference agreed to appoint a new president of Lebanon and to establish
10112-496: The group was relatively inactive in the 1990s, although in 1991 it claimed an unsuccessful attack on the Turkish ambassador to Hungary. ASALA's last and most recent attack took place in Brussels in 1997, where a group of militants claiming to be ASALA bombed the Turkish Embassy in the city. The organization has not engaged in militant activity since then. The group's mottos were "The armed struggle and right political line are
10240-600: The group. ASALA's last attack, on 19 December 1991, targeted the bulletproof limousine carrying the Turkish Ambassador to Budapest. The ambassador was not injured in the attack, which was claimed by ASALA in Paris. Since this attack, the militant organization is considered not active thus USA or UK do not include ASALA in their list of foreign terrorist organizations anymore. Continuous attacks by ASALA prompted Turkey to accuse Cyprus , Greece, Syria , Lebanon , and
10368-582: The head of Tyche , goddess of fortune; on the reverse, the city's symbol appears: a dolphin entwines an anchor . This symbol was later taken up by the early printer Aldus Manutius in 15th century Venice . After a state of civil war and decline the Seleucid Empire faced, King Tigranes the Great of the Kingdom of Armenia conquered Beirut and placed it under effective Armenian control. However, after
10496-476: The home of much of the city's commercial and cultural activity, became a no man's land known as the Green Line . Many inhabitants fled to other countries. About 60,000 people died in the first two years of the war (1975–1976), and much of the city was devastated. A particularly destructive period was the 1978 Syrian siege of Achrafiyeh , the main Christian district of Beirut. Syrian troops relentlessly shelled
10624-566: The institute of Nautical Archaeology and now teaching in Marburg , Germany, dismissed the claims that the trenches were a port, on various criteria. The exact function of site BEY194 may never be known, and the issue raised heated emotions and led to increased coverage on the subject of Lebanese heritage in the press. In 140 BC, the Phoenician city was destroyed by Diodotus Tryphon during his conflict with Antiochus VII Sidetes for
10752-638: The killing of Ekurt Akbay, the administrative attaché of the Turkish embassy in Lisbon, in June 1982 and appealed to the Turkish government by emphasising Israel's and Turkey's shared history of being targeted by terrorist organisations to foster cooperation between the two nations. In April 2000 the opening ceremony of "In Memory of killed ASALA commandos" monument took place at Armenian military pantheon Yerablur with participation of Greek anti-fascist resistance leader Manolis Glezos and other special guests. After
10880-430: The late 1990s. According to Turkish National Intelligence Organization official Nuri Gündeş , ASALA was dissolved after the assassination of Hagopian. According to Turkish sources, another reason is that financial backing was withdrawn by the Armenian diaspora after the 1983 Orly Airport attack . Although ASALA attacks all but stopped in the late 1980s as a result of the group's fragmentation and lack of support after
11008-508: The later Principality of Mount Lebanon, which was the basis for the establishment of Greater Lebanon, today's Lebanon. As a trading center of the eastern Mediterranean , Beirut was as important as Acre (in modern-day Israel ) during the Middle Ages . From 1110 to 1291, the town and Lordship of Beirut was part of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . The city was taken by Saladin in 1187 and recaptured in 1197 by Henry I of Brabant as part of
11136-419: The law proposals prepared by the deputies (88 art.) The president promulgates the laws adopted by the Parliament (art. 89). The president may veto some of the provisions of the law and return it to the Parliament for reconsideration, but the approval of the president is not needed if the majority of the Parliament rejects the reconsideration of the law or provisions of the law (art. 89). The president can appeal to
11264-648: The layout and history of Roman Berytus. Public architecture included several bath complexes , Colonnaded Streets , a circus and theatre; residential areas were excavated in the Garden of Forgiveness , Martyrs' Square and the Beirut Souks. Beirut was conquered by the Muslims in 635. Prince Arslan bin al-Mundhir founded the Principality of Sin el Fil in Beirut in 759. From this principality developed
11392-539: The meantime. This was again a product of European intervention, and also a general realization amongst the city's residents that commerce, trade, and prosperity depended on domestic stability. After petitions by the local bourgeois, the governor of Syria Vilayet Mehmed Rashid Pasha authorized the establishment of the Beirut Municipal Council, the first municipality established in the Arab provinces of
11520-466: The most known attacks of ASALA was Esenboga airport attack on August 7, 1982, in Ankara , when its members targeted non-diplomat civilians for the first time. Two militants opened fire in a crowded passenger waiting room. One of the shooters took more than 20 hostages while the second was apprehended by police. Altogether, nine people died and 82 were injured. The arrested militant Levon Ekmekjian condemned
11648-562: The name Gourgen Yanikian bombed the Turkish embassy in Brussels. Since the 1970s the ASALA Information Branch published books, booklets, posters and other promotional materials. Hayasdan ('Armenia') was the official multi-lingual organ of ASALA published in 1980–1987 and 1991–1997. The first issue was published in October 1980 and contained 40 pages. The place of publication and names of contributors are not known. It
11776-623: The perpetrators of the assassination on the occasion of 39th anniversary of the 1980 assassinations. ASALA had ties to Palestinian liberation groups such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) , a Marxist militant group in which ASALA founder Hagop Hagopian was rumored to have been a member in his youth. Through his involvement with Palestinian groups, Hagopian earned the nickname "Mujahed," meaning "Warrior." Hagopian's sympathetic connection with Palestinian liberation/separatist movements bolstered ASALA's goals and helped pave
11904-473: The political dynamics of the region culminated in the 1860 Lebanon conflict . Beirut became a destination for Maronite Christian refugees fleeing from the worst areas of the fighting on Mount Lebanon and in Damascus. This in turn altered the religious composition of Beirut itself, sowing the seeds of future sectarian and religious troubles there and in greater Lebanon. However, Beirut was able to prosper in
12032-660: The president and cabinet ministers. As part of the separation of the legislative branch from the executive branch, members of the cabinet cannot be a member of the parliament during their ministry. In addition to ministries, a number of staff organizations are grouped into the Executive Office of the President. These include the National Security Council , the State Supervisory Council , the National Intelligence Organization ,
12160-479: The president and those to whom the president's powers are delegated. The president is both the head of state and government , as well as the military commander-in-chief . The president, according to the Constitution, must "ensure the implementation of the Constitution", and "ensure orderly and harmonious functioning of the organs of the State". The president may sign legislation passed by the Parliament into law or may veto it, preventing it from becoming law unless
12288-431: The presidential decrees with respect to the same subject in the hierarchy of norms. Furthermore, fundamental and personal rights or duties and political rights or duties cannot be regulated under presidential decrees. The daily enforcement and administration of federal laws is in the hands of the various executive ministries, to deal with specific areas of national and international affairs. The Cabinet of Turkey includes
12416-774: The province and is also the figurehead and executive organ of the special provincial administration. Governors act as the chairman of the provincial executive committee. Most of the taxes are levied by the central government. However some specific taxes are levied by municipalities. Taxation system in Turkey is regulated by the Tax Procedure (TP) Law. It regulates the rights, burdens, carrying out duties along with principals of accrual. This Law consist of procedural and official provisions of all tax laws. The TP has five main sections: taxation, taxpayer duties, valuation, penalty provisions, tax cases. The budget document often begins with
12544-623: The region. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion against Ottoman hegemony in Acre under Jezzar Pasha and Abdullah Pasha , Beirut declined to a small town with a population of about 10,000 and was an object of contention between the Ottomans, the local Druze, and the Mamluks . After Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt captured Acre in 1832, Beirut began its revival. After the Albanian fighter Tafil Buzi
12672-475: The reign of Herod the Great , Berytus became a colony , one of four in the Syria-Phoenicia region and the only one with full Italian rights ( ius Italicum ) exempting its citizens from imperial taxation. Beirut was considered the most Roman city in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. Furthermore, the veterans of two Roman legions were established in the city of Berytus by emperor Augustus :
12800-484: The release of certain Armenian prisoners, as well as after a Swiss judge disagreed with the Turkish government's refusal to acknowledge the Armenian Genocide and other abuses of the Armenian people. Additionally, ASALA negotiated with the Italian government in 1979 in exchange for a halt in attacks provided that Italy close its Armenian emigration offices. When Italy agreed to ASALA's request, it saw no further attacks from
12928-528: The site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit, Paul Bovier-Lapierre . Many Middle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in side gullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 varied bifaces accredited to the Acheulean period , some with a lustrous sheen , now held at the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory . Henri Fleisch also found an Emireh point amongst material from
13056-472: The site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings. Beirut V ( Nahr Beirut , Beirut River ) was discovered by Dillenseger and said to be in an orchard of mulberry trees on the left bank of the river, near the river mouth , and to be close to the railway station and bridge to Tripoli . Levallois flints and bones and similar surface material were found amongst brecciated deposits . The area has now been built on. Beirut VI (Patriarchate)
13184-400: The suspected secret agreement that the French government made with ASALA, in which the government would allow ASALA to use France as a base of operations in exchange for refraining from launching attacks on French soil. Belief in this suspected agreement was further bolstered after "Interior Minister Gaston Defferre called ASALA's cause "just", and four Armenians arrested for taking hostages at
13312-620: The throne of the Hellenistic Seleucid monarchy. Laodicea in Phoenicia was built upon the same site on a more conventional Hellenistic plan. Present-day Beirut overlies this ancient one, and little archaeology was carried out until after the civil war in 1991. The salvage excavations after 1993 have yielded new insights into the layout and history of this period of Beirut's history. Public architecture included several areas and buildings. Mid-1st-century coins from Berytus bear
13440-463: The time of the crusades , the city was known in French as Barut or Baruth . The earliest settlement of Beirut was on an island in the Beirut River, but the channel that separated it from the banks silted up and the island ceased to be. Excavations in the downtown area have unearthed layers of Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, Persian and Ottoman remains. Beirut
13568-450: The trade was carried by French ships to Marseille . French influence in the area soon exceeded that of any other European power. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica reported a population consisting of 36,000 Muslims, 77,000 Christians, 2,500 Jews, 400 Druze and 4,100 foreigners. At the start of the 20th century, Salim Ali Salam was one of the most prominent figures in Beirut, holding numerous public positions including deputy from Beirut to
13696-493: The two suicide bombers. Between 1989 and 1990 parts on East Beirut were destroyed in fighting between Lebanese army units loyal to General Aoun and Samir Geagea 's Maronite Christians Lebanese Forces with the Syrian Armed Forces -backed Elias Hrawi and Salim Al-Huss Lebanese army forces. Since the end of the war in 1990, the people of Lebanon have been rebuilding Beirut, whose urban agglomeration
13824-815: The way for ASALA's eventual training with another Palestinian rebel group, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) . ASALA was rumored to have interacted with other leftist/Marxist militant organizations in Europe and Eurasia, including the Kurdistan Worker's Party (PKK) in Kurdistan, the Italian Red Brigades , and the Spanish Basque terrorist separatist group called ETA . In addition to having potential connections to leftist groups, ASALA also had ties to another Armenian organization,
13952-486: The way to Armenia" and " Viva the revolutionary solidarity of oppressed people!" The presence of Armenians in eastern Anatolia , often called Western Armenia , is documented since the ninth century BCE , almost two millennium ago to the Turkish presence in the area . In 1915 and 1916, the ruling Committee of Union and Progress of the Ottoman Empire systematically deported and exterminated its Armenian population, killing around 1.5 million Armenians. The survivors of
14080-519: The way to Armenia" and "Viva the revolutionary solidarity of oppressed people!" It had sister publications including left-wing Hayasdan Gaydzer ( London ) and Hayasdan – Hay Baykar ( Paris ) which used "Hayasdan" in their titles since 1980. Both were published by the Popular Movements which worked towards mobilising support among Armenians for a political movement focused on ASALA. [REDACTED] Media related to Armenian Secret Army for
14208-460: The world press. These notable acts, while carried out by a small group, were successful in conveying the Armenian Genocide to the forefront of international awareness. The main two political goals of ASALA were to get Turkey to recognize its culpability for the Armenian Genocide in 1915 and to establish a United Armenia , which would unite nearby regions formerly under Armenian control or with large Armenian populations. Additionally, ASALA stated in
14336-528: Was a modification of the Canaanite and Phoenician word bīʾrōt later bēʾrūt , meaning " wells ", in reference to the site's accessible water table . The name is first attested in the 14th century BC, when it was mentioned in three Akkadian cuneiform tablets of the Amarna letters , letters sent by King Ammunira of Biruta to Amenhotep III or Amenhotep IV of Egypt . Biruta
14464-612: Was a site discovered while building on the property of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. It was notable for the discovery of a finely styled Canaanean blade javelin suggested to date to the early or middle Neolithic periods of Byblos and which is held in the school library. Beirut VII, the Rivoli Cinema and Byblos Cinema sites near the Bourj in
14592-528: Was a terrorist organisation. The U.S. Department of State , under President Ronald Reagan — as well as the militants themselves — attributed ASALA's deeds to Turkey's open denial of the Armenian genocide . According to the MIPT website, there had been 84 incidents involving ASALA leaving 46 dead and 299 injured, including the following: On October 22, 1975, Turkish Ambassador in Austria , Danis Tunaligil
14720-507: Was also mentioned in the Amarna letters from King Rib-Hadda of Byblos . The Greeks hellenised the name as Bērytós ( Ancient Greek : Βηρυτός ), which the Romans latinised as Berytus . When it attained the status of a Roman colony , it was notionally refounded and its official name was emended to Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus to include its imperial sponsors. At
14848-615: Was assassinated by three members of ASALA. Two days later, the Turkish Ambassador in France , Ismail Erez and his chauffeur were killed. Both ASALA and JCAG claimed responsibility. The first two ASALA militants, arrested on October 3, 1980, were Alex Yenikomshian and Suzy Mahserejian, who were wounded after the accidental explosion of a bomb in a hotel in Geneva . During the 1981 Turkish consulate attack in Paris ( Van operation ) ASALA militants held 56 hostages for fifteen hours; it became
14976-456: Was captured and placed in Ankara's Mamak Prison. He was told that he had to choose between confessing and being executed. After being promised that his comrades would not be harmed, he revealed how ASALA worked to a team led by MİT's Presidential Liaison and Evren's son-in-law, Erkan Gürvit. He was tried by Ankara martial law command military court, and sentenced to death. His appeal of the sentence
15104-466: Was declined, and he was hanged on 29 January 1983. In the early spring of 1983 two teams were sent to France and Lebanon. Günyol tapped contract killer Abdullah Çatlı , who had just finished serving a prison sentence in Switzerland for drug trafficking , to lead the French contingent. Günyol says he did not reveal his identity to Çatlı, who referred to him as "Colonel", thinking Günyol used to be
15232-503: Was excavated and reported on several years ago and now lies buried under the city. Another suggested port or dry dock was claimed to have been discovered around 1 kilometre (0.62 miles) to the west in 2011 by a team of Lebanese archaeologists from the Directorate General of Antiquities of Lebanese University . Controversy arose on 26 June 2012 when authorization was given by Lebanese Minister of Culture Gaby Layoun for
15360-608: Was interned and then pardoned by the Ottoman administration for his constant uprisings, he raised 3,000 Albanian mercenaries to fight in Lebanon; some of them became notorious shortly afterwards for having been responsible for the widespread disorders in Beirut. By the second half of the nineteenth century, Beirut was developing close commercial and political ties with European imperial powers, particularly France. European interests in Lebanese silk and other export products transformed
15488-549: Was listed as "the town of Beirut" ( French : Beyrouth ville ) by Louis Burkhalter and said to be on the beach near the Orient and Bassoul hotels on the Avenue des Français in central Beirut. The site was discovered by Lortet in 1894 and discussed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900. The flint industry from the site was described as Mousterian and is held by the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon . Beirut II ( Umm el-Khatib )
15616-486: Was mainly constituted during war time through an anarchic urban development stretching along the littoral corridor and its nearby heights. By the start of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the city had somewhat regained its status as a tourist, cultural and intellectual centre in the Middle East and as a center for commerce, fashion, and media. The reconstruction of downtown Beirut has been largely driven by Solidere ,
15744-539: Was promised to the Armenians by American President Woodrow Wilson in the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres , following the Armenian genocide , during which Ottoman Turks murdered 1.5 million Armenians , which Turkey openly denies . ASALA attacks and assassinations resulted in the deaths of 46 people and 299 injured, mostly individuals serving the Turkish government . The organization has also claimed responsibility for more than 50 bomb attacks. Suffering from internal schisms,
15872-434: Was published monthly, sometimes with united volumes. The main language was Armenian . From 1983 to 1987 it had separate issues in Arabic , English , French and Turkish . The journal published editorials, official announcements of ASALA, and articles on political and military issues. Hayasdan was distributed free of charge in Armenian communities. The journal's mottos were "The armed struggle and right political line are
16000-627: Was settled over 5,000 years ago, and there is evidence that the surrounding area had already been inhabited for tens of thousands of years prior to this. Several prehistoric archaeological sites have been discovered within the urban area of Beirut, revealing flint tools from sequential periods dating from the Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Paleolithic through the Neolithic to the Bronze Age . Beirut I ( Minet el-Hosn )
16128-464: Was suggested by Burkhalter to have been south of Tarik el Jedideh, where P.E. Gigues discovered a Copper Age flint industry at around 100 metres (328 feet) above sea level . The site had been built on and destroyed by 1948. Beirut III ( Furn esh-Shebbak ), listed as Plateau Tabet , was suggested to have been located on the left bank of the Beirut River . Burkhalter suggested that it
16256-488: Was the largest rally in Lebanon's history at that time. The last Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut on 26 April 2005, and the two countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 2008. During the 2006 Lebanon War, Israeli bombardment caused damage in many parts of Beirut, especially the predominantly Shiite southern suburbs of Beirut. On 12 July 2006, the "Operation Truthful Promise" carried out by Hezbollah ended with 8 Israeli deaths and 6 injuries. In response,
16384-412: Was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticized by Lorraine Copeland . P. E. Gigues discovered a series of Neolithic flint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be a hut circle . Auguste Bergy discussed polished axes that were also found at this site, which has now completely disappeared as a result of construction and urbanization of
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