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181-507: The Aztecs referred to them as Amoxco, the origin of the word Amuzgo. One interpretation has it meaning "place of books" probably referring to an administrative center which was then generalized to the people. Another states that it means "people of tin." Yet another states that it means "among mountains" which originally referred to one community and became generalized. The endonym of the Amuzgo peoples varies by community. In San Pedro Amuzgos it

362-659: A tonalpohualli of 260 days. Particular to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan was the patron god Huitzilopochtli , twin pyramids , and the ceramic styles known as Aztec I to IV. From the 13th century, the Valley of Mexico was the heart of dense population and the rise of city-states. The Mexica were late-comers to the Valley of Mexico, and founded the city-state of Tenochtitlan on unpromising islets in Lake Texcoco , later becoming

543-592: A Council of Elders is also recognized in Amuzgo communities. The rise of various political parties in Guerrero and the arrival of different forms of Christianity have caused social upheaval among the Amuzgos. In addition, position in the formal government are often in dispute between the Amuzgos and the mestizos. There are traditional Amuzgo authorities such as "topils," those with police functions and those charged with enforcing community norms. Most of these are related to

724-509: A fireplace, table and chairs and places to store dishes and cooking utensils. Other tools can also be stored here. Somewhere in the house there is an altar with Catholic images for family prayer. There is usually a backyard for domestic animals and ornamental plants. Many of these structure do not have electricity and use candles for light. There are three kinds of land tenure in the region, communal, ejido and private. There are still land disputes between indigenous and mestizo groups. Historically,

905-416: A great variety of birds. Species include badgers , armadillos , raccoons , ocelots , coyotes , anteaters , porcupines , rabbits, parrots, owls and buzzards . The climate of the region is hot and relatively humid with defined dry (November to May) and rainy (May to October). The average annual temperature is 25 °C (77 °F). The Amuzgos live in their region along with other ethnic groups such as

1086-713: A group of Amuzgos took over the municipal palace to protest. This action spurred the creation of the Frente Cívico Indígena de Xochistlahuaca and the Frente Comunitario de Xochistlahuca, which have had influence in both political and social issues. Sentiments among the Amuzgos have run particularly against the PRI political party, which dominated municipal politics for decades and mostly in favor now towards National Action Party (PAN) . Since 2006, both traditional and municipal authorities have recognition but

1267-512: A group of nobles and a population of commoners. The altepetl included a capital that served as a religious center, the hub of distribution and organization of a local population that often lived spread out in minor settlements surrounding the capital. Altepetl was also the main source of ethnic identity for the inhabitants, even though Altepetl was frequently composed of groups speaking different languages. Each altepetl would see itself as standing in political contrast to other altepetl polities, and war

1448-591: A kind of yam and from squash. Most of the Amuzgo region is very poor with the largest community of Xochistlahuaca the fourth-poorest in the state of Guerrero and the sixteenth-poorest in Mexico. It has serious economic and social problems including access to basic services, with many homes lacking electricity, running water and drainage. Education levels are very low with high levels of illiteracy, but are relatively equal between men and women. Houses are generally built with participation of friends and neighbors as part of

1629-591: A lord, he shoots the sky" ) was elected tlatoani; he was the son of Huitzilihhuitl, brother of Chimalpopoca and had served as the war leader of his uncle Itzcoatl in the war against the Tepanecs. The accession of a new ruler in the dominant city-state was often an occasion for subjected cities to rebel by refusing to pay taxes. This meant that new rulers began their rule with a coronation campaign, often against rebellious provinces, but also sometimes demonstrating their military might by making new conquests. Motecuzoma tested

1810-545: A major uprising of the Mexica against the Spanish. During the fighting, Moctezuma was killed, either by the Spaniards who killed him as they fled the city, or by the Mexica themselves who considered him a traitor. Cuitláhuac , a kinsman and adviser to Moctezuma, succeeded him as tlatoani, mounting the defense of Tenochtitlan against the Spanish invaders and their indigenous allies. He ruled for only 80 days, perhaps dying in

1991-427: A municipality, which was then ratified in 1872. However, the seat was moved to Abasolo in 1873. In 1932, the town became a seat of a municipality again, this time separating from Ometepec. This was recertified in 1934. From the colonial period through the 19th century, the Amuzgos lost control of their lands, paying rent to Spanish lords such as Guillermo Hacho. In 1920, the Amuzgos began to fight to regain control with

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2172-481: A mythical place of origin for several ethnic groups in central Mexico. The term was not used as an endonym by the Aztecs themselves, but it is found in the different migration accounts of the Mexica, where it describes the different tribes who left Aztlan together. In one account of the journey from Aztlan, Huitzilopochtli , the tutelary deity of the Mexica tribe, tells his followers on the journey that "now, no longer

2353-475: A permanent military presence, installing puppet rulers, or even moving entire populations from the center to maintain a loyal base of support. In this way, the Aztec system of government distinguished between different strategies of control in the outer regions of the empire, far from the core in the Valley of Mexico. Some provinces were treated as subject provinces, which provided the basis for economic stability for

2534-589: A religious center. During the Mexican War of Independence , Vicente Guerrero and his troops passed through the area in 1812, stopping at the Cerro Verde to reorganize and supply. In 1821, it became part of the Capitanía General del Sur, but then went back to Puebla in 1823 as part of the municipality of Ometepec. When the state of Guerrero was created in 1849, the town was made the seat of

2715-403: A scheme of mutual help. In towns, houses vary in construction material and style. Homes built in the towns such as San Pedro Amuzgos are increasingly of non-traditional materials such as cement, but most are still of traditional adobe and thatch roofs. The number of rooms varies from one to several. Furniture depends on family income. Most are of one or two rooms and a patio. Most weaving is done in

2896-484: A set of blue rocks which represent thunder and lightning. This is in petition for abundant rain and crops for the coming growing season. The end of the growing season and harvest are marked by the feast day of the Archangel Michael on September 29. Traditional medicine men and healing are still preferred by many as illness is generally conceived of as spiritual. Other important festivals include Carnival and

3077-606: A significant percentage being Protestant. The latter phenomenon began in the 1940s with missionaries from an organization called the Instituto Lingüístico de Verano . Catholic churches still dominate centers of municipal seats as well as Catholic festivals and processions, such as those dedicated to patron saints, Carnival , Holy Week and All Saints' Day. Catholic Amuzgos maintain elements of indigenous beliefs which are found in many festivals and other rites. Water figure prominently in folklore and non-Catholic rites as it

3258-460: A small rabbit was worth 30 beans, a turkey egg cost three beans, and a tamal cost a single bean. For larger purchases, standardized lengths of cotton cloth, called quachtli , were used. There were different grades of quachtli, ranging in value from 65 to 300 cacao beans. About 20 quachtli could support a commoner for one year in Tenochtitlan. Another form of distribution of goods was through

3439-410: A smallpox epidemic, although early sources do not give the cause. He was succeeded by Cuauhtémoc , the last independent Mexica tlatoani, who continued the fierce defense of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs were weakened by disease, and the Spanish enlisted tens of thousands of Indian allies, especially Tlaxcalans , for the assault on Tenochtitlan. After the siege and destruction of the Aztec capital, Cuauhtémoc

3620-428: A source of bronze tools and jewelry. On the negative side, imperial taxes imposed a burden on commoner households, who had to increase their work to pay their share of taxes. Nobles, on the other hand, often made out well under the imperial rule because of the indirect nature of imperial organization. The empire had to rely on local kings and nobles and offered them privileges for their help in maintaining order and keeping

3801-630: A strategy of exhaustion. In the Valley of Oaxaca , which was invaded Moctezuma's forces in the 1450s, the Aztec Empire would oppress the Mixtec and Zapotec peoples, who they would also require to pay tributes . Motecuzoma I also consolidated the political structure of the Triple Alliance and the internal political organization of Tenochtitlan. His brother Tlacaelel served as his main advisor (Nahuatl languages: Cihuacoatl ) and he

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3982-465: A strict sumptuary code limiting the types of luxury goods that could be consumed by commoners. In 1517, Moctezuma received the first news of ships with strange warriors having landed on the Gulf Coast near Cempoallan and he dispatched messengers to greet them and find out what was happening, and he ordered his subjects in the area to keep him informed of any new arrivals. In 1519, he was informed of

4163-571: A struggle for the rulership of Azcapotzalco. During this power struggle, Chimalpopoca died, probably killed by Tezozomoc's son Maxtla who saw him as a competitor. Itzcoatl , brother of Huitzilihhuitl and uncle of Chimalpopoca, was elected the next Mexica tlatoani . The Mexica were now in open war with Azcapotzalco and Itzcoatl petitioned for an alliance with Nezahualcoyotl , son of the slain Texcocan ruler Ixtlilxochitl against Maxtla. Itzcoatl also allied with Maxtla's brother Totoquihuaztli ruler of

4344-561: A successful coronation campaign far south of Tenochtitlan against the Zapotecs in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . Axayacatl also conquered the independent Mexica city of Tlatelolco, located on the northern part of the island where Tenochtitlan was also located. The Tlatelolco ruler Moquihuix was married to Axayacatl's sister, and his alleged mistreatment of her was used as an excuse to incorporate Tlatelolco and its important market directly under

4525-484: A system that collected human waste for use as fertilizer. Through intensive agriculture, the Aztecs were able to sustain a large urbanized population. The lake was also a rich source of proteins in the form of aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians, shrimp, insects and insect eggs, and waterfowl. The presence of such varied sources of protein meant that there was little use for domestic animals for meat (only turkeys and dogs were kept), and scholars have calculated that there

4706-489: A way to distinguish present-day Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans. This usage has been the subject of debate in more recent years, but the term "Aztec" is still more common. Knowledge of Aztec society rests on several different sources: The many archeological remains of everything from temple pyramids to thatched huts can be used to understand many of the aspects of what the Aztec world was like. However, archeologists often must rely on knowledge from other sources to interpret

4887-623: A weekly market (every five days), while larger cities held markets every day. Cortés reported that the central market of Tlatelolco, Tenochtitlan's sister city, was visited by 60,000 people daily. Some sellers in the markets were petty vendors; farmers might sell some of their produce, potters sold their vessels, and so on. Other vendors were professional merchants who traveled from market to market seeking profits. The pochteca were specialized long-distance merchants organized into exclusive guilds . They made long expeditions to all parts of Mesoamerica bringing back exotic luxury goods, and they served as

5068-478: A year at differing times. Archaeological excavations in the Aztec-ruled provinces show that incorporation into the empire had both costs and benefits for provincial peoples. On the positive side, the empire promoted commerce and trade, and exotic goods from obsidian to bronze managed to reach the houses of both commoners and nobles. Trade partners also included the enemy Purépecha (also known as Tarascans),

5249-602: Is Suljaá . There are some mestizos , which live primarily in the seat. Most of the municipality's cultural heritage is based on that of the Amuzgos, as the largest community of this ethnicity. Children from the municipality have been gathering indigenous oral stories for recording as part of the Concurso National de Narraciones Orales en Lenguas Indígenas (National Contest for Oral Narrations in Indigenous Languages). Juana Iriabth Moctezuma Tapia won

5430-607: Is Tzjon Noan (meaning "people of the textiles or thread"), in Santa María Ipalapa it is Tzo'tyio , and in Suljaa' it is Nn'ancue (meaning "the people"). The Mixtecs call them Ñuuñama , which means "people of totomoxtle (dried corn leaves)." The Amuzgo people are generally found in a 3,000-square-kilometer (1,200 sq mi) region which straddles the border of the Mexican states of Guerrero and Oaxaca, near

5611-500: Is based on subsistence agriculture, livestock, handcrafts especially textiles and ceramics and some commerce. Newer products include the making of cheese and piloncillo . Most of the products which are sold outside of the municipality go to the mestizo markets in Ometepec. These include cash crops such as oranges, mamey , sugar cane, jicama and piloncillo, along with handcrafted items such as textiles and fireworks. Economic activity

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5792-451: Is considered the architect of major political reforms in this period, consolidating the power of the noble class (Nahuatl languages: pipiltin ) and instituting a set of legal codes, and the practice of reinstating conquered rulers in their cities bound by fealty to the Mexica tlatoani. In 1469, the next ruler was Axayacatl ( lit. "Water mask"), son of Itzcoatl's son Tezozomoc and Motecuzoma I's daughter Atotoztli II . He undertook

5973-579: Is dominated by Amuzgos and mestizos with Mixtecs in the rural areas outside it. The Amuzgos in Oaxaca are one of a number of indigenous groups found in small communities inside the Mixtec region. Amuzgo territory is mostly found in the Yacuyagua mountains at elevations of between 500 and 900 meters (1,600 and 3,000 ft) above sea level. The terrain is rugged with many ravines and small valleys. This area

6154-560: Is economic in nature with some social and occurs in regional centers such as Ometepec or in communities where there is close proximity. Despite the past domination, the Amuzgo in Guerrero are relatively dominant to the Mixtecs which are present in Tlacoachistlahuaca. However, they are dominated by the far more numerous mestizos. The origins of the Amuzgos are unknown. One theory has the group arriving to its current location from

6335-479: Is essential for survival in the mountains. For example, the beginning of the rainy season is marked by the feast of Saint Mark on 25 April. The date is also known as the "petition for thunder" for rains that will benefit the crops. On this date, chickens are sacrificed over a set of rocks which are said to mythically represent thunder and lightning. The feast of the Archangel Michael on 29 September marks

6516-407: Is expected to provide various gifts such as corn, beans, chili peppers, firewood, chocolate and money to make the bride's huipil . If the bride is a virgin the consummation of the wedding is celebrated with fireworks. If not, there is some tension. To hold special events such as wedding, baptisms, etc. and for large projects such as planting and building houses, friends and family will group to provide

6697-558: Is experiencing a growing rate of emigration out, mostly of men going to other locations in Mexico to work. There is also emigration to the United States, especially to California, North Carolina and other areas on the east coast. Those women who leave generally go to cities such as Acapulco , Chilpancingo and Mexico City to work as maids. Most of the Amuzgo economy is based on agriculture for auto consumption, along with livestock and handcrafts such as textiles, ceramics, leather and

6878-598: Is generally assigned by gender with men doing the farming and livestock raising and women doing domestic chores and weaving. The main economic activity in Xochistlahuaca is agriculture. Agriculture is mostly of the slash-and-burn variety with most land held communally. The most important crops are corn, beans, sesame seed and hibiscus followed by squash, chili peppers, tomatoes, cotton and cacao . Important cash crops include mangos , sapotes , tamarind , hibiscus , amaranth , spearmint, tomatoes and potatoes. Most

7059-415: Is generally consumed as a beverage, especially during special events such as weddings. Tamales are a fundamental part of the diet and come in a variety of forms and fillings such as sweet corn, pork, chicken, freshwater shrimp and more. One local dish is called the cabeza de viejo or old man's head and there is a type of sweetened tortilla called a ticaso . There is evidence that Xochislahuaca

7240-502: Is grown on the south side of the municipality. There has been a growing industry of cattle raising and dairy products, such as cheese for sale to surrounding municipalities, especially Ometepec. The forest as a number of tropical hardwood species which are used to make furniture with an annual harvest of about 2500m2 per year. About 45% of the population is dedicated to industry, mostly women who weave. Weaving and other handcrafts play an important economic role as in many cases, farming

7421-583: Is home to a communal Amuzgo radio station called Radio Ñomndaa (Word of water, referring to the Amuzgo language ). It has become notable for its advocacy on Amuzgo issues locally and nationally. The Museo Comunitario Amuzgo has two halls. One contains pre-Hispanic pieces, other historical items such as those from the Mexican Revolution and other antiques. The other is dedicated to the Amuzgo handcrafts, especially textiles, and photographs related to

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7602-709: Is located southeast of the Guerrero capital of Chilpancingo . It is part of the Costa Chica region of the state which extends from Acapulco to the Oaxaca border. The municipality straddles the Sierra Madre del Sur and the flatter areas that reach down towards the Pacific Ocean. About 65% of the terrain of the municipality is mountainous and rugged, mostly in the north with small mountain ranges known as Pajaritos and Malinaltepec, which reach about 2,000 meters above sea level. The two most important elevations are

7783-429: Is mostly patriarchal. Men generally marry at the age of 17 years with women marrying around age 15. Weddings are elaborate affairs, with food, alcohol and music. In the most traditional communities, marriages are still arranged between families without the children's participation. The family that proposes sets the wedding date and the pair meet at that time, as the families work to cement economic and social ties. The groom

7964-441: Is not enough to meet subsistence needs. Most of the commerce is in the municipal seat and includes shops selling sewing supplies, groceries, farming supplies and food stands. There is some tourism by people who come to see the textiles. Aztec This is an accepted version of this page The Aztecs ( / ˈ æ z t ɛ k s / AZ -teks ) were a Mesoamerican civilization that flourished in central Mexico in

8145-400: Is not known when it was founded by it appears in records as early as 1737. During the colonial period until 1818, Igualapa was the capital of Ayacastla, which was then moved to Ometepec. In 1884, Xochistlahuaca lost its status as a religious center. In the 19th century, most Amuzgo land wound up in the hands of the family of Guillermo Hacho, to which the indigenous had to pay rent. In 1920,

8326-407: Is often known as the "Aztec Empire". The usage of the term "Aztec" in describing the empire centered in Tenochtitlan has been criticized by Robert H. Barlow , who preferred the term "Culhua-Mexica", and by Pedro Carrasco, who prefers the term "Tenochca empire". Carrasco writes about the term "Aztec" that "it is of no use for understanding the ethnic complexity of ancient Mexico and for identifying

8507-585: Is often of the slash and burn variety during the rainy season on land that is both communally and individually owned. Important crops include corn, beans, sesame seed, hibiscus , squash, chili peppers , tomatoes, cotton and cacao. One significant source of cash is selling products to the mostly mestizo city of Ometepec. These include other crops such as oranges, mamey , sugar cane, jicama along with manufactured products such as cheese, piloncillo, textiles and fireworks. In some communities, there are some herds of cattle, goats, pigs and domestic fowl, but most livestock

8688-472: Is possible to talk about an "Aztec civilization" including all the particular cultural patterns common for most of the peoples inhabiting central Mexico in the late postclassic period. Such usage may also extend the term "Aztec" to all the groups in Central Mexico that were incorporated culturally or politically into the sphere of dominance of the Aztec empire. When used to describe ethnic groups ,

8869-502: Is raised by mestizos. In Xochistlahuaca and Tlacoachistlahuaca, agriculture remains the main economic activity, with a growing dairy industry, primarily cheese sold to surrounding municipalities. Men are in charge of most agricultural duties, with women participating in this during certain times such as harvesting. The Amuzgo have a number of crafts such as pottery (pots, comals, jars, etc.), hammocks, ixtle bags, baskets and more. In Xochistlahuaca, machetes are made with etchings related to

9050-428: Is related to traditional textiles. These textiles are done on backstrap looms and have a repertoire of various designs which have a set of meanings referred to as a "graphic language." The Amuzgo organization is called Liaa' Ljaa', which consists of 59 weavers from the town, headed by Juana Santa Ana Guerrero. Amuzgo cuisine is heavily based on corn and other locally grown products, such as cacao and piloncillo . Cacao

9231-399: Is the coolest. The average annual temperature is 25C. Average annual rainfall is between 1000 and 2000 mm per year with a defined rainy (May to October) and dry (November to April) season which are agriculturally and culturally important. The municipality, including its seat, has a very high level of socioeconomic marginalization. It is the fourth poorest in the state of Guerrero and

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9412-414: Is the cultures and customs of the contemporary Nahuatl speakers who can often provide insights into what prehispanic ways of life may have been like. Scholarly study of Aztec civilization is most often based on scientific and multidisciplinary methodologies, combining archeological knowledge with ethnohistorical and ethnographic information. It is a matter of debate whether the enormous city of Teotihuacan

9593-606: Is the first of its kind for this culture. Today, the most complicated designs are generally known only to the oldest weavers. The most traditional cotton for weaving is called "coyuche" or "coyote" because of its brown color. The Amuzgo region is the only place in the world which uses this cotton. This is still grown and used but it has been replaced in many works by white cotton. Weaving is only one of many chores that Amuzgo women do, which include domestic chores, taking care of children and some farming tasks. However, weaving has taken on an important economic role in many Amuzgo families as

9774-400: Is the most important handcraft for the Amuzgos, which is dominated by women due to traditional gender roles. Children learn their roles through observation and participation in various tasks as they get older. Girls begin learning to weave when they are about six or seven years old starting with tasks such as preparing cotton for spinning. Most learn the basics of weaving on the backstrap loom by

9955-462: Is traversed by the Ometepec, Arena, Pulla, San Pedro and Santa Catarina rivers, which empty into the Pacific . Vegetation is dominated by thickets of kermes oaks , with other species such as royal and coconut palms, with mixed forests in the higher elevations and some low grown rainforest closer to the coast. Many trees lose their leaves during the dry season. Wildlife consists of mammals, reptiles and

10136-480: Is usually consumed as a hot chocolate beverage for special occasions. Corn is often prepared in the form of tamales , with different flavors such as sweet corn, chicken, with freshwater shrimp and more. One traditional dish is called "cabeza de viejo" or "old man's head" which consists of meat with herbs which are then steamed. Other dishes include barbacoa made with beef or goat. They make a kind of tortilla sweetened with piloncillo called ticasos, as well as candies from

10317-519: Is your name Azteca, you are now Mexitin [Mexica]". In today's usage, the term "Aztec" often refers exclusively to the Mexica people of Tenochtitlan (now the location of Mexico City), situated on an island in Lake Texcoco , who referred to themselves as Mēxihcah ( Nahuatl pronunciation: [meːˈʃiʔkaʔ] , a tribal designation that included the Tlatelolco ), Tenochcah ( Nahuatl pronunciation: [teˈnot͡ʃkaʔ] , referring only to

10498-620: The encomienda system, the Aztec education system was abolished and replaced by a very limited church education, and Aztec religious practices were forcibly replaced with Catholicism . The highest class was the pīpiltin or nobility. The pilli status was hereditary and ascribed certain privileges to its holders, such as the right to wear particularly fine garments and consume luxury goods, as well as to own land and direct corvee labor by commoners. The most powerful nobles were called lords (Nahuatl languages: teuctin ) and they owned and controlled noble estates or houses, and could serve in

10679-534: The Basin of Mexico . Soon Texcoco and Tlacopan were relegated to junior partnership in the alliance, with Tenochtitlan the dominant power. The empire extended its reach by a combination of trade and military conquest. It was never a true territorial empire controlling territory by large military garrisons in conquered provinces but rather dominated its client city-states primarily by installing friendly rulers in conquered territories, constructing marriage alliances between

10860-709: The Nahua peoples . Linguistically, the term "Aztecan" is still used about the branch of the Uto-Aztecan languages (also sometimes called the Uto-Nahuan languages) that includes the Nahuatl language and its closest relatives Pochutec and Pipil . To the Aztecs themselves the word "Aztec" was not an endonym for any particular ethnic group. Rather, it was an umbrella term used to refer to several ethnic groups, not all of them Nahuatl-speaking, that claimed heritage from

11041-613: The Pánuco River area, as well as the Mixtec, with whose language theirs is related. If this is the case, the Amuzgos passed through the Mexican Plateau area and Puebla before heading into Oaxaca and Guerrero. Amuzgo folklore states that they came to Oaxaca/Guerrero coast from islands out in the Pacific. Since their language is similar to others in the Oaxaca area, it is likely that they migrated to their current location on

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11222-461: The huipil , which is made both for home use and for sale outside the area. The name Xochistlahuaca comes from the Nahuatl xochitl (flower) and ixtlahuatlan (plain); "plain of the flowers". The center of population and of the Amuzgos in Guerrero is the town of Xochistlahuaca with a population of 4,152. It is located in rugged territory at an elevation of 390 meters above sea level. The town

11403-446: The mācehuallis were dedicated to arts and crafts. Their works were an important source of income for the city. Macehualtin could become enslaved, (Nahuatl languages: tlacotin ) for example if they had to sell themselves into the service of a noble due to debt or poverty, but enslavement was not an inherited status among the Aztecs. Some macehualtin were landless and worked directly for a lord (Nahuatl languages: mayehqueh ), whereas

11584-467: The post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different ethnic groups of central Mexico , particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to the 16th centuries. Aztec culture was organized into city-states ( altepetl ), some of which joined to form alliances, political confederations, or empires. The Aztec Empire

11765-500: The 1970s. As of 2005, census figures put the total number of Amuzgo speakers at 43,761, with 37,779 in Guerrero, 4,813 in Oaxaca and 1,169 in other places in Mexico. Amuzgo is the thirteenth-most common indigenous language in Oaxaca. In Guerrero the use of the language is widespread enough to be learned as a second language by Spanish and Nahuatl speakers living in the Amugo area. While many of Mexico's indigenous languages are disappearing,

11946-410: The Amuzgo began to fight to take back control resulting in the establishment of the Xochistlahuaca ejido in 1933 with 6,384 hectares. This ejido became the municipality of Xochistlahuaca in 1934. In 1967, the ejido was granted an additional 1,419 hectares of land for the growing population. While Amuzgo communities have been traditionally isolated from the outside world, the construction of highways in

12127-412: The Amuzgo have maintained much of their linguistic strength with most children raised to speak it. They are also taught to read and write in the Amuzgo language. In areas where the primary schools do not have primary schools with Amuzgo-speaking teachers, loss of Amuzgo among children and problems with academic development do occur. Amuzgo family life is based on both the nuclear and extended family, which

12308-478: The Amuzgo people. The population is young with just over fifty percent under the age of twenty. In 2005, 91.7% of the population was indigenous with almost 86% of these being Amuzgo. The rest are almost all Mixtec . Xochistlahuaca is the largest of the Amuzgo communities which are located in this mountain area on both sides of the Guerrero/Oaxaca border although eighty percent are in Guerrero. Most of

12489-401: The Amuzgos have suffered loss of lands by the Spanish and mestizos, who often side against the Amuzgos. A highway was built to connect Ometepec, Xochistlahuaca and Tlacoachistlahuaca, but a small group controls most transportation on this road due to the costs of buying trucks and busses and it is necessary to have a relationship with this group in order to transport in the area. The Amuzgo area

12670-460: The Amuzgos in the municipality still speak the language, which is of the Oto-Manguean family . Some are monolingual, not speaking Spanish. The origin of the Amuzgo people is not known but as their language is related to Mixtec , it is possible they migrated along with these people from the north and separated out to this region to escape inter-ethnic violence. The Amuzgo name for Xochistlahuaca

12851-494: The Amuzgos. The Amuzgos rebelled against the Aztecs in 1494 and between 1504 and 1507, which were suppressed. The Spanish under Pedro de Alvarado subjugated the area in 1522. During the early colonial period, war, disease and overwork decimated most of the indigenous population with the Amuzgos being one of only four ethnicities to survive. In Xochistlahuaca alone, the indigenous population fell from about 20,000 in 1522 to only 200 in 1582. Spanish domination pushed them further into

13032-765: The Aztec empire. It has information naming the polities that the Triple Alliance conquered, the types of taxes rendered to the Aztec Empire, and the class/gender structure of their society. Many written annals exist, written by local Nahua historians recording the histories of their polity. These annals used pictorial histories and were subsequently transformed into alphabetic annals in Latin script. Well-known native chroniclers and annalists are Chimalpahin of Amecameca-Chalco; Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc of Tenochtitlan; Alva Ixtlilxochitl of Texcoco, Juan Bautista Pomar of Texcoco, and Diego Muñoz Camargo of Tlaxcala. There are also many accounts by Spanish conquerors who participated in

13213-642: The Aztec forces were repelled by a well-organized defense. Axayacatl was soundly defeated in a battle at Tlaximaloyan (today Tajimaroa), losing most of his 32,000 men and only barely escaping back to Tenochtitlan with the remnants of his army. In 1481 at Axayacatls death, his older brother Tizoc was elected ruler. Tizoc's coronation campaign against the Otomi of Metztitlan failed as he lost the major battle and only managed to secure 40 prisoners to be sacrificed for his coronation ceremony. Having shown weakness, many cities rebelled and consequently, most of Tizoc's short reign

13394-446: The Aztecs. For the same reason, the notion of "Aztec civilization" is best understood as a particular horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization. The culture of central Mexico includes maize cultivation, the social division between nobility ( pipiltin ) and commoners ( macehualtin ), a pantheon (featuring Tezcatlipoca , Tlaloc , and Quetzalcoatl ), and the calendric system of a xiuhpohualli of 365 days intercalated with

13575-538: The Bajío area around Guanajuato which reached a population peak in the 6th century, after which the population quickly diminished during a subsequent dry period. This depopulation of the Bajío coincided with an incursion of new populations into the Valley of Mexico, which suggests that this marks the influx of Nahuatl speakers into the region. These people populated central Mexico, dislocating speakers of Oto-Manguean languages as they spread their political influence south. As

13756-886: The Cerro Verde and the Cerro de Agua. About 25% is flat and semi-flat with the rest being small valleys and riverbanks. The main river is the Santa Catarina which separates the municipality from the state of Oaxaca. Other important rivers include the Puente and the San Pedro or Xochistlahuaca River. These rivers with year-round flow provide potable water for most of the area's population in towns such as Tres Arroyos, La Montaña, El Pájaro, El Chacale, La Guacamaya, El Lagarto and Arroyo Caballo. Other rivers include Atotonilco Verde, Mujer, Totole, Fierro, Pájaro and Lagarto. There are also many streams which flow year round as well. Most of

13937-479: The Cuajinicuilapa area near the coast where Amuzgos were pushed out of in the pre-Hispanic and colonial periods. The Amuzgo language has various names in the language proper based on the dialect and community. This include Tzhonoa, Tzoñ'an, Tsañcue or Nañcue and ñomnda which means "water or sea language" referring to the Amuzgo's mythical origins. The Amuzgo language is part of the Oto-Manguean family , in

14118-721: The Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún , in collaboration with Indigenous Aztec informants. Important for knowledge of post-conquest Nahuas was the training of indigenous scribes to write alphabetic texts in Nahuatl , mainly for local purposes under Spanish colonial rule. At its height, Aztec culture had rich and complex philosophical , mythological , and religious traditions , as well as remarkable architectural and artistic accomplishments. The Nahuatl words aztēcatl ( Nahuatl pronunciation: [asˈteːkat͡ɬ] , singular) and aztēcah ( Nahuatl pronunciation: [asˈteːkaʔ] , plural ) mean "people from Aztlán ",

14299-532: The Mexica now appropriated this heritage. After living in Colhuacan, the Mexica were again expelled and were forced to move. According to Aztec legend, in 1323, the Mexica were shown a vision of an eagle perched on a prickly pear cactus , eating a snake. The vision indicated the location where they were to build their settlement. The Mexica founded Tenochtitlan on a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco,

14480-613: The Mexica of Tenochtitlan, excluding Tlatelolco) or Cōlhuah ( Nahuatl pronunciation: [ˈkoːlwaʔ] , referring to their royal genealogy tying them to Culhuacan ). Sometimes the term also includes the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan's two principal allied city-states, the Acolhuas of Texcoco and the Tepanecs of Tlacopan , who together with the Mexica formed the Aztec Triple Alliance that controlled what

14661-458: The Mexica tribe tell how they traveled with other tribes, including the Tlaxcalteca , Tepaneca , and Acolhua , but that eventually their tribal deity Huitzilopochtli told them to split from the other Aztec tribes and take on the name "Mexica". At the time of their arrival, there were many Aztec city-states in the region. The most powerful were Colhuacan to the south and Azcapotzalco to

14842-553: The Mixtec region of Coixtlahuaca and large parts of Oaxaca, and later again in central and southern Veracruz with conquests at Cosamalopan, Ahuilizapan, and Cuetlaxtlan. During this period the city-states of Tlaxcalan, Cholula and Huexotzinco emerged as major competitors to the imperial expansion, and they supplied warriors to several of the cities conquered. Motecuzoma therefore initiated a state of low-intensity warfare against these three cities, staging minor skirmishes called " Flower Wars " (Nahuatl xochiyaoyotl ) against them, perhaps as

15023-478: The Mixtec subfamily. It is related to Triqui , Cuicatec , Chocho-popoloca , Mazatec , Ixcatec and Mixtec. Four variants of Amuzgo are officially recognized by the governmental agency, Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (INALI). They are: These varieties are very similar, but there is a significant difference between western varieties (Northern and Southern) and eastern varieties (Upper Eastern and Lower Eastern), as revealed by recorded text testing done in

15204-484: The Mixtecs, Tlapanecs , Nahuas, Triquis , Chatinos , mestizos and Afro-Mexicans. Amuzgo relations with these groups are fluid and complex. With some they are strained, such as the Mixtec because of a history of domination and with the Afro-Mexicans who they associate with Spanish domination, accusing them of being executioners of indigenous in the past and forcing them to the mountains. Most contact with outsiders

15385-472: The Pacific and Gulf coasts, conquering the province of Xoconochco in Chiapas. he also intensified the flower wars waged against Tlaxcala and Huexotzinco and secured an alliance with Cholula. He also consolidated the class structure of Aztec society, by making it harder for commoners (Nahuatl languages: macehualtin ) to accede to the privileged class of the pipiltin through merit in combat. He also instituted

15566-572: The Pacific to the Atlantic oceans. The empire reached its maximum extent in 1519, just before the arrival of a small group of Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés . Cortés allied with city-states opposed to the Mexica, particularly the Nahuatl-speaking Tlaxcalteca as well as other central Mexican polities, including Texcoco, its former ally in the Triple Alliance. After the fall of Tenochtitlan on 13 August 1521 and

15747-530: The Puebla valley, the altepetl was organized into teccalli units headed by a lord (Nahuatl languages: tecutli ), who would hold sway over a territory and distribute rights to land among the commoners. A calpolli was at once a territorial unit where commoners organized labor and land use since the land was not private property, and also often a kinship unit as a network of families that were related through intermarriage. Calpolli leaders might be or become members of

15928-399: The Spanish crown and converted, at least nominally, to Christianity, and, in return, were recognized as nobles by the Spanish crown. Nobles acted as intermediaries to convey taxes and mobilize labor for their new overlords, facilitating the establishment of Spanish colonial rule. Aztec culture and history are primarily known through archaeological evidence found in excavations such as that of

16109-494: The Spanish invasion, such as Bernal Díaz del Castillo who wrote a full history of the conquest. Spanish friars also produced documentation in chronicles and other types of accounts. Of key importance is Toribio de Benavente Motolinia , one of the first twelve Franciscans arriving in Mexico in 1524. Another Franciscan of great importance was Fray Juan de Torquemada , author of Monarquia Indiana . Dominican Diego Durán also wrote extensively about pre-Hispanic religion as well as

16290-410: The Spanish to bring over African slaves, most of which arrived to Veracruz. Many escaped slaves and their descendants made their way to Amuzgo territory in the Costa Chica region, which had the effect of pushing the remaining Amuzgo away from the coast. The town of Czoyoapan was supposedly founded by Amuzgos who moved here from an area near San Nicolas, Guerrero, which became dominated by Afro-Mexicans. It

16471-548: The Tarascans of Michoacan. Products were distributed through a network of markets; some markets specialized in a single commodity (e.g., the dog market of Acolman), and other general markets with the presence of many different goods. Markets were highly organized with a system of supervisors taking care that only authorized merchants were permitted to sell their goods, and punishing those who cheated their customers or sold substandard or counterfeit goods. A typical town would have

16652-499: The Tepanec city of Tlacopan. The Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan besieged Azcapotzalco, and in 1428 they destroyed the city and sacrificed Maxtla. Through this victory, Tenochtitlan became the dominant city-state in the Valley of Mexico, and the alliance between the three city-states provided the basis on which the Aztec Empire was built. Itzcoatl proceeded by securing a power basis for Tenochtitlan, by conquering

16833-517: The Valley of Mexico with its many lakes and swamps permitted intensive agriculture. The main crops in addition to maize were beans, squashes, chilies, and amaranth . Particularly important for agricultural production in the valley was the construction of chinampas on the lake, artificial islands that allowed the conversion of the shallow waters into highly fertile gardens that could be cultivated year-round. Chinampas are human-made extensions of agricultural land, created from alternating layers of mud from

17014-416: The Xochistlahuaca ejido established in 1933 on 6,384 hectares. This ejido was recognized as the Xochistlahuaca municipality in 1934. In 1967, the ejido/municipality received 1,419 hectares more territory for a total of 7,803 hectares today. In 1997, Hurricane Pauline , one of the worst cyclones to hit Mexico's Pacific coast, caused heavy rain leaving the municipally stranded by the loss of roads. Since

17195-410: The Xochistlahuaca's role as an administrative center. Much of the Amuzgo concentration in this region is due to the displacement of these people from the coast, first by Mixtec expansion, then by Spanish domination. Lastly, escaped slaves and their descendants came to dominate former Amuzgo lands, especially in what is now Cuajinicuilapa . The community of Cozoyoapan was founded by displaced Amuzgos in

17376-403: The altepetl was primarily a political unit, made up of the population with allegiance to a lord, rather than as a territorial unit. He makes this distinction because in some areas minor settlements with different altepetl allegiances were interspersed. The Aztec Empire was ruled by indirect means. Like most European empires, it was ethnically very diverse, but unlike most European empires, it

17557-455: The area's fruit growing takes place. Many of the trees lose their at least some of their leaves during the dry season. Much of the area's habitat has been degraded but there is still some wildlife such as raccoons , badgers , foxes, wild boar, deer, wildcats, and a number of reptile and bird species. The climate is semi moist with temperature ranges between hot, semi hot and temperate depending on altitude. The border with Tlacoachistlahuaca

17738-433: The arrival of the Spanish fleet of Hernán Cortés, who soon marched toward Tlaxcala where he allied with the traditional enemies of the Aztecs. On 8 November 1519, Moctezuma II received Cortés and his troops and Tlaxcalan allies on the causeway south of Tenochtitlan, and he invited the Spaniards to stay as his guests in Tenochtitlan. When Aztec troops destroyed a Spanish camp on the Gulf Coast, Cortés ordered Moctezuma to execute

17919-540: The attitudes of the cities around the valley by requesting laborers for the enlargement of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan. Only the city of Chalco refused to provide laborers, and hostilities between Chalco and Tenochtitlan would persist until the 1450s. Motecuzoma then reconquered the cities in the valley of Morelos and Guerrero, and then later undertook new conquests in the Huaxtec region of northern Veracruz, and

18100-462: The border against the Tarascan state. Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin is known to world history as the Aztec ruler when the Spanish invaders and their indigenous allies began their conquest of the empire in a two-year-long campaign (1519–1521). His early rule did not hint at his future fame. He succeeded in the rulership after the death of Ahuitzotl. Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin ( lit. "He frowns like a lord,

18281-578: The bottom of the lake, and plant matter and other vegetation. These raised beds were separated by narrow canals, which allowed farmers to move between them by canoe. Chinampas were extremely fertile pieces of land, and yielded, on average, seven crops annually. Based on current chinampa yields, it has been estimated that one hectare (2.5 acres) of chinampa would feed 20 individuals and 9,000 hectares (22,000 acres) of chinampas could feed 180,000. The Aztecs further intensified agricultural production by constructing systems of artificial irrigation . While most of

18462-477: The capital to satisfy even the most conservative figures. Ahuitzotl also constructed monumental architecture in sites such as Calixtlahuaca, Malinalco, and Tepoztlan. After a rebellion in the towns of Alahuiztlan and Oztoticpac in Northern Guerrero, he ordered the entire population executed and repopulated with people from the valley of Mexico. He also constructed a fortified garrison at Oztuma defending

18643-531: The capture of the emperor Cuauhtémoc , the Spanish founded Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. From there, they proceeded with the process of conquest and incorporation of Mesoamerican peoples into the Spanish Empire . With the destruction of the superstructure of the Aztec Empire in 1521, the Spanish used the city-states on which the Aztec Empire had been built to rule the indigenous populations via their local nobles. Those nobles pledged loyalty to

18824-579: The city of Oaxaca. Xochistlahuaca Xochistlahuaca is a town in Xochistlahuaca Municipality located in the southeast corner of the Mexican state of Guerrero . It is part of the state's Costa Chica region and while near the Pacific Ocean, most of the territory is mountainous. The population is dominated by the indigenous Amuzgo ethnicity , whose women are noted for their traditional hand woven garments , especially

19005-519: The city-states on the southern lake – including Culhuacan , Xochimilco , Cuitlahuac, and Mizquic. These states had an economy based on highly productive chinampa agriculture, cultivating human-made extensions of rich soil in the shallow lake Xochimilco. Itzcoatl then undertook further conquests in the valley of Morelos , subjecting the city-state of Cuauhnahuac (today Cuernavaca ). In 1440, Moteuczomatzin Ilhuicamina ( lit. "he frowns like

19186-805: The coast. The number of ethnic Amuzgos may be as high as 50,000, with about eighty percent living in the state of Guerrero. The Amuzgos are the largest indigenous group in their region, which they share with Mixtecs and Nahuas as well as mestizos and Afro-Mexicans . The main Amuzgo communities (in order) include Xochistlahuaca, Tlacoachistlahuaca, Cosuyoapan, Zacoalpa, Chochoapan, Huehuetono, El Pájaro, Las Minas, Cerro Bronco, Guadalupe Victoria, Guajentepec, and Pueblo Nuevo in Guerrero with San Pedro Amuzgos and Santa María Ipalapa in Oaxaca. Xochistlahuaca, Tlacoachistlahuaca and Ometepec are from Nahuatl and mean "place of flowers," "place of tlacuache grass" and "between two hills", respectively. The Amuzgos refer to this area as Suljaa´. The municipal seat of Tlacoachistlahuaca

19367-454: The colonial period from what is now San Nicolás in Cuajinicuilapa. The area was conquered by Pedro de Alvarado in 1522. After the Spanish conquest , many indigenous in Guerrero died of disease and war, leaving the Amuzgos as one of only four ethnic groups to survive. In 1522, Xochistlahuaca had a population of about 20,000 but in 1582, this was down to 200 Amuzgos before recovering later in

19548-506: The colonial period, the Amuzgo area was governed by the city of Oaxaca (then called Antequera) which in turn was a sub province of Puebla. In the 17th century, it was part of the Chilapa diocese as part of the Puebla bishopric . The Spanish established large haciendas in the areas which remained after Independence until the Mexican Revolution . The loss of indigenous labor in Mexico prompted

19729-491: The colonial period. The Amuzgos were integrated into colonial rule via evangelization. In 1563, the town was named an administrative and religious center, similar to its role in the pre Hispanic era. During the 16th century, it was subject to Oaxaca city (then called Antequera) then it became part of the Puebla province. In the 17th century, it became part of the Chilapa diocese under Puebla and in 1884, it lost its status as

19910-458: The commanders responsible for the attack, and Moctezuma complied. At this point, the power balance had shifted toward the Spaniards who now held Moctezuma as a prisoner in his palace. As this shift in power became clear to Moctezuma's subjects, the Spaniards became increasingly unwelcome in the capital city, and, in June 1520, hostilities broke out, culminating in the massacre in the Great Temple , and

20091-439: The confederation of the Triple Alliance was formed in 1427 and began its expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level. The efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire's hegemonic form of control. Like all Mesoamerican peoples, Aztec society was organized around maize agriculture. The humid environment in

20272-482: The contest in 2004. Most of the population is classified as Catholic although there is a small but growing percentage of Protestants. Protestantism was introduced to the region by the Instituto Lingüistico de Verano in the 1940s. Catholic beliefs are generally a syncretism with Amuzgo ones. On the feast day of Saint Mark , which comes at the beginning of the rainy season, chickens are sacrificed over

20453-667: The control of the tlatoani of Tenochtitlan. Axayacatl then conquered areas in Central Guerrero, the Puebla Valley, on the gulf coast and against the Otomi and Matlatzinca in the Toluca Valley. The Toluca Valley was a buffer zone against the powerful Tarascan state in Michoacan , against which Axayacatl turned next. In the major campaign against the Tarascans (Nahuatl languages: Michhuahqueh ) in 1478–1479

20634-587: The culture of the region. Everyone in the family participates in some kind of handcraft production, divided by gender. Girls are taught to weave and sew cloth and boys learn to weave nets and hammocks. The best-known craft, however, is the weaving of cloth by Amuzgo women, especially in Xochistlahuaca as it is often sold to vendors outside the region. The center of Amuzgo communities have small commercial establishments such as taco stands , small restaurants, sewing supply shops, grocery stores and stores selling supplies needed for farming and livestock. Textile production

20815-478: The dominant element in the political entity we are studying". In other contexts, Aztec may refer to all the various city-states and their peoples, who shared large parts of their ethnic history and cultural traits with the Mexica, Acolhua, and Tepanecs, and who often also used the Nahuatl language as a lingua franca . An example is Jerome A. Offner's Law and Politics in Aztec Texcoco . In this meaning, it

20996-502: The dominant power of the Aztec Triple Alliance or Aztec Empire. It was an empire that expanded its political hegemony far beyond the Valley of Mexico, conquering other city-states throughout Mesoamerica in the late post-classic period. It originated in 1427 as an alliance between the city-states Tenochtitlan, Texcoco , and Tlacopan; these allied to defeat the Tepanec state of Azcapotzalco, which had previously dominated

21177-414: The economic and social power in communities, including the right to make most of the familial decisions. Men sell the agricultural products and in the past, sold women's textiles, but this has changed. Most children attend school at least to the primary level and a number to the secondary level. Those who which to continue and have the resources go to Ometepec or Chilpancingo . Most Amuzgo are Catholic with

21358-462: The elaboration of tools and musical instruments. Sometimes entire calpollis specialized in a single craft, and in some archeological sites large neighborhoods have been found where- only a single craft specialty was practiced. The Aztecs did not produce much metalwork but did have knowledge of basic smelting technology for gold , and they combined gold with precious stones such as jade and turquoise . Copper products were generally imported from

21539-436: The empire, and strategic provinces, which were the basis for further expansion. Although the form of government is often referred to as an empire, most areas within the empire were organized as city-states, known as altepetl in Nahuatl. These were small polities ruled by a hereditary leader ( tlatoani ) from a legitimate noble dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time of growth and competition among altepetl . Even after

21720-513: The empire. Charles Gibson enumerates many groups in central Mexico that he includes in his study The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule (1964). These include the Culhuaque, Cuitlahuaque, Mixquica, Xochimilca, Chalca, Tepaneca, Acolhuaque, and Mexica. In older usage, the term was commonly used about modern Nahuatl-speaking ethnic groups, as Nahuatl was previously referred to as the "Aztec language". In recent usage, these ethnic groups are referred to as

21901-770: The end of the rainy season as well as the harvest. There is animistic belief in spirits of the mountains, earth, corn, animals and other elements of nature. Health is considered to be more of a spiritual issue than physical, with illness mostly blamed on disharmonious actions. While serious cases are sent to medical facilities in large communities such as Putla and Pinotepa Nacional, most Amuzgos prefer to consult traditional healers. Very minor ailments such as stomach pain, colds, flu etc. are treated with herbal medicine. Those illnesses thought to be primarily spiritual in nature are treated by "tzan tí"(wise men) or "tzan kalwa" (shamans or witches) who can both cure and cause harm. While there are municipal and other formal mechanisms of government,

22082-401: The equilibrium of the world and pleasing the gods. This situation has led some scholars to describe Aztec gender ideology as an ideology not of a gender hierarchy, but of gender complementarity, with gender roles being separate but equal. Among the nobles, marriage alliances were often used as a political strategy with lesser nobles marrying daughters from more prestigious lineages whose status

22263-401: The farming occurred outside the densely populated areas, within the cities there was another method of (small-scale) farming. Each family had a garden plot where they grew maize, fruits, herbs, medicines, and other important plants. When the city of Tenochtitlan became a major urban center, water was supplied to the city through aqueducts from springs on the banks of the lake, and they organized

22444-497: The feast day of the Virgin of Guadalupe on December 12. In the community of Cozoyoapan, the feast day of Saint Sebastian on January 20 is important. Most women and even men wear traditional clothing, made with either commercial or hand woven fabric. Industrial weaving has made hand weaving obsolete except for specialty garments or for those made for sale. the Amugo women of Xochistlahuaca are known for their hand woven fabric using

22625-560: The formation of the Frente Cívico Indígena de Xochistlahuaca. There have been various efforts to preserve and promote Amuzgo culture and society. The first Encuentro Regional Amuzgo Sobre Derechos y Participación Indígena (Regional Encounter for Indigenous Rights and Participation) was sponsored by the Secretaría de Desarrollo Social (SEDESOL) in Xochistlahuaca to have representative of the various Amuzgo communities meets and discuss political and social issues. The Museo Comunitario Amuzgo

22806-411: The former nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples mixed with the complex civilizations of Mesoamerica, adopting religious and cultural practices, the foundation for later Aztec culture was laid. After 900 CE, during the postclassic period, many sites almost certainly inhabited by Nahuatl speakers became powerful. Among them are the site of Tula, Hidalgo , and also city-states such as Tenayuca , and Colhuacan in

22987-457: The highest government positions or as military leaders. Nobles made up about five percent of the population. The second class was the mācehualtin , originally peasants, but later extended to the lower working classes in general. Eduardo Noguera estimates that in later stages only 20 percent of the population was dedicated to agriculture and food production. The other 80 percent of society were warriors, artisans, and traders. Eventually, most of

23168-453: The historical context of artifacts. There are many written texts by the indigenous people and Spaniards of the early colonial period that contain invaluable information about pre-colonial Aztec history. These texts provide insight into the political histories of various Aztec city-states, and their ruling lineages. Such histories were produced as well in pictorial codices . Some of these manuscripts were entirely pictorial, often with glyphs . In

23349-685: The history of the Mexica. An invaluable source of information about many aspects of Aztec religious thought, political and social structure, as well as the history of the Spanish conquest from the Mexica viewpoint is the Florentine Codex . Produced between 1545 and 1576 in the form of an ethnographic encyclopedia written bilingually in Spanish and Nahuatl, by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún and indigenous informants and scribes, it contains knowledge about many aspects of precolonial society from religion, calendrics , botany , zoology , trades and crafts and history. Another source of knowledge

23530-412: The house, as farmers, traders, craftsmen, and warriors, whereas women were expected to take responsibility for the domestic sphere. Women could however also work outside of the home as small-scale merchants, doctors, priests, and midwives. Warfare was highly valued and a source of high prestige, but women's work was metaphorically conceived of as equivalent to warfare, and as equally important in maintaining

23711-507: The income from farming is no longer enough to subsist. There are bilingual and monolingual (Spanish) primary schools in the region, along with kindergarten, indigenous language preschools, middle schools (F2F and distance learning) sponsored by the federal government and one high school run by the Universidad Regional de Sureste. Cultural programs are broadcast in Amuzgo and Spanish from Putla de Guerrero, Tlaxiaco and some from

23892-469: The inland lake of the Basin of Mexico. The year of foundation is usually given as 1325. In 1376 the Mexica royal dynasty was founded when Acamapichtli , son of a Mexica father and a Colhua mother, was elected as the first Huey Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan. In the first 50 years after the founding of the Mexica dynasty, the Mexica were a tributary of Azcapotzalco, which had become a major regional power under

24073-527: The judges and supervisors of the Tlatelolco market. Although the economy of Aztec Mexico was commercialized (in its use of money, markets, and merchants), land and labor were not generally commodities for sale, though some types of land could be sold between nobles. In the commercial sector of the economy, several types of money were in regular use. Small purchases were made with cacao beans , which had to be imported from lowland areas. In Aztec marketplaces,

24254-541: The latter 20th century, the political situation in Xochistlahuaca has been unstable. It is complicated by the fact that there are two authorities, traditional indigenous councils, mostly Amuzgo and the constitutional municipal government, dominated by mestizos. The Amuzgo council usually consists of elders selected for their participation in the community, especially the sponsorship of religious festivals as well as family ties. The municipal authorities are dominated by mestizos because of their command of Spanish and greater ties to

24435-507: The long tunic garment for women, called "chuey" in Amuzgo. Some of the most traditional designs are those woven by the Amuzgos, especially those in Xochistlahuaca. The designs are a form of "graphic language" to express thought or aid memory. The community of Xochistlahuaca has partnered with the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana to preserve these designs, especially the oldest and most complicated. The catalog

24616-399: The majority of commoners were organized into calpollis which gave them access to land and property. Commoners were able to obtain privileges similar to those of the nobles by demonstrating prowess in warfare. When a warrior took a captive he accrued the right to use certain emblems, weapons, or garments, and as he took more captives his rank and prestige increased. The Aztec family pattern

24797-474: The making of cheese and piloncillo. Very recently this has also included receiving remittances from those working outside the region. About forty four percent of Amuzgos are dedicated to agriculture and livestock, with forty two percent dedicated to handcrafts and other industry and just over twelve percent dedicated to commerce and services. Sixty-three percent of Amuzgo women do not perform work that produces income, compared to only two percent of men. Agriculture

24978-439: The most traditional techniques and designs. Most of this fabric is sewn into huipils , a traditional women's garment and other traditional items such as tablecloths, napkins and rebozos . All pieces are original with no two exactly alike. Amuzgo women begin learning the weaving process when they are children with simple tasks such as cleaning and carding cotton. As they grow, they learn more difficult techniques and designs from

25159-523: The mothers and grandmothers using a traditional backstrap loom . Historically, weaving was to make clothing from the family, but it has become an important source of income for many Amuzgo families. A number of Xochistlahuaca weavers have won awards for their work such as the Premio Nacional de Ciencias y Artes in 2004 and the weavers receive support from federal and other sources. Cooperation with government and university institutions has allowed

25340-529: The mountains of the Sierra Madre del Sur , a process which had begun under Mixtec domination. Evangelization did reach them and in 1563, Xochistlahuaca was named an administrative and religious center, much as it was in the pre-Hispanic period. The evangelization and colonialization process gave rise to a number of traditional dances such as El Diablo, Los Chareos, Los Tlamaques, Los Apaches, Danza del Tigre, El Toro, La Tortuga, Los Gachupines, Los Moros, La Conquista, Los Doce Pares de Francis and Los Tecuanes. During

25521-476: The municipality is low but it is growing. Most are men who go to Acapulco, Chilpancingo, other states in Mexico and some to the United States. This migration is both seasonal and permanent. Women who migrate usually stay in Mexico and work as domestics. There is an illiteracy rate of almost 30%. About 54% do not complete basic education. One improvement is that access to health services rose from less than fifteen percent in 2005 to over 73% in 2010. The economy

25702-522: The mythic place of origin, Aztlan . Alexander von Humboldt originated the modern usage of "Aztec" in 1810, as a collective term applied to all the people linked by trade, custom, religion, and language to the Mexica state and the Triple Alliance . In 1843, with the publication of the work of William H. Prescott on the history of the conquest of Mexico, the term was adopted by most of the world, including 19th-century Mexican scholars who saw it as

25883-469: The needed resources. Gender roles are traditional and have not changed for generations for the most part although there is some modernizing influence as there is increasing economic and social contact with non-Amuzgos. Boys follow their fathers into the fields when they are small and have most of the agricultural knowledge they need by the time they are twelve. Girls stay at home and learn the domestic work of their mothers, including weaving. Men generally have

26064-445: The new temple in 1487. For the inauguration ceremony, the Mexica invited the rulers of all their subject cities, who participated as spectators in the ceremony in which an unprecedented number of war captives were sacrificed – some sources giving a figure of 80,400 prisoners sacrificed over four days. Probably the actual figure of sacrifices was much smaller, but still numbering several thousand. There have never been found enough skulls in

26245-465: The nobility, in which case they could represent their Calpolli interests in the altepetl government. In the valley of Morelos, archeologist Michael E. Smith estimates that a typical altepetl had from 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants, and covered an area between 70 and 100 square kilometers (27 and 39 sq mi). In the Morelos Valley, altepetl sizes were somewhat smaller. Smith argues that

26426-519: The northern edge of the Mixtec region to escape inter-ethnic violence. Xochistlahuaca was the capital of an Amuzgo dominion. Around 1100, the Amuzgos were subjugated by the Mixtecs. The Amuzgos paid tribute to the Mixtecs for about 300 years in cotton, cloth, feathers, hides, gold, corn, beans and chili peppers. The area was part of a Mixtec province called Ayacastla, which the Aztecs subjuged in 1457, but they never exercised direct or complete control over

26607-410: The overall Mexican culture. This has caused tension between the two groups which has been complicated by converts to Protestantism who reject the traditional councils and independent political movements, especially since the 1980s. In the early 2000s, the political situation was particularly volatile with the municipal president Aceadeth Rocha refusing to recognize certain traditional authorities. In 2001,

26788-427: The patio area because of the hot climate. In the farms and ranches, they tend to be more traditional and circular made of grass matted with mud, with a thatch roof. Most of these do not have running water, drainage or electricity. Generally, these families have more than one house, each having a specific function. Sleeping areas or bedrooms with have beds or petates and spaces for keeping clothing. The kitchen areas have

26969-522: The payment of taxes . When an altepetl was conquered, the victor imposed a yearly tax, usually paid in the form of whichever local product was most valuable or treasured. Several pages from the Codex Mendoza list subject towns along with the goods they supplied, which included not only luxuries such as feathers, adorned suits, and greenstone beads, but more practical goods such as cloth, firewood, and food. Taxes were usually paid twice or four times

27150-575: The performance of various religious functions such as sponsoring a festival. These authorities have the right to demand work for collective benefit called "tequios." The "Comisariado Ejidal" is in charge of land issues. Its board has terms of three years. Some of the issues facing the community include preserving the language in younger generations, preservation of archeological pieces and history, greater participation in federal, state and municipal governments and agencies, presence of alcohol in indigenous communities, Protestant churches, use of agro-chemicals in

27331-489: The postconquest era, many other texts were written in Latin script by either literate Aztecs or by Spanish friars who interviewed the native people about their customs and stories. An important pictorial and alphabetic text produced in the early sixteenth century was Codex Mendoza , named after the first viceroy of Mexico and perhaps commissioned by him, to inform the Spanish crown about the political and economic structure of

27512-483: The prehispanic era , as well as the Spanish colonial era (1521–1821). The definitions of Aztec and Aztecs have long been the topic of scholarly discussion ever since German scientist Alexander von Humboldt established its common usage in the early 19th century. Most ethnic groups of central Mexico in the post-classic period shared essential cultural traits of Mesoamerica. So many of the characteristics that characterize Aztec culture cannot be said to be exclusive to

27693-476: The region has connected them. The two main highways in the region are Highway 200, Ometepec-Xochistlahuaca road, Oaxaca - Pinotepa Nacional road and the Huajuapan de León -Pinotepa Nacional road. From the latter 20th century to the present, there has been migration of Amuzgos out of the territory to find work in other areas of Mexico and in the United States. This has even included permanent migration down into

27874-413: The region, power struggles between municipal authorities and indigenous councils, and land ownership. There has been political conflict between indigenous and municipal authorities in Xochistlahuaca since 1979, mostly over land, but also over the power of local strongmen called caciques. In 2001, a group of Amuzgos took over the municipal palace to protest irregularities in the government. This coalesced into

28055-487: The relationship with Azcapotzalco remained close. Chimalpopoca ( lit. "She smokes like a shield"), son of Huitzilihhuitl, became ruler of Tenochtitlan in 1417. In 1418, Azcapotzalco initiated a war against the Acolhua of Texcoco and killed their ruler Ixtlilxochitl . Even though Ixtlilxochitl was married to Chimalpopoca's daughter, the Mexica ruler continued to support Tezozomoc. Tezozomoc died in 1426, and his sons began

28236-507: The renowned Templo Mayor in Mexico City; from Indigenous writings ; from eyewitness accounts by Spanish conquistadors such as Cortés and Bernal Díaz del Castillo ; and especially from 16th- and 17th-century descriptions of Aztec culture and history written by Spanish clergymen and literate Aztecs in the Spanish or Nahuatl language, such as the famous illustrated, bilingual (Spanish and Nahuatl), twelve-volume Florentine Codex created by

28417-466: The ruler Tezozomoc . The Mexica supplied the Tepaneca with warriors for their successful conquest campaigns in the region and received part of the tribute from the conquered city-states. In this way, the political standing and economy of Tenochtitlan gradually grew. In 1396, at Acamapichtli's death, his son Huitzilihhuitl ( lit. "Hummingbird feather") became ruler; married to Tezozomoc's daughter,

28598-564: The ruling dynasties, and extending an imperial ideology to its client city-states. Client city-states paid taxes, not tribute to the Aztec emperor, the Huey Tlatoani , in an economic strategy limiting communication and trade between outlying polities, making them dependent on the imperial center for the acquisition of luxury goods. The political clout of the empire reached far south into Mesoamerica conquering polities as far south as Chiapas and Guatemala and spanning Mesoamerica from

28779-440: The situation remains uneasy. On March 20, 2012, a 7.4 earthquake was centered very near the municipality affecting it and most of the rest of the Costa Chica region. It was the strongest in Mexico since the 1985 earthquake . Over fifteen communities in the municipality suffered moderate damage including large cracks and separated walls in a number of community churches and landslides covering roads. The town and municipality

28960-542: The sixteenth poorest in Mexico. In 2010, there were 6,019 residences in the municipality. Most of these are constructed with adobe and thatch instead of more modern cinderblock and brick, especially outside the municipal seat. Most are one or two rooms, and some are simple structures meant to be occupied during the growing season. Most homes in the municipality lack one or more services such as running water, electricity and drainage. Almost 30% with dirt floors. Almost 33% earn less than minimum daily wage. Migration out of

29141-411: The southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in direct contact with the center. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers were restored to their positions once their city-state was conquered, and the Aztecs did not generally interfere in local affairs as long as the tax payments were made and the local elites participated willingly. Such compliance

29322-404: The term "Aztec" refers to several Nahuatl-speaking peoples of central Mexico in the postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology, especially the Mexica, the ethnic group that had a leading role in establishing the hegemonic empire based at Tenochtitlan. The term extends to further ethnic groups associated with the Aztec empire, such as the Acolhua, the Tepanec, and others that were incorporated into

29503-469: The territory is used for either agriculture or livestock. There are some areas with forest. There are two main types of wild vegetation in the municipality. The first runs along the north side of the Sierra Made del Sur where there are mixed forests with various species of trees including oak and mahogany . On the south side, there is low-growth rainforest (under fifteen meters of height) with much of

29684-415: The time they are eleven or twelve, then learn to do basic stitching of huipils and embroidery. Those with talent may move on to more elaborate designs apprenticing to a master outside the home. Many of the works of these weavers are meant for sale. The distinguishing feature of Amuzgo weaving is the two-dimensional designs woven, and sometimes embroidered, into the cloth, especially that destined for huipils,

29865-491: The valley of Mexico and Cuauhnahuac in Morelos. In the ethnohistorical sources from the colonial period, the Mexica themselves describe their arrival in the Valley of Mexico. The ethnonym Aztec (Nahuatl Aztecah ) means "people from Aztlan ", Aztlan being a mythical place of origin toward the north. Hence the term applied to all those peoples who claimed to carry the heritage from this mythical place. The migration stories of

30046-421: The weavers to create new items and designs including pants, bathrobes, skirts and more. However, the huipil remains the most common and most sought-after item even though they tend to sell better to foreign buyers than Mexican ones as foreigners tend to appreciate the effort that goes into traditional weaving. The traditional diet of the municipality is based on corn and other locally grown products. Chocolate

30227-443: The west. The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco soon expelled the Mexica from Chapultepec and executed the first Aztec royal family except Queen Chimalxochitl II . In 1299, Colhuacan ruler Cocoxtli permitted them to settle in the empty barrens of Tizapan, where they were eventually assimilated into Culhuacan culture. The noble lineage of Colhuacan traced its roots back to the legendary city-state of Tula, and by marrying into Colhua families,

30408-493: The youngest child who is dead as he had lived in life but not death"), was a son of Axayacatl, and a war leader. He began his rule in standard fashion, conducting a coronation campaign to demonstrate his skills as a leader. He attacked the fortified city of Nopallan in Oaxaca and subjected the adjacent region to the empire. An effective warrior, Moctezuma maintained the pace of conquest set by his predecessor and subjected large areas in Guerrero, Oaxaca, Puebla, and even far south along

30589-403: Was Ahuitzotl ( lit. "Water monster"), brother of Axayacatl and Tizoc and war leader under Tizoc. His successful coronation campaign suppressed rebellions in the Toluca Valley and conquered Jilotepec and several communities in the northern Valley of Mexico. A second 1521 campaign to the gulf coast was also highly successful. He began an enlargement of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan, inaugurating

30770-511: Was a confederation of three city-states established in 1427: Tenochtitlan , the capital city of the Mexica or Tenochca, Tetzcoco , and Tlacopan , previously part of the Tepanec empire, whose dominant power was Azcapotzalco . Although the term Aztecs is often narrowly restricted to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, it is also broadly used to refer to Nahua polities or peoples of central Mexico in

30951-415: Was bilateral, counting relatives on the father's and mother's side of the family equally, and inheritance was also passed both to sons and daughters. This meant that women could own property just as men and that women therefore had a good deal of economic freedom from their spouses. Nevertheless, Aztec society was highly gendered with separate gender roles for men and women. Men were expected to work outside of

31132-433: Was captured on 13 August 1521, marking the beginning of Spanish hegemony in central Mexico. Spaniards held Cuauhtémoc captive until he was tortured and executed on the orders of Cortés, supposedly for treason, during an ill-fated expedition to Honduras in 1525. His death marked the end of a tumultuous era in Aztec political history. After the fall of the Aztec Empire, entire Nahua communities were subject to forced labor under

31313-534: Was established in 1990 in Xochistlahuaca with two halls. One of these is dedicated to the archeological pieces found in the region. The other is dedicated to the region's handcrafts. The Amuzgo community of Xochistlahuaca has partnered with the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana to develop programs related to research, cultural diffusion and networking in order to preserve and promote the Amuzgo culture. One important aspect of this work

31494-553: Was inhabited by speakers of Nahuatl, or whether Nahuas had not yet arrived in central Mexico in the classic period. It is generally agreed that the Nahua peoples were not indigenous to the highlands of central Mexico, but that they gradually migrated into the region from somewhere in northwestern Mexico. At the fall of Teotihuacan in the 6th century CE, some city-states rose to power in central Mexico, some of them, including Cholula and Xochicalco, probably inhabited by Nahuatl speakers. One study has suggested that Nahuas originally inhabited

31675-479: Was more of a hegemonic confederacy than a single system of government. Ethnohistorian Ross Hassig has argued that the Aztec empire is best understood as an informal or hegemonic empire because it did not exert supreme authority over the conquered lands; it merely expected taxes to be paid and exerted force only to the degree it was necessary to ensure the payment of taxes. It was also a discontinuous empire because not all dominated territories were connected; for example,

31856-503: Was no shortage of protein among the inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico. The excess supply of food products allowed a significant portion of the Aztec population to dedicate themselves to trades other than food production. Apart from taking care of domestic food production, women weaved textiles from agave fibers and cotton . Men also engaged in craft specializations such as the production of ceramics and obsidian and flint tools and of luxury goods such as beadwork , featherwork , and

32037-439: Was secured by establishing and maintaining a network of elites, related through intermarriage and different forms of exchange. Nevertheless, the expansion of the empire was accomplished through military control of frontier zones, in strategic provinces where a much more direct approach to conquest and control was taken. Such strategic provinces were often exempt from taxation. The Aztecs even invested in those areas, by maintaining

32218-479: Was spent attempting to quell rebellions and maintain control of areas conquered by his predecessors. Tizoc died suddenly in 1485, and it has been suggested that he was poisoned by his brother and war leader Ahuitzotl who became the next tlatoani. Tizoc is mostly known as the namesake of the Stone of Tizoc a monumental sculpture (Nahuatl temalacatl ), decorated with a representation of Tizoc's conquests. The next ruler

32399-473: Was the capital of an Amuzgo dominion, which was subject in part to the Mixtec province of Ayacastla when the Aztecs arrived in the 15th century. While Ayacastla was subjugated, the Amuzgos were never completely or directly under the control of the Aztecs. However, because of Aztec domination of the area, the name Xochistlahuaca comes from Nahuatl and means "plain of flowers." This is also the case for "Amuzgo" which means "where there are books," probably referring to

32580-402: Was then inherited by their children. Nobles were also often polygamous, with lords having many wives. Polygamy was not very common among the commoners and some sources describe it as being prohibited. The main unit of Aztec political organization was the city-state, in Nahuatl called the altepetl , meaning "water-mountain". Each altepetl was led by a ruler, a tlatoani , with authority over

32761-405: Was waged between altepetl states. In this way, Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs of one Altepetl would be solidary with speakers of other languages belonging to the same altepetl, but enemies of Nahuatl speakers belonging to other competing altepetl states. In the basin of Mexico, altepetl was composed of subdivisions called calpolli , which served as the main organizational unit for commoners. In Tlaxcala and

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