Amatitlán ( Spanish pronunciation: [amatiˈtlan] ) is a town , with a population of 98,176 (2018 census), and a municipality in the Guatemala department of Guatemala .
89-622: After the conquest, the Spanish crown focused on the Catholic indoctrination of the natives. Human settlements founded by royal missionaries in the New World were called "Indian doctrines" or simply " doctrines ". Originally, friars had only temporary missions: teach the Catholic faith to the natives, and then transfer the settlements to secular parishes, just like the ones that existed in Spain at
178-572: A 1944 plot and then published their correspondence to discredit him. Lescot fled into exile in 1946 after demonstrations against him. In 1947, Dominican exiles, including Juan Bosch , had concentrated in Cuba. With the approval and support of Cuba's government, led by Ramón Grau , an expeditionary force was trained with the intention of invading the Dominican Republic and overthrowing Trujillo. However, international pressure, including from
267-484: A collection of over ten thousand. Trujillo doused himself with perfume and liked gossip. His sexual appetite was rapacious, and he preferred mulatta women with full bodies. Trujillo was married three times and kept other women as mistresses. On 13 August 1913, Trujillo married Aminta Ledesma Lachapelle, with whom he had 2 daughters, Julia, who died as an infant, and Flor de Oro, who died of lung cancer in 1978. On 30 March 1927, Trujillo married Bienvenida Ricardo Martínez,
356-472: A decree issue on 6 November 1839, created a new independent district called Amatitlán which also included Palín and Villa Nueva . The decree says: The district changed its name to Amatitlán Department according to the executive order of 8 May 1866 of field Marshall Vicente Cerna y Cerna government. Amatitlán Department was abolished by decree 2081 of 29 April 1935 of president general Jorge Ubico regime. This decree reads literally: "Considering that it
445-525: A few years, he had resettled about 1.4 million Indians into 840 communities, many of which were the nuclei of present-day cities, towns, and villages. Probably the most famous of the reductions were in the areas of present-day Paraguay and neighboring Argentina , Brazil , and Bolivia in the 17th and 18th centuries. These were created and governed by the Jesuit order of the Catholic Church. In
534-437: A girl from Monte Cristi and the daughter of Buenaventura Ricardo Heureaux. A year later he met María de los Angeles Martínez Alba (nicknamed " la españolita ", or "the little Spanish girl"), and had an affair with her. He divorced Bienvenida in 1935 and married Martínez. A year later he had a daughter with Bienvenida, named Odette Trujillo Ricardo. Trujillo's three children with María Martínez were Rafael Leónidas Ramfis , who
623-590: A grand scale, and went into meat and milk production, operations that soon evolved into monopolies . Salt, sugar, tobacco, lumber, and the lottery were other industries which he or his family members dominated. Family members also received positions within the government and the army, including one of Trujillo's sons who was made a colonel in the Dominican Army when he was only four years old. Two of Trujillo's brothers, Héctor and José Arismendy, also held positions in his government. José Arismendy Trujillo oversaw
712-511: A naturalized US citizen, the attempted murder of Betancourt, a staunch critic of Trujillo, and the murder of the Mirabal sisters , who were among his most notable opponents, in 1960, eroded relations between the Dominican Republic and the international community and ushered in OAS sanctions and economic and military assistance to Dominican opposition forces. After this momentous year, large segments of
801-523: A person could be arrested for vagrancy without one. Those who did not join or contribute to the party did so at their own risk. Opponents of the régime were mysteriously killed. In 1934, Trujillo, who had promoted himself to generalissimo of the army, was up for re-election . By then, there was no organized opposition left in the country, and he was re-elected unopposed. In addition to the widely rigged (and regularly uncontested) elections, he instated "civic reviews" with large crowds shouting their loyalty to
890-492: A response to the disaster, Trujillo placed the Dominican Republic under martial law and began to rebuild the city. He renamed the rebuilt capital of the Dominican Republic, Ciudad Trujillo ("Trujillo City") in his honor and had streets, monuments, and landmarks to honor him throughout the country. On 16 August 1931, the first anniversary of his inauguration, Trujillo made the Dominican Party , founded two weeks earlier,
979-517: A telegraph operator, which he held for about three years. Shortly after Trujillo, aided by his brother José Arismendy Petán , turned to petty crime: cattle rustling, check counterfeiting, and postal robbery. He spent several months in prison, which did not deter him, as he later formed a violent gang of robbers called The 42 . In 1916, the United States began its occupation of the Dominican Republic following 28 revolutions in 50 years. At
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#17328012942771068-595: A third term in the United States, Trujillo ran for president again and was elected unopposed. He served for two terms, which he lengthened to five years each. In 1952, under pressure from the Organization of American States , he ceded the presidency to his brother, Héctor . Despite being officially out of power, Rafael Trujillo organized a major national celebration to commemorate 25 years of his rule in 1955. Gold and silver commemorative coins were minted with his image. Brutal oppression of actual or perceived members of
1157-533: Is convenient for the country's best interest that the Amatitlán Department be dissolved. Decrees: Death of colonel Francisco Javier Arana is of critical importance for the history of Guatemala, because it was a turning point for the country's revolution in the 1940s: his death not only cleared the path for colonel Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán 's election as President of Guatemala in 1950 but also caused an acute crisis for president Juan José Arévalo , who
1246-624: The Dominican Republic . The weapons had been taken out of the Puerto de San José military base and now Arana was on his way to take control of them in the presidential home. Historian Piero Gleijeses has said that this visit was that of an "impulsive man whose patience is gone and that went to the Palace to show off his power and to rush the humiliated president to comply with his ultimatum immediately. But far from scaring Arévalo, he put
1335-678: The Spanish East Indies (the Philippines ). In Portuguese-speaking Latin America , such reductions were also called aldeias . The Spanish and Portuguese relocated, forcibly in many cases, indigenous inhabitants ( Indians or Indios ) of their colonies into urban settlements modeled on those in Spain and Portugal. The Royal Academy of Spain defines reducción (reduction) as "a grouping into settlement of indigenous people for
1424-586: The Spanish Philippines , the Spanish colonial government founded hundreds of towns and villages across the archipelago modeled on towns and villages in Spain . The authorities often adopted a policy of reductions for the resettlement of inhabitants from far-flung scattered barrios or barangays to move into a centralized cabecera (town/district capital), where a newly built church and an ayuntamiento (town hall) were situated. This allowed
1513-781: The United States government . During World War II , Trujillo symbolically sided with the Allies and declared war on Germany , Italy and Japan on 11 December 1941. While there was no military participation, the Dominican Republic thus became a founding member of the United Nations . Trujillo encouraged diplomatic and economic ties with the United States, but his policies often caused friction with other nations of Latin America, especially Costa Rica and Venezuela . He maintained friendly relations with Franco of Spain , Perón of Argentina , and Somoza of Nicaragua . Towards
1602-664: The Yaque del Sur River . In 1934 he banned the slash-and-burn method of clearing land for agriculture, set up a forest warden agency to protect the park system, and banned the logging of pine trees without his permission. In the 1950s the Trujillo regime commissioned a study on the hydroelectric potential of damming the Dominican Republic's waterways. The commission concluded that only forested waterways could support hydroelectric dams , so Trujillo banned logging in potential river watersheds. After his assassination in 1961, logging resumed in
1691-598: The 1520s. They were begun in Baja California in the 17th century and California in the late 18th century. Reductions in Mexico were more commonly known as congregaciones . Indian reductions in the Andes , mostly in present-day Peru and Bolivia , began on a large scale in 1570 during the rule of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo . Toledo worked to remake the society of the former Inca empire , with some success. In
1780-505: The 1930s, and exiles from Spain following its civil war . At the 1938 Évian Conference the Dominican Republic was the only country willing to accept many Jews and offered to accept up to 100,000 refugees on generous terms. In 1940 an agreement was signed and Trujillo donated 26,000 acres (110 km ) of his properties for settlements. The first settlers arrived in May 1940; eventually, some 800 settlers came to Sosúa and most moved later on to
1869-570: The 1937 Dominican championship at Estadio Trujillo in Ciudad Trujillo. Trujillo was energetic and fit. He was generally quite healthy but suffered from chronic lower urinary infections and, later, prostate problems. In 1934, Dr. Georges Marion was called from Paris to perform three urologic procedures on Trujillo. Over time Trujillo acquired numerous homes. His favorite was Casa Caobas , on Estancia Fundacion near San Cristóbal . He also used Estancia Ramfis (which, after 1953, became
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#17328012942771958-570: The American Secretary of State Cordell Hull signed the Hull–Trujillo Treaty, whereby the United States relinquished control over the collection and application of customs revenues, and the Dominican Republic committed to deposit consolidated government revenues in a special bank account to guarantee repayment of foreign debt. The government was free to set custom duties with no restrictions. This diplomatic success gave Trujillo
2047-605: The Caribbean, relocating populations to be closer to Spanish settlements, often at a distance from their home territories, and likely facilitated the spread of disease. Reductions could be either religious, established and administered by an order of the Roman Catholic church (especially the Jesuits ), or secular, under the control of Spanish or Portuguese governmental authorities. The best known, and most successful, of
2136-519: The Dominican Republic, and bridges and public buildings were named in his honor. The nation's newspapers had praise for Trujillo as part of the front page, and license plates included slogans such as "¡Viva Trujillo!" and "Año del Benefactor de la Patria" (Year of the Benefactor of the Nation). An electric sign was erected in Ciudad Trujillo so that "Dios y Trujillo" could be seen at night as well as in
2225-519: The Dominican Republic, compounding the dictator's paranoia. Trujillo began to interfere more and more in the domestic affairs of neighboring countries. He expressed great contempt for Venezuela's president Rómulo Betancourt ; an established and outspoken opponent of Trujillo, Betancourt associated with Dominicans who had plotted against the dictator. Trujillo developed an obsessive personal hatred of Betancourt and supported numerous plots by Venezuelan exiles to overthrow him. This pattern of intervention led
2314-537: The Dominican Republic. Squatters burned down the forests for agriculture, and logging companies clear-cut parks. In 1967, President Joaquín Balaguer launched military strikes against illegal logging. Trujillo encouraged foreign investment in the Dominican Republic, particularly from Americans. He gave a concession with mineral rights in the Azua Basin to Clem S. Clarke , an oilman from Shreveport , Louisiana . Trujillo tended toward peaceful coexistence with
2403-484: The Dominican Republic. The brutal murder on Friday, 25 November 1960, of the three Mirabal sisters , Patria, María Teresa and Minerva, who opposed Trujillo's dictatorship, further increased discontent with his repressive rule. The dictator had become an embarrassment to the United States, and relations became especially strained after the Betancourt incident. Trujillo's "central arch" was his instinct for power. This
2492-510: The Dominican establishment, including the military, turned against him. On 30 May 1961, Trujillo was assassinated by a group of conspirators led by general Antonio Imbert Barrera . In the immediate aftermath, Trujillo's son Ramfis took temporary control of the country, executing most of the conspirators. By November 1961, the Trujillo family was pressured into exile by the titular president Joaquín Balaguer , who introduced reforms to open up
2581-632: The Foreign Office), Estancia Rhadames , and a home at Playa de Najayo. Less frequently he stayed at places he owned in Santiago de los Caballeros , Constanza , La Cumbre , San José de las Matas , and elsewhere. He maintained a penthouse at the Embajador Hotel in the capital. While Trujillo was nominally a Roman Catholic , his devotion was limited to a perfunctory role in public affairs; he placed faith in local folk religion . He
2670-636: The Garde d'Haiti, and Élie Lescot , at that time the Haitian ambassador in Ciudad Trujillo (Santo Domingo). After the settlement, when further border incursions occurred, Trujillo initiated the Parsley Massacre . Known as La Masacre del Perejil in Spanish, the massacre was started by Trujillo in October 1937. Claiming that Haiti was harboring his former Dominican opponents, he ordered an attack on
2759-636: The Indian population, facilitated the Spaniards' access to Indian labor, the promulgation of Christianity , and the collection of taxes and tribute. Moreover, the reduction of the Indians was intended to break down ethnic and kinship ties and detribalize the residents to create a generic, pan-Indian population, disregarding their numerous tribes and different cultures. The Spanish began creating reductions in Mexico shortly after Hernan Cortés 's conquest in
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2848-541: The Patriotic Coalition of Citizens (Spanish: Coalición patriotica de los ciudadanos ), with Estrella as his running mate. The other candidates became targets of harassment by the army. When it became apparent that the army would allow only Trujillo to campaign unhindered, the other candidates pulled out. Ultimately, the Trujillo-Estrella ticket was proclaimed victorious with an implausible 99% of
2937-576: The SIM, the Servicio de Inteligencia Militar , efficiently organized by Johnny Abbes , who operated in Cuba, Mexico, Guatemala, New York, Costa Rica, and Venezuela. Some cases reached international notoriety such as the disappearance of Jesús de Galíndez and the murder of the Mirabal sisters , which further eroded Trujillo's critical support by the US government. After Trujillo approved an assassination attempt on
3026-473: The Trujillo dictatorship has been judged more prominent and more brutal than its contemporaries. Trujillo remains a polarizing figure in the Dominican Republic, as the sheer longevity of his rule makes a detached evaluation difficult. While his supporters credit him for bringing long-term stability, economic growth and prosperity, doubling life expectancy of average Dominicans and multiplying the GDP, critics denounce
3115-539: The Trujillo government's extensive use of state terrorism was prolific even beyond national borders, including the attempted assassination of Venezuelan President Rómulo Betancourt in 1960, the abduction and disappearance in New York City of the Basque exile Jesús Galíndez in 1956, and the murder of Spanish writer José Almoina in Mexico, also in 1960. These acts, particularly the presumed murder of Galíndez,
3204-694: The United States example of two presidential terms, he stated, "I voluntarily, and against the wishes of my people, refuse re-election to the high office." In fact, a vigorous re-election campaign had been launched in the middle of 1937 but the international uproar that followed the Haitian massacre later that year forced Trujillo to announce his "return to private life." Consequently, the Dominican Party nominated Trujillo's handpicked successor, 61-year-old vice-president Jacinto Peynado , with Manuel de Jesús Troncoso his running mate. They appeared alone on
3293-528: The United States, made the exiles abort the expedition. In turn, when Fulgencio Batista was in power, Trujillo initially supported anti-Batista supporters of Carlos Prío Socarrás in Oriente Province in 1955; however, weapons Trujillo sent were soon inherited by Fidel Castro 's insurgents when Prío allied with Castro; Dominican-made Cristóbal carbines and hand grenades became the rebels' standard weapons. After 1956, when Trujillo saw that Castro
3382-459: The United States. Refugees from Europe broadened the Dominican Republic's tax base and added more whites to the predominantly mixed-race nation. Trujillo's government favored white refugees over others while Dominican troops expelled illegal immigrants, resulting in the 1937 Parsley Massacre of Haitian migrants. The Trujillo regime greatly expanded the Vedado del Yaque, a nature reserve around
3471-669: The Venezuelan President Rómulo Ernesto Betancourt Bello , the Organization of American States and the United States blocked Trujillo's access to US sugar quota profits. In April 1962, after the flight of the Trujillo family from the country, Attorney General Eduardo Antonio Garcia Vasquez reported that in the previous five years, the former regime was responsible for 5,700 deaths, either as known murders, or of those missing but presumed dead. The SIM often denied victims' families
3560-563: The Venezuelan government to take its case against Trujillo to the Organization of American States (OAS), a move that infuriated Trujillo, who ordered his agents to plant a bomb in Betancourt's car. The assassination attempt, carried out on Friday, 24 June 1960, injured but did not kill the Venezuelan president. The Betancourt incident inflamed world opinion against Trujillo. Outraged OAS members voted unanimously to sever diplomatic relations with his government and impose economic sanctions on
3649-504: The ballot in the 1938 election. Trujillo kept his positions as generalissimo of the army and leader of the Dominican Party. It was understood that Peynado was merely a puppet, and Trujillo still held all governing power in the nation. Peynado increased the size of the electric "Dios y Trujillo" sign and died on 7 March 1940, with Troncoso serving out the rest of the term. However, in 1942, with US President Franklin Roosevelt having run for
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3738-418: The border that slaughtered tens of thousands of Haitians as they tried to escape. The number of dead is still unknown, but it is now calculated between 12,000 and 30,000. The Dominican military used machetes to murder and decapitate many of the victims; they also took people to the port of Montecristi, where many victims were thrown into the sea to drown with their hands and feet bound. The Haitian response
3827-624: The budget for national defense. A foreign legion was formed to defend Haiti, as it was expected that Castro might invade the Haitian part of the island first and remove François Duvalier as well. A Cuban plane with 56 fighting men landed near Constanza , Dominican Republic, on Sunday, 14 June 1959, and six days later more invaders brought by two yachts landed at the north coast. However, the Dominican Army prevailed. In turn, in August 1959, Johnny Abbes attempted to support an anti-Castro group led by Escambray near Trinidad, Cuba . The attempt, however,
3916-487: The command of Chief of Police, lieutenant colonel Enrique Blanco and by PAR congressman Alfonso Martínez, a retired officer and friend of Árbenz. When Arana was on his way back and reached La Gloria bridge in Amatitlán, a gray Dodge was blocking his way there. A brief shooting, there were three deaths: Arana, his assistant, mayor Absalón Peralta and lieutenant colonel Blanco. Witnesses were never able to confirm what caused
4005-691: The commander of the National Police in 1924, he was named brigadier general in 1928, Trujillo militarized the police, turning it into an army. It evolved into a de facto independent body under his control. A rebellion or coup d'état against President Vásquez broke out in February 1930 in Santiago. Trujillo secretly cut a deal with the rebel leader Rafael Estrella Ureña . In return for Trujillo letting Estrella take power, Estrella would allow Trujillo to run for president in new elections . As
4094-449: The creation of the main radio station, La Voz Dominicana , and later the television station, the fourth in the Caribbean. By 1937 Trujillo's annual income was about $ 1.5 million ($ 32 million in 2023); at the time of his death the state took over 111 Trujillo-owned companies. His love of fine and ostentatious clothing was displayed in elaborate uniforms and suits, of which he collected almost two thousand. Fond of neckties, he amassed
4183-581: The day. Eventually, even churches were required to post the slogan "Dios en el cielo, Trujillo en la tierra" (God in Heaven, Trujillo on Earth). As time went on, the order of the phrases was reversed (Trujillo on Earth, God in Heaven). Trujillo was recommended for the Nobel Peace Prize by his admirers, but the committee declined the suggestion. Trujillo was eligible to run again in 1938, but, citing
4272-452: The end of his rule, his relationship with the United States deteriorated. Early on, Trujillo determined that Dominican financial affairs had to be put in order, and that included ending the United States's role as collector of Dominican customs—a situation that had existed since 1907 and was confirmed in a 1924 convention signed at the end of the occupation. Negotiations started in 1936 and lasted four years. On 24 September 1940, Trujillo and
4361-474: The fire or if Arana was put under custody as initially planned. Upon learning the news, the Guardia de Honor battalion -loyal to Arana- rose in arms and there were combats in the city; in the end, the government took control thanks to Arbenz's decisive leadership and the lack of a leader for the rebels. The main industry of the town during colonial times was the preparation of cochineal . As of 1850, Amatitlán
4450-493: The game of baseball , the dictator invited many black American players to the Dominican Republic, where they received good pay for playing on first-class, un-segregated teams. The great Negro league star Satchel Paige pitched for the Dragones de Ciudad Trujillo , a team organized by Trujillo. Paige later claimed, jokingly, that his guards positioned themselves "like a firing squad" to encourage him to pitch well. Los Dragones won
4539-411: The government to defend, control and Christianize the indigenous population in scattered independent settlements, to conduct population counts , and to collect tributes . This enforced resettlement led to several revolts in the 17th century, often led by community shamans ( babaylan ). In some cases, entire villages would move deeper into island interiors to escape the reductions. A similar policy
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#17328012942774628-499: The government, which would in turn create more support for Trujillo. In 1936, at the suggestion of Mario Fermín Cabral , the Congress of the Dominican Republic voted overwhelmingly to change the name of the capital from Santo Domingo to Ciudad Trujillo . The province of San Cristóbal was renamed to "Trujillo" and the nation's highest peak, Pico Duarte to Pico Trujillo. Statues of "El Jefe" were mass-produced and erected across
4717-466: The heavy-handed and violent nature of his regime, including the murder of tens of thousands, and xenophobia towards Haitians, as well as the Trujillo family's nepotism, widespread corruption and looting of the country's natural and economic resources. Rafael Leónidas Trujillo y Molina was born on 24 October 1891 in San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic , into a lower-middle class family. His father
4806-475: The indoctrination of the faith. The policy of reductions was begun in 1503 by Spanish colonists on Caribbean islands. In the words of the Spanish rulers, "It is necessary that the Indians be assigned to towns in which they will live together and that they not remain or wander separated from each other in the backcountry." The Spanish ordered Indian villages to be destroyed and selected sites where new villages should be built. The concentration, or reducción of
4895-630: The members died. In 1638, the Order of Preachers split their large doctrines —which meant large economic benefits for them— in groups centered around each one of their six monasteries, including the Sacapulas monastery: In 1754, the Order of Preachers had to transfer all of their doctrines and convents to the secular clergy, as part of the Bourbon reforms . After the independence of Central America, and during governor Mariano Rivera Paz time in office,
4984-472: The missionaries only responded to their order local authorities, and never to that of the Spanish government or the secular bishops. The orders local authorities, in turn, only dealt with their own order and not with the Spanish crown. Once a doctrine had been established, they protected their own economic interests, even against those of the King and thus, the doctrines became Indian towns that remain unaltered for
5073-600: The morning of Monday 18 July, Arana showed up at the Presidential Palace and told Arévalo in a condescending and sarcastic tone that he was on his way to El Morlón, the presidential residence on Lake Amatitlán shore, to confiscate some arms and weapons that had been hidden there after they were confiscated from Dominican exiles in Mexico; the Guatemalan government had given the weapons to those exile to try to take down generalissimo Rafael Leónidas Trujillo in
5162-411: The nation's sole legal political party. However, the country had effectively become a one-party state with Trujillo's inauguration. Government employees were required by law to "donate" 10% of their salaries to the national treasury and there was strong pressure on adult citizens to join the party. Members had to carry a membership card, nicknamed the " Palmita " since the cover had a palm tree on it, and
5251-632: The occasion to launch a massive propaganda campaign that presented him as the savior of the nation. A law proclaimed that the Benefactor was also now the Restaurador de la independencia financiera de la Republica (Restorer of the Republic's financial independence). Haiti formerly occupied what is today called the Dominican Republic for 22 years – from 1822 to 1844. Prior to their occupation, Spanish colonial rule prevailed. Encroachment by Haiti
5340-599: The opposition was the key feature of Trujillo's rule from the very beginning in 1930 when his gang, "The 42", led by Miguel Angel Paulino, drove through the streets in their red Packard " carro de la muerte " ("car of death"). Trujillo also maintained an execution list of people throughout the world who he felt were his direct enemies or who he felt had wronged him. He even once allowed an opposition party to form and permitted it to operate legally and openly, mainly so that he could identify those who opposed him and arrest or kill them. Imprisonments and killings were later handled by
5429-425: The place where the friars had their monastery and from there, they would go out to preach to settlements that belong to the doctrine and were called "annexes", "visits" or "visit towns". Therefore, the doctrines had three main characteristics: The main characteristic of the doctrines was that they were run by a group of friars, because it made sure that the community system would continue without any issue when one of
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#17328012942775518-527: The president up to speed on his whereabouts, who rushed to set up a plan to exile Arana; dexterously, Arévalo asked him to take colonel Felipe Antonio Girón along -who was the Presidential Chief of Staff- which made Arana believe on his apparent success and that neither Arévalo or Árbenz would stand up to him. Arévalo called Árbenz to take care of the situation and the latter sent several armed men, who left Guatemala City in two cars and were under
5607-437: The purpose of evangelization and assimilation." In colonial Mexico , reductions were called "congregations" ( congregaciones ). Forced resettlements aimed to concentrate indigenous people into communities, facilitating civil and religious control over populations. The concentration of the indigenous peoples into towns facilitated the organization and exploitation of their labor. The practice began during Spanish colonization in
5696-403: The rebels marched toward Santo Domingo, Vásquez ordered Trujillo to suppress them. However, feigning "neutrality", Trujillo kept his men in barracks, allowing Estrella's rebels to take the capital virtually unopposed. On 3 March, Estrella was proclaimed acting president, with Trujillo confirmed as head of the police and of the army. As per their agreement, Trujillo became the presidential nominee of
5785-659: The regime. The murder ushered in civil strife which concluded with the Dominican Civil War and a US-OAS intervention, eventually stabilised under a multi-party system in 1966. The Trujillo era unfolded in a Hispanic Caribbean environment particularly susceptible to dictators. In the countries of the Caribbean Basin alone, his dictatorship overlapped with those in Cuba , Nicaragua , Guatemala , El Salvador , Honduras , Venezuela and Haiti . In perspective,
5874-752: The religious reductions were those developed by the Jesuits in Paraguay and neighboring areas in the 17th century. The largest and most enduring secular reductions were those imposed on the highland people of the former Inca Empire of Peru during the rule of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo (1569–1581). During the early stages of Christianisation of the Americas, Spanish Catholic authorities might establish ecclesiastical missionary proto- parish subdivisions - Spanish : doctrinas ; singular: Spanish : doctrina , lit. 'doctrine' – for
5963-480: The remains of their loved ones, disposing of them clandestinely. In the aftermath of Trujillo's assassination, very few of those arrested and killed in the subsequent crackdown had their remains returned, the majority believed by investigators from Vasquez's office to have been tossed to sharks, or were stuffed into an incinerator at nearby San Isidro airbase. Trujillo was known for his open-door policy, accepting Jewish refugees from Europe, Japanese migration during
6052-404: The rest of the Spanish colony. The doctrines were founded at the friars discretion, given that they were completely at liberty to settle communities provided the main purpose was to eventually transfer it as a secular parish which would be tithing of the bishop. In reality, what happened was that the doctrines grew uncontrollably and were never transferred to any secular parish; they formed around
6141-468: The time, Trujillo was twenty-five years old and worked as a guarda campestre (overseer) at a sugar cane plantation in Boca Chica . The occupying force soon established a Dominican army constabulary to impose order. Trujillo joined the newly created National Guard in 1918 with the help of his employer along with US Major James J. MacLean, who was his maternal uncle Teódulo Pina Chevalier's friend, and
6230-596: The time, approving his rise among the ranks: he was promoted to lieutenant in 1919 and assigned to the San Pedro de Macorís garrison; he was later promoted to captain in 1922 while stationed in San Francisco de Macorís and given command of the National Guard 10th Company. In 1923 he was promoted to major and appointed Inspector of the 1st military district . President Horacio Vásquez named Trujillo
6319-464: The time; the friars were supposed to teach Spanish and Catholicism to the natives. And when the natives were ready, they could start living in parishes and contribute with mandatory tithing, just like the people in Spain. But this plan never materialized, mainly because the Spanish crown lost control of the regular orders as soon as their friars set course to America. Shielded by their apostolic privileges granted to convert natives into Catholicism,
6408-488: The vote. In a note to the State Department, American ambassador Charles Boyd Curtis wrote that Trujillo received far more votes than there were actual voters. Upon taking office on 16 August, Truijllo assumed dictatorial powers which he retained for the next three decades. Two and a half weeks after Trujillo ascended to the presidency, the destructive Hurricane San Zenón hit Santo Domingo and left 2000 dead. As
6497-606: Was José Trujillo Valdez, the son of Silveria Valdez Méndez of colonial Dominican origin and José Trujillo Monagas, a Canary Islander sergeant who arrived in Santo Domingo as a member of the Spanish reinforcement troops during the annexation era . Trujillo's mother was Altagracia Julia Molina Chevalier, later known as Mamá Julia , daughter of peasant Pedro Molina Peña, also of colonial Dominican origin, and teacher Luisa Erciná Chevalier, whose parents were of creole Haitian origin. Chevalier, Trujillo's maternal grandmother,
6586-486: Was a Dominican military commander and dictator who ruled the Dominican Republic from August 1930 until his assassination in May 1961. He served as president from 1930 to 1938 and again from 1942 to 1952, ruling for the rest of his life as an unelected military strongman under figurehead presidents. His rule of 31 years, known to Dominicans as the Trujillo Era ( Spanish : El Trujillato or La Era de Trujillo ),
6675-525: Was an ongoing process, and when Trujillo took over, specifically the northwestern border region had become increasingly "Haitianized". The border was poorly defined. In 1933, and again in 1935, Trujillo met the Haitian President Sténio Vincent to settle the border issue. By 1936, they reached and signed a settlement. At the same time, Trujillo plotted against the Haitian government by linking up with General Calixte, Commander of
6764-567: Was born on 5 June 1929, María de los Ángeles del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús (Angelita), born in Paris on 10 June 1939, and Leónidas Rhadamés, born on 1 December 1942. Ramfis and Rhadamés were named after characters in Giuseppe Verdi 's opera Aida . In 1937, Trujillo met Lina Lovatón Pittaluga, an upper-class debutante with whom he had two children, Yolanda in 1939, and Rafael, born on 20 June 1943. In spite of Trujillo's indifference to
6853-403: Was coupled with an intense desire for money, which he recognized as a source of and support for power. Up at four in the morning, he exercised, studied the newspaper, read many reports, and completed papers before breakfast. At the office by nine, he continued his work, and took lunch by noon. After a walk, he continued to work until 7:30 pm. After dinner, he attended functions, held discussions, or
6942-670: Was driven around incognito in the city "observing and remembering." Until Santo Domingo 's National Palace was built in 1947, he worked out of the Casas Reales , the colonial-era Viceregal center of administration. Today the building is a museum; on display are his desk and chair, along with a massive collection of arms and armor that he bought. He was methodical, punctual, secretive, and guarded; he had no true friends, only associates and acquaintances. For his associates, his actions towards them were unpredictable. Trujillo and his family amassed enormous wealth. He acquired cattle lands on
7031-551: Was faced with the Army's faction loyal to colonel Arana, and to civilian groups that took advantage to protest against the government. On 15 July 1949, colonel Francisco Javier Arana , Army Chief of Staff, presented president Juan José Arévalo with an ultimatum: if he wanted to finish the term for which he was elected, he had to fire several members of his cabinet and appoint friends of the colonel. Sure of his victory, gave Arévalo until 10:00 pm of 18 July to come up with an answer. On
7120-474: Was gaining ground, he started to support Batista with money, planes, equipment, and men. Trujillo, convinced that Batista would prevail, was very surprised when Batista showed up as a fugitive after he had been ousted . Trujillo kept Batista until August 1959 as a "virtual prisoner". Only after paying US$ 3–4 million could Batista leave for Portugal , which had granted him a visa. Castro made threats to overthrow Trujillo, and Trujillo responded by increasing
7209-616: Was implemented in the nearby Mariana Islands during the Spanish–Chamorro Wars (1670–1699). Cline, Howard F. "Civil Congregation of the Indians of New Spain, 1598-1606." Hispanic American Historical Review , vol. 29, (1947) no. 3, pp. 349–369 Rafael Le%C3%B3nidas Trujillo Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina ( / t r uː ˈ h iː j oʊ / troo- HEE -yoh , Spanish: [rafaˈel leˈoniðas tɾuˈxiʝo moˈlina] ; 24 October 1891 – 30 May 1961), nicknamed El Jefe ( Spanish: [el ˈxefe] ),
7298-704: Was muted, but its government eventually called for an international investigation. Under pressure from Washington, Trujillo agreed to a reparation settlement in January 1938 of US$ 750,000. By the next year, the amount had been reduced to US$ 525,000 (US$ 11.13 million in 2024); 30 dollars per victim, of which only two cents were given to survivors because of corruption in the Haitian bureaucracy. In 1941, Lescot, who had received financial support from Trujillo, succeeded Vincent as President of Haiti. Trujillo expected that Lescot would be his puppet, but Lescot turned against him. Trujillo unsuccessfully tried to assassinate him in
7387-459: Was one of the longest for a non-royal leader in the world, and centered around a personality cult of the ruling family. It was also one of the most brutal; Trujillo's security forces, including the infamous SIM , were responsible for perhaps as many as 50,000 murders. These included between 12,000 and 30,000 Haitians in the infamous Parsley massacre in 1937, which continues to affect Dominican-Haitian relations to this day. During his long rule,
7476-950: Was producing upwards of 5,000 bales, each at 150 pounds, of cochineal. It has the largest duty-free zone in Guatemala, and a lot of maquila (garment assembly) factories, employing thousands of people, mainly women. The town lies by the side of Lake Amatitlán and it is a popular place for the middle class from Guatemala City to visit on weekends. Amatitlán has tropical climate ( Köppen : Aw ). [REDACTED] Media related to Amatitlán at Wikimedia Commons 14°29′N 90°37′W / 14.483°N 90.617°W / 14.483; -90.617 Indian Reductions Reductions ( Spanish : reducciones , also called congregaciones ; Portuguese : reduções ) were settlements established by Spanish rulers and Roman Catholic missionaries in Spanish America and
7565-404: Was registered in the school of Juan Hilario Meriño. One year later, he transferred to the school of Pablo Barinas, where he was educated by disciples of Eugenio María de Hostos and remained there for the rest of his primary schooling. As a child, he was obsessed with his appearance and would place bottle caps on his clothes that mimicked military decorations. At the age of 16, Trujillo got a job as
7654-476: Was soon promoted to second lieutenant and began training with the US Marines . Allegations of forgery were ignored when Trujillo applied and he was later acquitted by a panel of Marines following plausible accusations against him, including the alleged rape and subsequent extortion of a 16-year-old girl. Colonel Richard Malcolm Cutts trained Trujillo further and many Marine leaders praised his abilities at
7743-598: Was the daughter of Justin Victor Turenne Carrié Blaise, who was of French descent, and Eleonore Juliette Chevallier Moreau, who was part of Haiti's mulatto class. From her mother's side, Chevalier was granddaughter of Louise Moreau and her husband Bernard Chevallier Louverture, a mulatto Haitian high-ranking officer and politician that established in San Cristóbal with the Haitian occupation , from whom countless Dominican families descend, who
7832-511: Was the son of French nobleman Jean Baptiste Chevallier, Marquis de Pouilboreau and his wife Marie-Noëlle Louverture, the sister of Toussaint Louverture , the Father of the Nation of Haiti . Trujillo was the third of eleven children; he also had an adopted brother, Luis Rafael "Nene" Trujillo (1935–2005), who was raised in the home of Trujillo Molina. In 1897, at the age of six, Trujillo
7921-537: Was thwarted when Cuban troops surprised a plane he had sent when it was unloading its cargo. By the late 1950s, opposition to Trujillo's regime was starting to build to a fever pitch, especially among a younger generation who had no memory of the poverty and instability that had preceded the dictatorship. Many clamored for democratization. The Trujillo regime responded with greater repression. The Military Intelligence Service (SIM) secret police, led by Johnny Abbes , remained as ubiquitous as before. Other nations ostracized
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