Misplaced Pages

#630369

61-460: Capnolagnia is not considered a disease but an unusual sexual practice, and many of the fetishists do not seek medical help unless this behavior strongly interferes with their daily lives. The majority of people simply learn to accept their fetish and manage to achieve gratification in an appropriate manner. A 2003 study found that the fetish was not previously the subject of academic study but had been mentioned in "a few newspapers". Like any fetish,

122-518: A B.A. in psychology, with minors in philosophy and math. In 1966, he received his Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania , where he worked with Richard Solomon . Rescorla taught at Yale University from 1966 to 1981. While at Yale, Rescorla began a fruitful collaboration with colleague Allan Wagner , which led to the development of the Rescorla–Wagner model . In 1975, he was elected into

183-414: A CS than it does for a novel stimulus to become a CS, when the stimulus is paired with an effective US. This is one of the most common ways to measure the strength of learning in classical conditioning. A typical example of this procedure is as follows: a rat first learns to press a lever through operant conditioning . Then, in a series of trials, the rat is exposed to a CS, a light or a noise, followed by

244-555: A US through forward conditioning. Then a second neutral stimulus ("CS2") is paired with the first (CS1) and comes to yield its own conditioned response. For example: A bell might be paired with food until the bell elicits salivation. If a light is then paired with the bell, then the light may come to elicit salivation as well. The bell is the CS1 and the food is the US. The light becomes the CS2 once it

305-498: A US. A compound CS (CS1+CS2) is paired with a US. A separate test for each CS (CS1 and CS2) is performed. The blocking effect is observed in a lack of conditional response to CS2, suggesting that the first phase of training blocked the acquisition of the second CS. [REDACTED] Experiments on theoretical issues in conditioning have mostly been done on vertebrates , especially rats and pigeons. However, conditioning has also been studied in invertebrates , and very important data on

366-466: A clear summary of this change in thinking, and its implications, in his 1988 article "Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is". Despite its widespread acceptance, Rescorla's thesis may not be defensible. Classical conditioning differs from operant or instrumental conditioning : in classical conditioning, behaviors are modified through the association of stimuli as described above, whereas in operant conditioning behaviors are modified by

427-465: A dog's saliva produced as a CR differed in composition from that produced as a UR. The CR is sometimes even the opposite of the UR. For example: the unconditional response to electric shock is an increase in heart rate, whereas a CS that has been paired with the electric shock elicits a decrease in heart rate. (However, it has been proposed that only when the UR does not involve the central nervous system are

488-499: A negative associate strength) then R-W predicts that the CS will not undergo extinction (its V will not decrease in size). The most important and novel contribution of the R–W model is its assumption that the conditioning of a CS depends not just on that CS alone, and its relationship to the US, but also on all other stimuli present in the conditioning situation. In particular, the model states that

549-474: A number of observations differentiate them, especially the contingencies whereby learning occurs. Together with operant conditioning , classical conditioning became the foundation of behaviorism , a school of psychology which was dominant in the mid-20th century and is still an important influence on the practice of psychological therapy and the study of animal behavior. Classical conditioning has been applied in other areas as well. For example, it may affect

610-404: A piece of cardboard. A key idea behind the R–W model is that a CS signals or predicts the US. One might say that before conditioning, the subject is surprised by the US. However, after conditioning, the subject is no longer surprised, because the CS predicts the coming of the US. (The model can be described mathematically and that words like predict, surprise, and expect are only used to help explain

671-515: A puff of air directed at a person's eye could be followed by the sound of a buzzer. In temporal conditioning, a US is presented at regular intervals, for instance every 10 minutes. Conditioning is said to have occurred when the CR tends to occur shortly before each US. This suggests that animals have a biological clock that can serve as a CS. This method has also been used to study timing ability in animals (see Animal cognition ). The example below shows

SECTION 10

#1732798528631

732-419: A replica of the unconditioned response, but Pavlov noted that saliva produced by the CS differs in composition from that produced by the US. In fact, the CR may be any new response to the previously neutral CS that can be clearly linked to experience with the conditional relationship of CS and US. It was also thought that repeated pairings are necessary for conditioning to emerge, but many CRs can be learned with

793-428: A single trial, especially in fear conditioning and taste aversion learning. Learning is fastest in forward conditioning. During forward conditioning, the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US in order to signal that the US will follow. Two common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning. [REDACTED] During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are presented and terminated at

854-439: A smoking fetish: Classical conditioning Classical conditioning (also respondent conditioning and Pavlovian conditioning ) is a behavioral procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food, a puff of air on the eye, a potential rival) is paired with a neutral stimulus (e.g. the sound of a musical triangle ). The term classical conditioning refers to the process of an automatic, conditioned response that

915-444: A weak stimulus is presented. During acquisition, the CS and US are paired as described above. The extent of conditioning may be tracked by test trials. In these test trials, the CS is presented alone and the CR is measured. A single CS-US pairing may suffice to yield a CR on a test, but usually a number of pairings are necessary and there is a gradual increase in the conditioned response to the CS. This repeated number of trials increase

976-499: Is paired with a US until asymptotic CR levels are reached. CS+/US trials are continued, but these are interspersed with trials on which the CS+ is paired with a second CS, (the CS-) but not with the US (i.e. CS+/CS- trials). Typically, organisms show CRs on CS+/US trials, but stop responding on CS+/CS− trials. This form of classical conditioning involves two phases. A CS (CS1) is paired with

1037-405: Is paired with a specific stimulus. The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov studied classical conditioning with detailed experiments with dogs, and published the experimental results in 1897. In the study of digestion , Pavlov observed that the experimental dogs salivated when fed red meat. Pavlovian conditioning is distinct from operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning), through which

1098-401: Is paired with the CS1. [REDACTED] Backward conditioning occurs when a CS immediately follows a US. Unlike the usual conditioning procedure, in which the CS precedes the US, the conditioned response given to the CS tends to be inhibitory. This presumably happens because the CS serves as a signal that the US has ended, rather than as a signal that the US is about to appear. For example,

1159-400: Is the response to the conditioned stimulus, whereas the unconditioned response (UR) corresponds to the unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov reported many basic facts about conditioning; for example, he found that learning occurred most rapidly when the interval between the CS and the appearance of the US was relatively short. As noted earlier, it is often thought that the conditioned response is

1220-439: The Rescorla–Wagner model of associative learning. This model conceptualizes learning as the development of associations between conditioned (CS) and unconditioned (US) stimuli, with learning occurring when these stimuli are paired on discrete trials. The change in the association between a CS and an US that occurs when the two are paired depends on how strongly the US is predicted on that trial – that is, informally, how "surprised"

1281-727: The Society of Experimental Psychologists (1991) Ira Abrams Distinguished Teaching Award of the School of Arts and Sciences (1999) Horsley Grantt Award of the Pavlovian Society (2005) Honorary Doctoral Degree Ghent University (2006) Robert A. Rescorla (May 9, 1940 - March 24, 2020) was an American psychologist who specialized in the involvement of cognitive processes in classical conditioning focusing on animal learning and behavior. One of Rescorla's significant contributions to psychology, with co-creator Allan Wagner ,

SECTION 20

#1732798528631

1342-499: The Society of Experimental Psychologists . Rescorla returned to his alma mater in 1981 and was a member of faculty there until 2009. He served as the chair of the psychology department at Penn, as well as the director of undergraduate studies and the dean of the college of arts and sciences. In 1984, Rescorla was granted a Guggenheim Fellowship . In 1985, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and in 1986

1403-495: The causes and mechanisms of a smoking fetish vary widely, with roots of sexual association in early childhood and adolescence . Typical causes and hypotheses include: Smoking has often been associated with the dominatrix role in BDSM , and numerous adult production for the kink community feature scenes depicting smoking and other acts related to it, such as extinguishing cigarettes on characters or forcing characters to inhale

1464-420: The CR and the UR opposites.) The Rescorla–Wagner (R–W) model is a relatively simple yet powerful model of conditioning. The model predicts a number of important phenomena, but it also fails in important ways, thus leading to a number of modifications and alternative models. However, because much of the theoretical research on conditioning in the past 40 years has been instigated by this model or reactions to it,

1525-424: The CR is said to be "extinguished." [REDACTED] External inhibition may be observed if a strong or unfamiliar stimulus is presented just before, or at the same time as, the CS. This causes a reduction in the conditioned response to the CS. Several procedures lead to the recovery of a CR that had been first conditioned and then extinguished. This illustrates that the extinction procedure does not eliminate

1586-415: The CS and the US causes a gradual increase in the associative strength of the CS. This increase is determined by the nature of the US (e.g. its intensity). The amount of learning that happens during any single CS-US pairing depends on the difference between the total associative strengths of CS and other stimuli present in the situation (ΣV in the equation), and a maximum set by the US (λ in the equation). On

1647-459: The CS. As a result of this "surprising" outcome, the associative strength of the CS takes a step down. Extinction is complete when the strength of the CS reaches zero; no US is predicted, and no US occurs. However, if that same CS is presented without the US but accompanied by a well-established conditioned inhibitor (CI), that is, a stimulus that predicts the absence of a US (in R-W terms, a stimulus with

1708-416: The CS. In the equation, V represents the current associative strength of the CS, and ∆V is the change in this strength that happens on a given trial. ΣV is the sum of the strengths of all stimuli present in the situation. λ is the maximum associative strength that a given US will support; its value is usually set to 1 on trials when the US is present, and 0 when the US is absent. α and β are constants related to

1769-819: The Christopher H. Browne Distinguished Professor of Psychology in 2000. In 2005, Rescorla received the Horsley Grantt Award of the Pavlovian Society. Following that, in 2006, he was granted an honorary doctoral degree by the Ghent University , in Belgium. He was elected into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2008. In 1972, Robert A. Rescorla and his colleague Allan R. Wagner at Yale University , published

1830-468: The Rescorla-Wagner equation. It specifies the amount of learning that will occur on a single pairing of a conditioning stimulus (CS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US). The above equation is solved repeatedly to predict the course of learning over many such trials. In this model, the degree of learning is measured by how well the CS predicts the US, which is given by the "associative strength" of

1891-416: The R–W model deserves a brief description here. The Rescorla-Wagner model argues that there is a limit to the amount of conditioning that can occur in the pairing of two stimuli. One determinant of this limit is the nature of the US. For example: pairing a bell with a juicy steak is more likely to produce salivation than pairing the bell with a piece of dry bread, and dry bread is likely to work better than

Smoking fetishism - Misplaced Pages Continue

1952-434: The UR, the CR is acquired through experience, and it is also less permanent than the UR. Usually the conditioned response is similar to the unconditioned response, but sometimes it is quite different. For this and other reasons, most learning theorists suggest that the conditioned stimulus comes to signal or predict the unconditioned stimulus, and go on to analyse the consequences of this signal. Robert A. Rescorla provided

2013-402: The US is fully predicted, the associative strength of the CS stops growing, and conditioning is complete. The associative process described by the R–W model also accounts for extinction (see "procedures" above). The extinction procedure starts with a positive associative strength of the CS, which means that the CS predicts that the US will occur. On an extinction trial the US fails to occur after

2074-411: The US is predicted by the sum of the associative strengths of all stimuli present in the conditioning situation. Learning is controlled by the difference between this total associative strength and the strength supported by the US. When this sum of strengths reaches a maximum set by the US, conditioning ends as just described. The R–W explanation of the blocking phenomenon illustrates one consequence of

2135-516: The US, a mild electric shock. An association between the CS and US develops, and the rat slows or stops its lever pressing when the CS comes on. The rate of pressing during the CS measures the strength of classical conditioning; that is, the slower the rat presses, the stronger the association of the CS and the US. (Slow pressing indicates a "fear" conditioned response, and it is an example of a conditioned emotional response; see section below.) Typically, three phases of conditioning are used. A CS (CS+)

2196-418: The US, but the US also occurs at other times. If this occurs, it is predicted that the US is likely to happen in the absence of the CS. In other words, the CS does not "predict" the US. In this case, conditioning fails and the CS does not come to elicit a CR. This finding – that prediction rather than CS-US pairing is the key to conditioning – greatly influenced subsequent conditioning research and theory. In

2257-406: The acquisition of any new behavior, but rather the tendency to respond in old ways to new stimuli. Thus, he theorized that the CS merely substitutes for the US in evoking the reflex response. This explanation is called the stimulus-substitution theory of conditioning. A critical problem with the stimulus-substitution theory is that the CR and UR are not always the same. Pavlov himself observed that

2318-404: The animals' digestive fluids outside the body, where they could be measured. Pavlov noticed that his dogs began to salivate in the presence of the technician who normally fed them, rather than simply salivating in the presence of food. Pavlov called the dogs' anticipatory salivation "psychic secretion". Putting these informal observations to an experimental test, Pavlov presented a stimulus (e.g.

2379-423: The assumption just stated. In blocking (see "phenomena" above), CS1 is paired with a US until conditioning is complete. Then on additional conditioning trials a second stimulus (CS2) appears together with CS1, and both are followed by the US. Finally CS2 is tested and shown to produce no response because learning about CS2 was "blocked" by the initial learning about CS1. The R–W model explains this by saying that after

2440-400: The body's response to psychoactive drugs , the regulation of hunger, research on the neural basis of learning and memory, and in certain social phenomena such as the false consensus effect . Classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Usually, the conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a tuning fork ),

2501-413: The effect of conditioning. These procedures are the following: Stimulus generalization is said to occur if, after a particular CS has come to elicit a CR, a similar test stimulus is found to elicit the same CR. Usually the more similar the test stimulus is to the CS the stronger the CR will be to the test stimulus. Conversely, the more the test stimulus differs from the CS, the weaker the CR will be, or

Smoking fetishism - Misplaced Pages Continue

2562-479: The effect they produce (i.e., reward or punishment). The best-known and most thorough early work on classical conditioning was done by Ivan Pavlov , although Edwin Twitmyer published some related findings a year earlier. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov developed a procedure that enabled him to study the digestive processes of animals over long periods of time. He redirected

2623-424: The experimental findings? To research these questions, Rescorla and his team used an assortment of methods, including for example fear conditioning , reward training and autoshaping . Rescorla was first married to Marged Lindner. In the 1970s, he married Leslie V. Altman , but they later divorced. They had two sons together. He remarried to Shirley Steele. Rescorla died March 24, 2020, after complications from

2684-580: The extinction procedure, the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of a US. This is done after a CS has been conditioned by one of the methods above. When this is done, the CR frequency eventually returns to pre-training levels. However, extinction does not eliminate the effects of the prior conditioning. This is demonstrated by spontaneous recovery – when there is a sudden appearance of the (CR) after extinction occurs – and other related phenomena (see "Recovery from extinction" below). These phenomena can be explained by postulating accumulation of inhibition when

2745-426: The first pairing of the CS and US, this difference is large and the associative strength of the CS takes a big step up. As CS-US pairings accumulate, the US becomes more predictable, and the increase in associative strength on each trial becomes smaller and smaller. Finally, the difference between the associative strength of the CS (plus any that may accrue to other stimuli) and the maximum strength reaches zero. That is,

2806-473: The food because its effects did not depend on previous experience. The metronome's sound is originally a neutral stimulus (NS) because it does not elicit salivation in the dogs. After conditioning, the metronome's sound becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) or conditional stimulus; because its effects depend on its association with food. Likewise, the responses of the dog follow the same conditioned-versus-unconditioned arrangement. The conditioned response (CR)

2867-568: The initial conditioning, CS1 fully predicts the US. Since there is no difference between what is predicted and what happens, no new learning happens on the additional trials with CS1+CS2, hence CS2 later yields no response. Robert A. Rescorla Guggenheim Fellowship for Social Sciences (1984) National Academy of Sciences (1985) Distinguished Scientific Contribution award of the American Psychological Association (1986) Howard Crosby Warren Medal of

2928-400: The model.) Here the workings of the model are illustrated with brief accounts of acquisition, extinction, and blocking. The model also predicts a number of other phenomena, see main article on the model. Δ V = α β ( λ − Σ V ) {\displaystyle \Delta V=\alpha \beta (\lambda -\Sigma V)} This is

2989-417: The more it will differ from that previously observed. One observes stimulus discrimination when one stimulus ("CS1") elicits one CR and another stimulus ("CS2") elicits either another CR or no CR at all. This can be brought about by, for example, pairing CS1 with an effective US and presenting CS2 with no US. Latent inhibition refers to the observation that it takes longer for a familiar stimulus to become

3050-467: The neural basis of conditioning has come from experiments on the sea slug, Aplysia . Most relevant experiments have used the classical conditioning procedure, although instrumental (operant) conditioning experiments have also been used, and the strength of classical conditioning is often measured through its operant effects, as in conditioned suppression (see Phenomena section above) and autoshaping . According to Pavlov, conditioning does not involve

3111-400: The salience of the CS and the speed of learning for a given US. How the equation predicts various experimental results is explained in following sections. For further details, see the main article on the model. The R–W model measures conditioning by assigning an "associative strength" to the CS and other local stimuli. Before a CS is conditioned it has an associative strength of zero. Pairing

SECTION 50

#1732798528631

3172-429: The same time. For example: If a person hears a bell and has air puffed into their eye at the same time, and repeated pairings like this led to the person blinking when they hear the bell despite the puff of air being absent, this demonstrates that simultaneous conditioning has occurred. [REDACTED] Second-order or higher-order conditioning follow a two-step procedure. First a neutral stimulus ("CS1") comes to signal

3233-428: The smoke. Over the years, numerous studios formed, which specialize in producing adult material aimed mainly at smoking fetishists. Some of the studios also offer custom-made productions catering to sub-fetishes, such as a smoking female extinguishing a cigarette on the leather seats of a luxury car. The diagnostic criteria for fetishism are: People who experience one or more of the symptoms below are considered to have

3294-401: The sound of a metronome ) and then gave the dog food; after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the stimulus. Pavlov concluded that if a particular stimulus in the dog's surroundings was present when the dog was given food then that stimulus could become associated with food and cause salivation on its own. In Pavlov's experiments the unconditioned stimulus (US) was

3355-418: The strength and/or frequency of the CR gradually. The speed of conditioning depends on a number of factors, such as the nature and strength of both the CS and the US, previous experience and the animal's motivational state. The process slows down as it nears completion. If the CS is presented without the US, and this process is repeated often enough, the CS will eventually stop eliciting a CR. At this point

3416-513: The strength of a voluntary behavior is modified, either by reinforcement or by punishment . However, classical conditioning can affect operant conditioning; classically conditioned stimuli can reinforce operant responses. Classical conditioning is a basic behavioral mechanism, and its neural substrates are now beginning to be understood. Though it is sometimes hard to distinguish classical conditioning from other forms of associative learning (e.g. instrumental learning and human associative memory ),

3477-793: The subject is by the US. The amount of this "surprise" depends on the summed associative strength of all cues present during that trial. In contrast, previous models derived the change in associative strength from the current value of the CS alone. The model has been extremely influential, leading to many new experimental findings and theoretical developments. Rescorla conducted research at the University of Pennsylvania on animal learning and behavior, focusing on associative learning and particularly Pavlovian conditioning. Rescorla's interest in associative learning processes focused on three questions. First, in what situations did associative learning occur? Second, when associative learning occurred, what elements were involved? Third, what principles accounted for

3538-403: The temporal conditioning, as US such as food to a hungry mouse is simply delivered on a regular time schedule such as every thirty seconds. After sufficient exposure the mouse will begin to salivate just before the food delivery. This then makes it temporal conditioning as it would appear that the mouse is conditioned to the passage of time. [REDACTED] In this procedure, the CS is paired with

3599-421: The unconditioned stimulus is biologically potent (e.g., the taste of food) and the unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned reflex response (e.g., salivation). After pairing is repeated the organism exhibits a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. (A conditioned response may occur after only one pairing.) Thus, unlike

3660-924: Was awarded the Distinguished Scientific Contribution award of the American Psychological Association. In 1989, he was named the University of Pennsylvania's James M. Skinner Professor of Science. In 1991, Rescorla was awarded the Howard Crosby Warren Medal by the Society of Experimental Psychologists. He also received the Ira Abrams Distinguished Teaching Award of the School of Arts and Sciences at Penn in 1999, followed by appointment as

3721-1072: Was the Rescorla-Wagner Model of conditioning. This model expanded knowledge on learning processes. Rescorla also continued to develop research on Pavlovian conditioning and instrumental training. Due to his achievements, Rescorla received the American Psychological Association Awards of the Distinguished Scientific Contributions in 1986. Rescorla was born in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , on May 9, 1940. He attended high school in Westfield, New Jersey . Beginning in 1958, he attended Swarthmore College , where conducted experiments on monkeys with Henry Gleitman and served as Solomon Asch 's research assistant doing human learning experiments. He graduated in 1962 with

SECTION 60

#1732798528631
#630369