Misplaced Pages

#569430

143-587: Ambala ( / ə m ˈ b ɑː l ə / ) is a city and a municipal corporation in Ambala district in the state of Haryana , India , located on the border with the Indian state of Punjab and in proximity to both states capital Chandigarh . Politically, Ambala has two sub-areas: Ambala Cantonment (also known as Ambala Cantt) and Ambala City , eight kilometres apart, therefore, it is also known as "Twin City." It has

286-544: A heads-up display , plus a Laser Ranging and Marked Targeting System (LRMTS) in the nose. These systems were a step above the current technology of the time, but reliability was quite low. There were many more systems added with the time, like the Atlis II in the French aircraft, and, in 1994–95, some GR1s had laser-designator systems fitted. Missiles like AS-30 and the anti-ship Sea Eagle were added. Some IAF aircraft had

429-487: A jet trainer with a light ground attack capability, the requirement for the aircraft soon changed to include supersonic performance, reconnaissance and tactical nuclear strike roles. A carrier-based variant was also planned for French Navy service, but this was cancelled in favour of the cheaper, fully French-built Dassault-Breguet Super Étendard . The aircraft were manufactured by SEPECAT ( Société Européenne de Production de l'avion Ecole de Combat et d'Appui Tactique ),

572-523: A raid on the airfield at Wadi Doum , which the Libyans had constructed in Northern Chad, using BAP-100 anti-runway bombs. In response to Libyan incursions, another strike was carried out on 7 January 1987, when a Jaguar destroyed a Libyan radar with a Martel missile. The Jaguars stationed at Ndjamena were a target for Libyan sabotage owing to their effectiveness against enemy forces, but

715-630: A British "S" conducted its first flight. A Jaguar M prototype flew in November 1969. This had a strengthened airframe, an arrestor hook and different undercarriage: twin nosewheel and single mainwheels. After testing in France it went to RAE at Thurleigh for carrier landing trials from their land based catapult, after which, in July 1970, it underwent a series of shipboard trials from the French carrier Clemenceau . From these trials there were doubts about

858-472: A Jaguar operated by QinetiQ undertook the last British military Jaguar flight. Following their retirement from flying service, many Jaguars continue to serve as ground instructional airframes, most notably at RAF Cosford , used in the training of RAF fitters. India had been approached as a possible customer for the Jaguar as early as 1968, but had declined, partly on the grounds that it was not yet clear if

1001-597: A captured Indian rebel by the British colonial regime . Ambala rebellion was led by Ananti Mishra, Parmeshwar Pandey, Beni Prasad, Sheikh Faiz Ul-Khan, Bikhan Khan who moved towards Red Fort in Delhi via Bilaspur , Sadhaura , Yamunanagar and Saharanpur . After the war was over, the British authorities burnt the villages of Bilaspur and Sadhaura as punishment for providing aid to the rebels. The 5th & 60th Regiments of

1144-577: A central area containing buildings with special economic, political, and religious significance. Archaeologists refer to this area by the Greek term temenos or if fortified as a citadel . These spaces historically reflect and amplify the city's centrality and importance to its wider sphere of influence . Today cities have a city center or downtown , sometimes coincident with a central business district . Cities typically have public spaces where anyone can go. These include privately owned spaces open to

1287-665: A central authority. The term can also refer either to the physical streets and buildings of the city or to the collection of people who dwell there and can be used in a general sense to mean urban rather than rural territory . National censuses use a variety of definitions – invoking factors such as population , population density , number of dwellings , economic function, and infrastructure – to classify populations as urban. Typical working definitions for small-city populations start at around 100,000 people. Common population definitions for an urban area (city or town) range between 1,500 and 50,000 people, with most U.S. states using

1430-461: A central point. This form could evolve from successive growth over a long time, with concentric traces of town walls and citadels marking older city boundaries. In more recent history, such forms were supplemented by ring roads moving traffic around the outskirts of a town. Dutch cities such as Amsterdam and Haarlem are structured as a central square surrounded by concentric canals marking every expansion. In cities such as Moscow , this pattern

1573-552: A combination of these. Societies that live in cities are often called civilizations . The degree of urbanization is a modern metric to help define what comprises a city: "a population of at least 50,000 inhabitants in contiguous dense grid cells (>1,500 inhabitants per square kilometer)". This metric was "devised over years by the European Commission , OECD , World Bank and others, and endorsed in March [2021] by

SECTION 10

#1732771947570

1716-620: A continuous urban landscape called urban agglomeration , conurbation , or megalopolis (exemplified by the BosWash corridor of the Northeastern United States .) The emergence of cities from proto-urban settlements , such as Çatalhöyük , is a non-linear development that demonstrates the varied experiences of early urbanization . The cities of Jericho , Aleppo , Byblos , Faiyum , Yerevan , Athens , Matera , Damascus , and Argos are among those laying claim to

1859-725: A conventionally armed rapid reaction squadron was established, intended to deploy in support of French forces and interests anywhere in the world. France had been involved in the conflict in Chad for many years, and 2,000 men of the Force d'Intervention along with helicopters and Jaguars were deployed to defend central Chad in 1978; further forces arrived later as part of Opération Tacaud . The Jaguars were engaged in May and June 1978, contributing significantly in halting an offensive by Goukouni Oueddei 's FROLINAT forces, who were routed. One aircraft

2002-485: A datalink, and improved night vision goggles compatibility. All GR3As were subsequently re-engined with the new Adour 106 turbofan. The RAF's Jaguar 97s were intended to be wired for the carriage of ASRAAMs on the overwing launchers, but clearance of this weapon was never completed because of funding cuts. The Jaguars did not see service in the 2003 Iraq War ; they had been planned to operate from bases in Turkey, to

2145-466: A descendant of Desu Singh Randhawa. Ambala Army Cantonment was established in 1843 after the British were forced to leave its Karnal Cantonment following the malaria epidemic of 1841–42 in as there were not any known effective means to control malaria epidemic in those days. The cantonment houses the '2 Corps', one of the three Strike Corps of the Indian Army . Ambala Air Force Base is one of

2288-430: A distinctive elite social class, but it should indeed be considered a city based on a functional redefinition of urban development. In particular, Jenné-Jeno featured settlement mounds arranged according to a horizontal, rather than vertical, power hierarchy, and served as a center of specialized production and exhibited functional interdependence with the surrounding hinterland. More recently, scholars have concluded that

2431-649: A district, Ambala has witnessed many changes in its boundaries. Previously, it extended across tehsils of Ambala, Chandigarh , Jagadhri , Pipli, Kharar, Ropar and Nalagarh . Kalka-cum-Kurari State, Pinjore , Mani Majra , Kasauli & Sanawar were also merged later into the district at different times. For their participation in first war of independence , the Chaudharys and Lambardars of villages who participated in rebellion were also deprived of their land and property, including 368 people of Hisar and Gurugram were hanged or transported for life, and fine

2574-477: A grid plan with specialized districts used across the Hellenistic Mediterranean . The urban-type settlement extends far beyond the traditional boundaries of the city proper in a form of development sometimes described critically as urban sprawl . Decentralization and dispersal of city functions (commercial, industrial, residential, cultural, political) has transformed the very meaning of

2717-443: A high intensity European war, the role of the Jaguar was to support land forces on the continent in resisting a Soviet assault on Western Europe, striking targets beyond the forward edge of the battlefield should a conflict escalate. The apparent mismatch between aircraft numbers and nuclear bombs was a consequence of RAF staff planners concluding that there would be one third attrition of Jaguars in an early conventional phase, leaving

2860-579: A high-threat environment. The first of eight prototypes flew on 8 September 1968, a two-seat design fitted with the first production model Adour engine. This aircraft went supersonic on its third flight but was lost on landing on 26 March 1970 following an engine fire. The second prototype flew in February 1969; a total of three prototypes flew at the Paris Air Show that year. The first French "A" prototype flew in March 1969. In October

3003-647: A joint venture between Breguet and the British Aircraft Corporation , one of the first major joint Anglo-French military aircraft programmes. The Jaguar was exported to India, Oman, Ecuador and Nigeria. The aircraft was used in numerous conflicts and military operations in Mauritania , Chad , Iraq , Bosnia , and Pakistan , as well as providing a ready nuclear delivery platform for the United Kingdom, France, and India throughout

SECTION 20

#1732771947570

3146-545: A joint venture between Breguet and the British Aircraft Corporation to produce the airframe. Though based in part on the Breguet Br.121, using the same basic configuration and an innovative French-designed landing gear, the Jaguar was built incorporating major elements of design from BAC, notably the wing and high lift devices. Production of components would be split between Breguet and BAC, and

3289-511: A key role in both the economy and government. Late antique cities in the East were also undergoing intense transformations, with increased political participation of the crowds and demographical fluctuations. Christian communities and their doctrinal differences increasingly shaped the urban fabric. The locus of power shifted to Constantinople and to the ascendant Islamic civilization with its major cities Baghdad , Cairo , and Córdoba . From

3432-633: A large Indian Army and Indian Air Force presence within its cantonment area. It is located 200 km (124 mi) to the north of New Delhi , India's capital, and has been identified as a counter-magnet city for the National Capital Region to develop as an alternative center of growth to Delhi. Ambala separates the Ganges river network from the Indus river network and is surrounded by two rivers – Ghaggar and Tangri  – to

3575-647: A lesser extent. The French Jaguar force in Saudi Arabia built up to a maximum of 28 aircraft, which carried out 615 combat sorties, with one Jaguar damaged by an Iraqi surface-to-air missile. Typical targets were Iraqi armoured units, Scud missile sites, and naval vessels. On 17 January 1991, 12 French Jaguars bombed Ahmad al-Jaber Air Base , Kuwait; three were damaged in the attack but all returned to base. On 26 January, RAF Jaguars and Tornados raided several Silkworm missile batteries in Kuwait to encourage

3718-671: A maximum take-off weight in the 15 tonne class; with a combat radius on internal fuel of 850 km (530 mi), giving the Jaguar a greater operational range than competitor aircraft such as the Mikoyan MiG-27 . The aircraft had hardpoints fitted for an external weapons load of up to 10,000 lb (4,500 kg). Typical weapons fitted included the Matra LR.F2 rocket pod, BAP 100-mm bombs, Martel AS.37 anti-radar missiles, AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, and Rockeye cluster bombs . The RAF's Jaguars gained several new weapons during

3861-531: A minimum between 1,500 and 5,000 inhabitants. Some jurisdictions set no such minima. In the United Kingdom , city status is awarded by the Crown and then remains permanent. (Historically, the qualifying factor was the presence of a cathedral , resulting in some very small cities such as Wells , with a population of 12,000 as of 2018 , and St Davids , with a population of 1,841 as of 2011 .) According to

4004-623: A new HUD , a new hand controller and stick top, integrated GPS and TERPROM Terrain Referenced Navigation. The further upgraded Jaguar GR3A introduced the new EO GP1 (JRP) digital reconnaissance pod, a helmet-mounted sight, improved cockpit displays, a datalink, and improved night vision goggles compatibility. A single Jaguar was converted into the Jaguar Active Control Technology (ACT) with fly-by-wire controls and aerodynamic alterations to

4147-703: A privileged elite among towns having won self-governance from their local lord or having been granted self-governance by the emperor and being placed under his immediate protection. By 1480, these cities, as far as still part of the empire, became part of the Imperial Estates governing the empire with the emperor through the Imperial Diet . By the 13th and 14th centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. In Italy, medieval communes developed into city-states including

4290-435: A ratio of 843. There were 20,687 children 0–6 and Ambala had an average literacy rate of 89.31%, with 91.76% of males and 86.41% of females literate. The Cloth Market is considered to be the largest textile market in this region. It is located in sector 7, the central part of the city of Ambala. The market is known for catering to wedding related shopping. The most commonly bought items are sarees and silk clothing. Ambala

4433-428: A result, the initial Br.121 design needed a thinner wing, redesigned fuselage, a higher rear cockpit, and after-burning engines. While putting on smiling faces for the public, maintaining the illusion of a shared design, the British design departed from the French sub-sonic Breguet 121 to such a degree that it was effectively a new design. A separate partnership was formed between Rolls-Royce and Turbomeca to develop

Ambala - Misplaced Pages Continue

4576-495: A rule cannot produce their own food and therefore must develop some relationship with a hinterland that sustains them. Only in special cases such as mining towns which play a vital role in long-distance trade, are cities disconnected from the countryside which feeds them. Thus, centrality within a productive region influences siting, as economic forces would, in theory, favor the creation of marketplaces in optimal mutually reachable locations. The vast majority of cities have

4719-452: A small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization , more than half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability . Present-day cities usually form the core of larger metropolitan areas and urban areas —creating numerous commuters traveling toward city centres for employment, entertainment, and education. However, in

4862-472: A sub depot at Naraingarh. Presently, Haryana Roadways , Ambala has 200 buses, which carry about 34.88 Lac's passengers daily and cover a distance of about 19000 km daily. Out of these, total distance covered on interstate routes is 24,711 km (15,355 mi) and 41.469 km (25.768 mi) are operated within Haryana every day. New Bus Stand at Ambala Cantt was inaugurated on 12 July 1999 and

5005-549: A super-wealthy elite living in gated communities and large masses of people living in substandard housing with inadequate infrastructure and otherwise poor conditions. Cities around the world have expanded physically as they grow in population, with increases in their surface extent, with the creation of high-rise buildings for residential and commercial use, and with development underground. Urbanization can create rapid demand for water resources management , as formerly good sources of freshwater become overused and polluted, and

5148-423: A temple. A minority viewpoint considers that cities may have arisen without agriculture, due to alternative means of subsistence (fishing), to use as communal seasonal shelters, to their value as bases for defensive and offensive military organization, or to their inherent economic function. Cities played a crucial role in the establishment of political power over an area, and ancient leaders such as Alexander

5291-453: A valuable component of the campaign, the RAF detachment of 12 Jaguars flew 612 combat sorties, with no aircraft lost. Significant changes were made both during and shortly after the war. Owing to obsolete navigational systems being unable to provide the accuracy required, both French and British Jaguars were quickly modified with Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, a recent technology at

5434-468: A variety of conventional weapons. In April 1975, a single Jaguar was used to test the aircraft's rough airstrip capacity, by landing and taking off multiple times from the M55 motorway , the final test flight was conducted with a full weapons load; the ability was never used in service but was considered useful as improvised runways might be the only runways left available in a large scale European conflict. In

5577-567: A workers' town associated with the pyramid of Senusret II , and the religious city Amarna built by Akhenaten and abandoned. These sites appear planned in a highly regimented and stratified fashion, with a minimalistic grid of rooms for the workers and increasingly more elaborate housing available for higher classes. In Mesopotamia, the civilization of Sumer , followed by Assyria and Babylon , gave rise to numerous cities, governed by kings and fostered multiple languages written in cuneiform . The Phoenician trading empire, flourishing around

5720-471: A world of intensifying globalization , all cities are to varying degrees also connected globally beyond these regions. This increased influence means that cities also have significant influences on global issues , such as sustainable development , climate change , and global health . Because of these major influences on global issues, the international community has prioritized investment in sustainable cities through Sustainable Development Goal 11 . Due to

5863-577: Is a UNESCO World Heritage site , also comes under Ambala division. Ambala Cantonment railway station serves maximum Shatabdi Express after New Delhi . Ambala railway station was mentioned in the famous story ' The Woman on Platform 8 ' by Ruskin Bond , although in reality there is no platform 8 in Ambala Cantt. Ambala has a large number of schools and colleges. Notable colleges are as follows: City Historically, city dwellers have been

Ambala - Misplaced Pages Continue

6006-511: Is also used in small numbers for the anti-ship role, equipped with the Sea Eagle missile . The Jaguar remains an important element of the Indian military as, along with the Mirage 2000 , the Jaguar has been described as one of the few aircraft capable of performing the nuclear strike role with reasonable chances of success. It has been alleged that the Indian military decided against developing

6149-498: Is connected to all of the other major cities of north India . It is a big interchange for various commuters for all neighbouring states. National Highway NH 44 popularly known as GT road earlier known as NH 1 passes through Ambala and connects it to National capital Delhi, Panipat , Ludhiana and Amritsar . NH 152 connects it to state capital Chandigarh, Kaithal. Apart from the Interstate service, Ambala also houses one of

6292-517: Is still clearly visible. A system of rectilinear city streets and land plots, known as the grid plan , has been used for millennia in Asia, Europe, and the Americas. The Indus Valley Civilization built Mohenjo-Daro , Harappa , and other cities on a grid pattern, using ancient principles described by Kautilya , and aligned with the compass points . The ancient Greek city of Priene exemplifies

6435-608: Is the lack of power at altitude, especially with heavy ordnance on board. Indian Jaguars were used to carry out reconnaissance missions in support of the Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990. They later played an active role in the 1999 Kargil War with Pakistan, dropping both unguided and laser-guided bombs, the IAF defining its role as a "deep penetrating strike aircraft". The Jaguar

6578-420: Is the most urban continent, with four-fifths of its population living in cities, including one-fifth of the population said to live in shantytowns ( favelas , poblaciones callampas , etc.). Batam , Indonesia , Mogadishu , Somalia , Xiamen , China , and Niamey , Niger , are considered among the world's fastest-growing cities, with annual growth rates of 5–8%. In general, the more developed countries of

6721-586: Is very near to Ambala Cantt Jn. (Railway station). Most of the buses plying on GT road (NH1) stop in front of the Railway station. Ambala is a divisional headquarters of the Northern Railway Zone and is an important railway junction. Ambala Cantt station is among the top 100 booking stations in India. The city is served by three railway stations: The Ambala Cantonment railway station was founded on

6864-654: The Adour afterburning turbofan engine. The Br.121 was proposed with Turbomeca's Tourmalet engine for ECAT but Breguet preferred the RR RB.172 and their joint venture would use elements of both. The new engine, which would be used for the AFVG as well, would be built in Derby and Tarnos . Previous collaborative efforts between Britain and France had been complicated – the AFVG programme ended in cancellation, and controversy surrounded

7007-551: The Alpha Jet and Hawker Siddeley Hawk respectively. The French, meanwhile, had chosen the Jaguar to replace the Aeronavale ' s Dassault Étendard IV , and increased their order to include an initial 40 of a carrier-capable maritime version of the Jaguar, the Jaguar M. From these apparently disparate aims would come a single and entirely different aircraft: relatively high-tech, supersonic, and optimised for ground-attack in

7150-610: The Bengal Native Infantry were also disbanded. The memorial has four sections, an administrative building, second a museum building, third a library and food court, and the fourth is an open air theatre. Ambala was given the status of a district in 1847, formed by the merging of the jagir estates of hitherto independent chieftains whose territories had lapsed or had been confiscated by the British Indian Government. In its 160 years of existence as

7293-603: The Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa . In Northern Europe, cities including Lübeck and Bruges formed the Hanseatic League for collective defense and commerce. Their power was later challenged and eclipsed by the Dutch commercial cities of Ghent , Ypres , and Amsterdam . Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of Sakai , which enjoyed considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan. In

SECTION 50

#1732771947570

7436-947: The United Nations ... largely for the purpose of international statistical comparison". The word city and the related civilization come from the Latin root civitas , originally meaning 'citizenship' or 'community member' and eventually coming to correspond with urbs , meaning 'city' in a more physical sense. The Roman civitas was closely linked with the Greek polis —another common root appearing in English words such as metropolis . In toponymic terminology, names of individual cities and towns are called astionyms (from Ancient Greek ἄστυ 'city or town' and ὄνομα 'name'). Urban geography deals both with cities in their larger context and with their internal structure. Cities are estimated to cover about 3% of

7579-505: The Uruk period . In the fourth and third millennium BC , complex civilizations flourished in the river valleys of Mesopotamia , India , China , and Egypt . Excavations in these areas have found the ruins of cities geared variously towards trade, politics, or religion. Some had large, dense populations , but others carried out urban activities in the realms of politics or religion without having large associated populations. Among

7722-730: The civilization of Djenne-Djenno was likely established by the Mande progenitors of the Bozo people . Their habitation of the site spanned the period from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE. Archaeological evidence from Jenné-Jeno, specifically the presence of non-West African glass beads dated from the third century BCE to the fourth century CE, indicates that pre-Arabic trade contacts probably existed between Jenné-Jeno and North Africa. Additionally, other early urban centers in West Africa, dated to around 500 CE, include Awdaghust , Kumbi Saleh ,

7865-666: The commune ( in France and Chile ; or comune in Italy). SEPECAT Jaguar The SEPECAT Jaguar is an Anglo-French supersonic jet attack aircraft originally used by the British Royal Air Force and the French Air Force in the close air support and nuclear strike role. As of 2024, the Jaguar remains in service with the Indian Air Force . Originally conceived in the 1960s as

8008-427: The government workers . (This arrangement contrasts with the more typically horizontal relationships in a tribe or village accomplishing common goals through informal agreements between neighbors, or the leadership of a chief.) The governments may be based on heredity, religion, military power, work systems such as canal-building, food distribution, land-ownership, agriculture, commerce, manufacturing, finance, or

8151-538: The knowledge economy . A new smart city paradigm, supported by institutions such as the RAND Corporation and IBM , is bringing computerized surveillance , data analysis, and governance to bear on cities and city dwellers. Some companies are building brand-new master-planned cities from scratch on greenfield sites. Urbanization is the process of migration from rural to urban areas, driven by various political, economic, and cultural factors. Until

8294-564: The service economy and public-private partnerships , with concomitant gentrification , uneven revitalization efforts , and selective cultural development. Under the Great Leap Forward and subsequent five-year plans continuing today, China has undergone concomitant urbanization and industrialization and become the world's leading manufacturer . Amidst these economic changes, high technology and instantaneous telecommunication enable select cities to become centers of

8437-535: The " Global North " remain more urbanized than the less developed countries of the " Global South "—but the difference continues to shrink because urbanization is happening faster in the latter group. Asia is home to by far the greatest absolute number of city-dwellers: over two billion and counting. The UN predicts an additional 2.5 billion city dwellers (and 300 million fewer country dwellers) worldwide by 2050, with 90% of urban population expansion occurring in Asia and Africa. Megacities , cities with populations in

8580-539: The "functional definition", a city is not distinguished by size alone, but also by the role it plays within a larger political context. Cities serve as administrative, commercial, religious, and cultural hubs for their larger surrounding areas. The presence of a literate elite is often associated with cities because of the cultural diversities present in a city. A typical city has professional administrators , regulations, and some form of taxation (food and other necessities or means to trade for them) to support

8723-475: The 14th century CE. According to another version, it is named after the goddess "Bhawani Amba," whose Temple still exists in Ambala city. The English spelling Umballa has sometimes been used; this spelling was used by Rudyard Kipling in his 1901 novel Kim . Archaeological Surveyor C.J Rodgers found Indo-Parthian Kingdom coins as well as coins of Hunas , Mihirakula and Toramana which indicated that after

SECTION 60

#1732771947570

8866-532: The 18th century), Ile-Ifẹ̀ (70,000 to 105,000 inhabitants in the 14th and 15th centuries), Niani (50,000 inhabitants in 1400 AD) and Timbuktu (100,000 inhabitants in 1450 AD). In the West, nation-states became the dominant unit of political organization following the Peace of Westphalia in the seventeenth century. Western Europe's larger capitals (London and Paris) benefited from the growth of commerce following

9009-420: The 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the rural agricultural population and towns featuring markets and small-scale manufacturing. With the agricultural and industrial revolutions urban population began its unprecedented growth, both through migration and demographic expansion . In England , the proportion of the population living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891. In 1900, 15% of

9152-718: The 30th and 18th centuries BC. Mesoamerica saw the rise of early urbanism in several cultural regions, beginning with the Olmec and spreading to the Preclassic Maya , the Zapotec of Oaxaca, and Teotihuacan in central Mexico. Later cultures such as the Aztec , Andean civilizations , Mayan , Mississippians , and Pueblo peoples drew on these earlier urban traditions. Many of their ancient cities continue to be inhabited, including major metropolitan cities such as Mexico City , in

9295-750: The 9th through the end of the 12th century, Constantinople , the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire , was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population approaching 1 million. The Ottoman Empire gradually gained control over many cities in the Mediterranean area, including Constantinople in 1453 . In the Holy Roman Empire , beginning in the 12th century, free imperial cities such as Nuremberg , Strasbourg , Frankfurt , Basel , Zürich , and Nijmegen became

9438-537: The AFVG, Germany was expressing a serious interest in the Jaguar, and thus the design became more oriented towards the low-level strike role. With the cancellation of both the BAC TSR-2 tactical strike aircraft and Hawker Siddeley P.1154 supersonic V/STOL fighter, the RAF were looking increasingly hard at their future light strike needs and realizing that they now needed more than just advanced trainers with some secondary counter insurgency capability. At this point,

9581-509: The Adour, a two-shaft turbofan engine with afterburner . Twin engines were selected for survivability. Ease of maintenance was major consideration, an engine change being possible within 30 minutes. For the Jaguars it needed a low bypass capable of high thrust for take off, supersonic flight and low level "dashes". When the first prototype Jaguar flew on 8 September 1968, it was also

9724-532: The Agave radar system, purposely for maritime strike. India later developed the DARIN system in its Jaguar fleet, with a modern 1553 databus. Although in operational theatres such as the Gulf War the Jaguar proved to be mechanically more reliable than the Panavia Tornado , the aircraft's avionics were a hindrance to conducting missions. Owing to the Jaguar A's shortcomings in navigation and target acquisition, French Jaguars had to be escorted by Mirage F1CR reconnaissance aircraft to act as guides. The Jaguar provided

9867-404: The Andes, the first urban centers developed in the Norte Chico civilization , Chavin and Moche cultures, followed by major cities in the Huari , Chimu , and Inca cultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru . It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between

10010-462: The Bosnian operations, a Jaguar of 41 Squadron carried out the first RAF bombing raid in Europe since the end of the Second World War fifty years before. Following the success of the GR1B/T2B upgrade, the RAF launched a plan to upgrade its Jaguar fleet to a common standard, incorporating improvements introduced to some aircraft during the Gulf War, together with adding the ability to use TIALD and new reconnaissance pods. The upgrade came in two parts;

10153-577: The French and British would themselves accept the aircraft into service. India already had its Marut fighter-bomber, and tried to upgrade it with new engines, until the new project collapsed. A decade later IAF became the largest single export customer, with a $ 1 billion order for the aircraft in 1978, the Jaguar being chosen ahead of the Dassault Mirage F1 and the Saab Viggen after a long and difficult evaluation process. The order involved 40 Jaguars built in Europe at Warton , and 120 licence-built aircraft from Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) under

10296-614: The French government did not assign any Jaguars for use in the Force de frappe , France's strategic nuclear deterrent. Nuclear armed Jaguars were instead assigned the "Pre-Strategic" role, to clear a path for the Strategic strike force. The AN-52 nuclear bomb was retired from service in September 1991, when the formerly nuclear-armed squadrons of Escadre de Chasse 7 then concentrated on conventional attack. French Jaguars also performed in

10439-529: The Great founded and created them with zeal. Jericho and Çatalhöyük , dated to the eighth millennium BC , are among the earliest proto-cities known to archaeologists. However, the Mesopotamian city of Uruk from the mid-fourth millennium BC (ancient Iraq) is considered by most archaeologists to be the first true city, innovating many characteristics for cities to follow, with its name attributed to

10582-649: The Gulf War, including CRV7 high-velocity rockets and American CBU-87 cluster bombs . Finally, the Jaguar was equipped with either a pair of 30 mm autocannon - the French DEFA cannon , or British ADEN cannon . The Jaguar International had the unusual option of overwing pylons, used for short-range air-to-air missiles, such as the Matra R550 Magic or the Sidewinder. This option freed up

10725-699: The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait , on 9 August 1990 the British government assigned an initial 12 Jaguar GR1A and 12 Tornado F3 aircraft to the Middle East in Operation Granby , these aircraft operated from bases in Oman and Bahrain . On 23 August 1990, a squadron of Tornado GR1 interdictors were dispatched to the region as well, but the Tornado GR1 was difficult to keep operational in

10868-650: The Jaguar S) with No 54 (F) squadron in 1974. These were supplemented by 35 two seat trainers, the Jaguar T2 (previously Jaguar B ). The Jaguar S and B had a more comprehensive nav/attack system than the A and E models used by the French Air Force, consisting of a Ferranti/Marconi Navigation and Weapon Aiming Sub System (NAVWASS) and a Plessey 10 Way Weapon Control System. RAF Jaguars were used for rapid deployment and regional reinforcement, and others flew in

11011-404: The Jaguar into an active nuclear platform because of its lack of ground clearance for deploying India's gravity-dropped nuclear bombs. As the aircraft aged, the avionics were viewed as lacking suitable components for the ground attack mission, such as terrain-following radar, GPS navigation or modern night-flight systems; consequently, several upgrades were carried out in the mid-1990s, including

11154-597: The Mk.102 engine, mainly featuring better afterburner-throttle control over the Mk.101. The RAF later had its Jaguars re-engined around 1981 with the improved Adour Mk.104, and again in 1999 with the Mk.106, each providing greater performance. The Adour was developed into both afterburning and non-afterburning models; the Hawk, which had beaten the Jaguar to fulfill the Air Staff Target 362 trainer requirement, also used

11297-918: The Persian Gulf. The RAF's detachment of 12 Jaguars flew 612 combat sorties, with no aircraft being lost. XZ364 "Sadman" flew 47 missions; the highest number of missions of any aircraft. In 1994, in order to meet an urgent need to increase the number of aircraft able to designate targets for laser-guided bombs , 10 GR1As and two T2As were upgraded with the capability to carry the TIALD laser designator pod and redesignated as Jaguar GR1B and T2B respectively. TIALD equipped Jaguar GR1Bs were deployed to Italy in August to take part in Operation Deliberate Force against Bosnian Serb forces, being used to designate targets for RAF Harriers. During

11440-556: The RAF Jaguar force to its peak strength of six squadrons plus the OCU, each of twelve aircraft equipped with eight WE.177s. Two further squadrons, 2 Squadron and 41 Squadron based at RAF Laarbruch and RAF Coltishall respectively, were primarily tasked with tactical reconnaissance. From 1975 the OCU's wartime role was as an operational squadron in the front line assigned to SACEUR with 12 Jaguar aircraft, eight WE.177 nuclear bombs, and

11583-492: The RAF's proposed strike fleet was to be the American General Dynamics F-111s plus the AFVG for lighter strike purposes. There was concern that both F-111 and AFVG were high risk projects and with the French already planning on a strike role for the Jaguar, there was an opportunity to introduce a credible backup plan for the RAF's future strike needs – the Jaguar. As a result, by October 1970,

11726-538: The RAF's requirements had changed to 165 single-seat strike aircraft and 35 trainers. The Jaguar was to replace the McDonnell Douglas Phantom FGR2 in the close air support , tactical reconnaissance and tactical strike roles, freeing the Phantom to be used for air defence. Both the French and British trainer requirements had developed significantly, and were eventually fulfilled instead by

11869-604: The Super Étendard, claiming that it was a simpler and cheaper development of the existing Étendard IV, and in 1973, the French Navy ordered it instead of the Jaguar. However, rising costs meant that only 71 of the planned 100 Super Étendards were purchased. The M was cancelled by the French government in 1973. The Jaguar is an orthodox single-seat, swept-wing, twin-engine monoplane design, with tall tricycle-type retractable landing gear . In its original configuration, it had

12012-556: The United Kingdom, the first kit being shipped to India in May 1981. In the following phases more aircraft were built in India with less European content. A total of 80 aircraft were built by HAL. Indian Jaguars were quite different from the RAF ones. The Adour Mk 811 engines were soon adopted in the HAL production line (the previous Jaguars made in UK had the earlier Mk 804), giving 8,400 lbf each. There were R-550 Magic 1 or 2 in rails over

12155-1088: The addition of the Litening targeting pod. India placed an order for 17 additional upgraded Jaguar aircraft from Hindustan Aeronautics in 1999 and a further 20 in 2001–2002. The IAF plans to upgrade up to 125 Jaguars starting in 2013 by upgrading the avionics (including multi mode radar, auto-pilot and other changes) as part of the DARIN III programme and is considering fitting more powerful engines, Honeywell F125IN , to improve performance, particularly at medium altitudes. The latest upgrade program DARIN III (Display Attack Ranging Inertial Navigation) has also been approved. In addition to new avionics and equipment installed as part of DARIN II upgrade, DARIN III featured modified avionics architecture, new cockpit with dual SMD, solid state flight data recorder and solid state video recording system, auto pilot system, integration of new multi-mode radar on Jaguar IS (currently only Jaguar IM are fitted with radars). Major structural modification

12298-460: The advanced BAC-Dassault AFVG aircraft, with France to buy 75 "E" trainers ( école ) and 75 "A" single-seat strike attack aircraft ( appui ). Dassault favoured its own Mirage G aircraft above the collaborative AFVG, and in June ;1967, France cancelled the AFVG on cost grounds. This left a gap in the RAF's planned strike capabilities for the 1970s; at the same time as France's cancellation of

12441-485: The aircraft themselves would be assembled on two production lines; one in the UK and one in France, To avoid any duplication of work, each aircraft component had only one source. The British light strike/tactical support versions were the most demanding design, requiring supersonic performance, superior avionics, a cutting edge nav/attack system of more accuracy and complexity than the French version, moving map display , laser range-finder and marked-target seeker (LRMTS). As

12584-468: The airframe; the aerodynamic instability improved manoeuvrability and the test data was used in the development of the Eurofighter . The French Air Force took delivery of the first production Jaguar in 1973, one of an eventual 160 single-seat Jaguar As. For type conversion training, France also took 40 of the two-seat Jaguar E . While the Jaguar was capable of carrying a single AN-52 nuclear bomb,

12727-536: The ancient capital of Ghana, and Maranda , a center located on a trade route between Egypt and Gao. The dissolution of the Roman Empire in the West was connected with profound changes in urban fabric of western Europe. In places where Roman administration quickly weakened urbanism went through a profound crisis, even if it continued to remain an important symbolic factor. In regions like Italy or Spain cities diminished in size but nevertheless continued to play

12870-464: The athletic, artistic, spiritual, and political life of the polis. Rome was the first city that surpassed one million inhabitants. Under the authority of its empire , Rome transformed and founded many cities ( Colonia ), and with them brought its principles of urban architecture, design, and society. In the ancient Americas , early urban traditions developed in the Andes and Mesoamerica . In

13013-555: The attempts were unsuccessful. France committed military assets to the Gulf War coalition; in October 1990, eight Jaguar A aircraft along with several Mirage F1CR reconnaissance aircraft were sent to the Middle East. The Mirages, which had more advanced avionics, acted as guides for the Jaguars. Owing to obsolete navigational systems being unable to provide the accuracy required, both French and British Jaguars were quickly modified with GPS receivers, RAF Tornados also required adaption to

13156-407: The benefit of mitigating the urban heat island effect, especially in cities that are in warmer climates. These spaces prevent carbon imbalances, extreme habitat losses, electricity and water consumption, and human health risks. The urban structure generally follows one or more basic patterns: geomorphic, radial, concentric, rectilinear, and curvilinear. The physical environment generally constrains

13299-579: The combat area for Coalition forces. Both nations' Jaguars were withdrawn from the region in March 1991, at the end of Desert Storm. In Operation Deliberate Force in 1995, six Jaguars based in Italy conducted 63 strike missions. The last Jaguars in French service were retired in 2005, being replaced in the ground attack roles by the Dassault Rafale. The RAF accepted delivery of the first of 165 single seat Jaguar GR1s (the service designation of

13442-415: The cost of Rs300 crore in the honour of Indian rebels of 1857 First War of Independence , is spread over 22 acres on NH-44 . The war was started at Ambala on 10 May 1857 by the Indian sepoys of 5th & 60th regiments of Bengal Native Infantry stationed at Ambala Cantonment. After the war was over, the execution of Baba Mohar Singh on 5 June 1857 at Ambala Cantonment was the first recorded execution of

13585-642: The development of the supersonic airliner Concorde . Whilst the technical collaboration between BAC and Breguet went well, when Dassault took over Breguet in 1971 it encouraged acceptance of its own designs, such as the Super Étendard naval attack aircraft and the Mirage F1 , for which it would receive more profit, over the Anglo-French Jaguar. The initial plan was for Britain to buy 150 Jaguar "B" trainers, with its strike requirements being met by

13728-510: The disintegration of the Mauryan empire , the area was taken over by Indo-Parthians and later incorporated into the domain of the Hunas. In 1709, Battle of Ambala was fought, and Sikhs captured Ambala from Mughals . It was under the rule of Gill Jats from 1748 to 1825. It was also the capital of Nishanwalia Misl . For some time it had been under the rule of Jawahir Singh of Mustafabad ,

13871-823: The early 1960s, in response to a British requirement (Air Staff Target 362) for an advanced supersonic jet trainer to replace the Folland Gnat T1 and Hawker Hunter T7 , and a French requirement (the École de Combat et d'Appui Tactique , ECAT "tactical combat support trainer") for a cheap, subsonic dual role trainer and light attack aircraft to replace the Fouga Magister , Lockheed T-33 and Dassault Mystère IV . In both countries several companies tendered designs: BAC, Hunting , Hawker Siddeley and Folland in Britain; Breguet, Potez , Sud-Aviation , Nord , and Dassault from France. A Memorandum of Understanding

14014-542: The early Old World cities, Mohenjo-daro of the Indus Valley civilization in present-day Pakistan , existing from about 2600 BC, was one of the largest, with a population of 50,000 or more and a sophisticated sanitation system . China's planned cities were constructed according to sacred principles to act as celestial microcosms . The Ancient Egyptian cities known physically by archaeologists are not extensive. They include (known by their Arab names) El Lahun ,

14157-671: The efficiency of transportation and the smaller land consumption , dense cities hold the potential to have a smaller ecological footprint per inhabitant than more sparsely populated areas. Therefore, compact cities are often referred to as a crucial element in fighting climate change. However, this concentration can also have some significant negative consequences, such as forming urban heat islands , concentrating pollution , and stressing water supplies and other resources. A city can be distinguished from other human settlements by its relatively great size, but also by its functions and its special symbolic status , which may be conferred by

14300-484: The emergence of an Atlantic trade. However, most towns remained small. During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the old Roman city concept was extensively used. Cities were founded in the middle of the newly conquered territories and were bound to several laws regarding administration, finances, and urbanism. The growth of the modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to massive urbanization and

14443-552: The engines due to budget problems. As part of technology transfer agreement with Israeli Aerospace Industries (IAI) for 54 EL/M-2052 AESA radar to be manufactured by HAL Avionics Division, the first production version will be ready by March 2021 to be fitted on Jaguar IS as part of DARIN III UPG standard. In 2018, India cannibalised 31 airframes purchased from France, 2 airframes from UK and Oman each, few engines and several hundred types of critically needed spares for optimum squadron serviceability. Indian Air Force plans to retire

14586-457: The first flight for the engine. In its initial development the Adour engine had complications with the stability of the afterburner system, and shipboard testing showed slow throttle response times, problematic in the situation of an aborted landing; engine improvements rectified these problems prior to the Jaguar coming into service. In French service, the Jaguars were introduced using the original Mk.101 engine. RAF Jaguars entered service using

14729-812: The first millennium AD, the Khmer capital of Angkor in Cambodia grew into the most extensive preindustrial settlement in the world by area, covering over 1,000 km and possibly supporting up to one million people. West Africa already had cities before the Common Era , but the consolidation of Trans-Saharan trade in the Middle Ages multiplied the number of cities in the region, as well as making some of them very populous, notably Gao (72,000 inhabitants in 800 AD), Oyo-Ile (50,000 inhabitants in 1400 AD, and may have reached up to 140,000 inhabitants in

14872-440: The form in which a city is built. If located on a mountainside, urban structures may rely on terraces and winding roads. It may be adapted to its means of subsistence (e.g. agriculture or fishing). And it may be set up for optimal defense given the surrounding landscape. Beyond these "geomorphic" features, cities can develop internal patterns, due to natural growth or to city planning . In a radial structure, main roads converge on

15015-574: The high temperatures. Blackburn Buccaneers were dispatched in January 1991 to act as laser designators for the ground strike aircraft. The RAF's Jaguars gained several new weapons during the Persian Gulf War, including CRV7 high-velocity rockets and American CBU-87 cluster bombs which were used because the RAF's existing BL755 bombs were designed for low-level release, and therefore unsuitable for higher-altitude operations common over

15158-427: The interim GR3 ( Jaguar 96 ) upgrade added a new HUD , a new hand controller and stick top, integrated GPS and TERPROM Terrain Referenced Navigation. It was delivered in two standards, for recce and TIALD. The further upgraded Jaguar GR3A (also known as Jaguar 97 ) introduced fleet-wide compatibility with TIALD and the new EO GP1 (JRP) digital reconnaissance pod, a helmet mounted sight, improved cockpit displays,

15301-571: The junction of the Delhi-Kalka and Ludhiana - Saharanpur lines. The historic Delhi-Panipat-Ambala-Kalka railway line dates back to 1889 while the Ludhiana-Saharanpur line was built in 1870. Situated 200 km (120 mi) north of Delhi, this town is well connected by the rail and road network. Ambala cantt railway station is main station of the city and is well connected with major cities of India. Kalka-Shimla Railway , which

15444-472: The land surface of the Earth. Town siting has varied through history according to natural, technological, economic, and military contexts. Access to water has long been a major factor in city placement and growth, and despite exceptions enabled by the advent of rail transport in the nineteenth century, through the present most of the world's urban population lives near the coast or on a river. Urban areas as

15587-758: The latter half of the Cold War and beyond. In the Gulf War , the Jaguar was praised for its reliability and was a valuable coalition resource. The aircraft served with the French Air Force as the main strike/attack aircraft until 1 July 2005, and with the Royal Air Force until the end of April 2007. Its role was replaced by the Eurofighter Typhoon in the RAF and the Dassault Rafale in the French Air Force. The Jaguar programme began in

15730-441: The local name Shamsher ("Sword of Justice"). As an interim measure, 18 RAF Jaguars were loaned to the IAF with the first two loaned aircraft operational with Western Air Command on 27 July 1979. The second batch of aircraft for the IAF were 40 Jaguar Internationals built at Warton , the first aircraft being delivered in March 1981. The third batch was the assembly of another 45 aircraft by HAL of kits shipped from

15873-475: The longest continual inhabitation . Cities, characterized by population density , symbolic function, and urban planning , have existed for thousands of years. In the conventional view, civilization and the city were both followed by the development of agriculture , which enabled the production of surplus food and thus a social division of labor (with concomitant social stratification ) and trade . Early cities often featured granaries , sometimes within

16016-497: The multi-millions, have proliferated into the dozens, arising especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Economic globalization fuels the growth of these cities, as new torrents of foreign capital arrange for rapid industrialization, as well as the relocation of major businesses from Europe and North America, attracting immigrants from near and far. A deep gulf divides the rich and poor in these cities, which usually contain

16159-682: The non-afterburning Adour engine. Other applications include the McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk , the Mitsubishi T-2 , and derived Mitsubishi F-1 . From the outset the Jaguar was equipped with a navigation and attack system. While A versions had a reliable double gyroscopic system and a Doppler radar derived from the Mirage IIIE, the GR1s had a totally new digital system with an inertial navigation system and

16302-472: The north and to the south. Due to its geographical location, the Ambala district plays an important role in local tourism, being located 47 km (29 mi) south of Chandigarh , 50 km (31 mi) north of Kurukshetra , 148 km (92 mi) southwest of Shimla , 198 km (123 mi) north of New Delhi and 260 km (160 mi) southeast of Amritsar . The town is said to derive its name from Amba Rajput who supposedly founded it during

16445-472: The north of Iraq, but Turkey refused access to its airbases and the northern attack was cancelled. Demands by the UK Treasury to cut the defence budget led to Defence Secretary Geoff Hoon detailing plans on 21 July 2004 to withdraw the Jaguar by 2007. An expected out of service date of October 2007 was brought forward at just five days notice to 30 April 2007. On 20 December 2007,

16588-676: The oldest and largest airbases that were inherited from the British by the IAF . It was from this airbase that Spitfires and Harvards flown by Instructors of the Advanced Flying Training School took part in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 . Subsequently, Ambala was the front line airfield for many years. It was home to various aircraft that were inducted into the Indian Air Force . Vampires , Ouragans , Hunters , etc. all flew from this base. The airbase

16731-542: The oldest local bus services in Haryana, which is run by both Haryana roadways and private companies. Other means of local transportation include auto rickshaws and cycle rickshaws . Bus service is the major means of public transport in this district. Ambala depot came into being on 1 August 1950. The office of the General Manager has situated on the premises of the depot workshop at Ambala City. Ambala depot has

16874-509: The perception of an imminent amphibious invasion to liberate the country. On the 30th, two RAF Jaguars destroyed a Polnochny -class landing ship with rockets and cannon. The Iraqi Republican Guard , entrenched on the Kuwait-Saudi border, were subjected to a continuous intensive bombing campaign for weeks to demoralise them, allied Jaguars forming a portion of the delivering aircraft. The Jaguars also performed valuable reconnaissance of

17017-500: The public as well as forms of public land such as public domain and the commons . Western philosophy since the time of the Greek agora has considered physical public space as the substrate of the symbolic public sphere . Public art adorns (or disfigures) public spaces. Parks and other natural sites within cities provide residents with relief from the hardness and regularity of typical built environments . Urban green spaces are another component of public space that provides

17160-873: The rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. England led the way as London became the capital of a world empire and cities across the country grew in locations strategic for manufacturing . In the United States from 1860 to 1910, the introduction of railroads reduced transportation costs, and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, fueling migration from rural to city areas. Some industrialized cities were confronted with health challenges associated with overcrowding , occupational hazards of industry, contaminated water and air, poor sanitation , and communicable diseases such as typhoid and cholera . Factories and slums emerged as regular features of

17303-722: The role of electronic counter measures (ECM) aircraft, bearing the Martel anti-radiation missile , capable of staying airborne to suppress enemy defences for long periods of time through mid air refuelling. In French service, the Jaguar was frequently deployed in defence of national interests in Africa during the 1970s, a policy sometimes referred to as "Jaguar diplomacy" ( la diplomatie du Jaguar ). Jaguars made their combat debut against Polisario Front forces in Mauritania in December 1977, as part of Opération Lamantin . In August 1978

17446-698: The same location as Tenochtitlan ; while ancient continuously inhabited Pueblos are near modern urban areas in New Mexico , such as Acoma Pueblo near the Albuquerque metropolitan area and Taos Pueblo near Taos ; while others like Lima are located nearby ancient Peruvian sites such as Pachacamac . From 1600 BC, Dhar Tichitt , in the south of present-day Mauritania , presented characteristics suggestive of an incipient form of urbanism. The second place to show urban characteristics in West Africa

17589-521: The survivors numerically strong enough to deliver the allocated stockpile of 56 nuclear bombs. From December 1983, 75 Jaguar GR1s and 14 T2s were updated to the GR1A and T2A standards with FIN1064 navigation and attack systems replacing the original NAVWASS. At about the same time, most were also re-engined with Adour 104 engines and were fitted with the ability to carry Sidewinder air to air missiles or AN-ALQ-101(V)-10 electronic countermeasures pods under

17732-526: The tactical nuclear strike role, carrying the WE.177 bomb. Beginning in 1975 with 6 Squadron , followed by 54 Squadron based at RAF Coltishall , and a ' Shadow squadron ', 226 OCU based at RAF Lossiemouth , Jaguar squadrons were declared operational to SACEUR with the WE.177. 14 Squadron and 17 Squadron based at RAF Bruggen followed by 1977. 20 Squadron and 31 Squadron also based at RAF Bruggen brought

17875-489: The term and has challenged geographers seeking to classify territories according to an urban-rural binary. Metropolitan areas include suburbs and exurbs organized around the needs of commuters , and sometimes edge cities characterized by a degree of economic and political independence. (In the US these are grouped into metropolitan statistical areas for purposes of demography and marketing .) Some cities are now part of

18018-522: The throttle response in case of an aborted landing. The shipboard testing also revealed problems with the aircraft's handling when flying on one engine, although planned engine improvements were to have rectified these problems. The "M" was considered a suitable replacement for the Etendard IV but the Aeronavale would only be able to afford 60 instead of 100 aircraft. In 1971, Dassault proposed

18161-551: The time. Prior to Operation Deliberate Force , the 1995 NATO bombing campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina , a dozen Jaguars were upgraded with the capability to carry the TIALD laser designator pod and redesignated Jaguar GR1B or T2B respectively. Shortly afterwards, the RAF upgraded its Jaguar fleet to a common standard, incorporating TIALD and the ability to use new reconnaissance pods. The interim GR3 ( Jaguar 96 ) upgrade added

18304-579: The total land of bus stand is 6.7 acres (2.7 ha). Bus stands in this district exist at Ambala City, Naraingarh and Barara as well. A sub-depot-level workshop has also been provided at Naraingarh. 'Yatri Niwas' exists on the campus of Ambala Cantt. bus stand for the convenience of the commuters who wish to stay for the night. Besides, the Haryana Roadways buses, the government has issued permits to private operators on local routes. Presently 60 such buses are plying in Ambala district. The bus stand

18447-412: The turn of the first millennium BC , encompassed numerous cities extending from Tyre , Cydon , and Byblos to Carthage and Cádiz . In the following centuries, independent city-states of Greece , especially Athens , developed the polis , an association of male landowning citizens who collectively constituted the city. The agora , meaning "gathering place" or "assembly", was the center of

18590-487: The under-wing pylons for other weapons and stores. RAF Jaguars gained overwing pylons in the buildup to Operation Granby in 1990, but French Jaguars were not modified. The SEPECAT Jaguar is powered by the Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour turbofan engine, which was developed in parallel with, and primarily for the Jaguar. A separate partnership was formed between Rolls-Royce and Turbomeca to develop

18733-446: The urban landscape. In the second half of the 20th century, deindustrialization (or " economic restructuring ") in the West led to poverty , homelessness , and urban decay in formerly prosperous cities. America's "Steel Belt" became a " Rust Belt " and cities such as Detroit , Michigan, and Gary, Indiana began to shrink , contrary to the global trend of massive urban expansion. Such cities have shifted with varying success into

18876-589: The volume of sewage begins to exceed manageable levels. The local government of cities takes different forms including prominently the municipality (especially in England , in the United States , India , and other British colonies ; legally, the municipal corporation ; municipio in Spain and Portugal , and, along with municipalidad , in most former parts of the Spanish and Portuguese empires) and

19019-447: The wings. The RAF Jaguar force was altered in late 1984, when 17 Squadron, 20 Squadron and 31 Squadron exchanged their Jaguars for Tornado GR1s , although their assignment to SACEUR and their wartime role remained unchanged. The two other RAF Germany units, 14 Squadron and 2 Squadron, followed suit in 1985 and 1989 respectively, which left the operational Jaguar force concentrated in 6, 41 and 54 Squadrons at RAF Coltishall. Following

19162-490: The wings. But more importantly, the NAWASS, even if very modern in conception, was replaced because it was found quite unreliable. The RAF was already upgrading the system with the modern Ferranti Type 1024 INS, but India was offered the 1024E export, less powerful version. So IAF instead pursued the development of new nav-attack system, called DARIN, that combined several technologies from France, UK and other sources. This system

19305-523: The world's population lived in cities. The cultural appeal of cities also plays a role in attracting residents. Urbanization rapidly spread across Europe and the Americas and since the 1950s has taken hold in Asia and Africa as well. The Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs reported in 2014 that for the first time, more than half of the world population lives in cities. Latin America

19448-429: Was Dia , in present-day Mali , from 800 BC. Both Dhar Tichitt and Dia were founded by the same people: the Soninke , who would later also found the Ghana Empire . Another ancient site, Jenné-Jeno , in what is today Mali , has been dated to the third century BCE. According to Roderick and Susan McIntosh, Jenné-Jeno did not fit into traditional Western conceptions of urbanity as it lacked monumental architecture and

19591-469: Was briefly attacked in 1965 by B-57 bombers of the Pakistan Air Force . Today, the Airbase houses the '7 Wing' with squadrons of Jaguars and MiG-21 Bisons. A unit of the French-made Dassault Rafale will also be based at Ambala airbase. Ambala Cantonment is the location of historic European Cemetery . It is 200 km north of Delhi and 55 km southwest of Chandigarh . First War of Independence Memorial or 1857 War Memorial , completed in 2023 at

19734-409: Was carried out on the air frame to accommodate the radar. Initial Jaguars delivered to the IAF were powered by two Adour 804E; further deliveries were powered by Adour Mk811. All the current IAF Jaguars are powered by Adour Mk811. DARIN III upgrade will cause additional weight problems due to addition of new avionics and radar, resulting in it becoming underpowered. Later IAF took decisions not to upgrade

19877-409: Was imposed on the people of Thanesar (Rs 235,000), Ambala (Rs. 253,541) and Rohtak (Rs. 63,000 mostly on Ranghars , Shaikhs and Muslim Kasai ). In November 1949, Mahatma Gandhi's assassin Nathuram Godse was hanged at Ambala Central Jail along with Narayan Apte , a co-conspirator. As of 2011 India census, Ambala UA had a population of 207,934 consisting of 112,840 males and 95,094 females,

20020-411: Was more reliable and more precise than the older NAWASS and all the IAF Jaguars had it as standard. The Jaguar was found to be a long-range, fast, stable and effective strike aircraft in IAF service. Another important upgrade was the Maritime Strike version, fitted with a radar (the French Agave) and powerful British anti-ship missiles, produced in a very limited number (12). The only real issue with Jaguar

20163-524: Was shot down and the pilot, Captain Michel Croci, was killed. The "Manta" forces were withdrawn in 1984, as part of a de-escalation agreement, whereby both Libyan and French forces were to be withdrawn from Chad. The Libyans did not respect the agreement, and Jaguars returned to Chad in 1986, as part of Operation Epervier , this time with a more forceful role. On 16 February 1986, 11 Jaguars, escorted by Mirage F1 fighters and supported by Boeing C-135F tankers and Breguet Atlantic aircraft, launched

20306-421: Was shot down, but the pilot was recovered by helicopter. In support of the further military action in the region, known as Operation Manta , Jaguars were deployed to Bangui , Central African Republic , in 1983, before being rebased inside Chad at N'Djamena International Airport . On 25 January 1984, Jaguars attacked a rebel column that was withdrawing after raiding the town of Zigey . One aircraft

20449-408: Was signed in May 1965 for the two countries to develop two aircraft, a trainer based on the ECAT, and the larger AFVG (Anglo-French Variable Geometry). Cross-channel negotiations led to the formation of SEPECAT ( Société Européenne de Production de l'Avion d'École de Combat et d'Appui Tactique – the "European company for the production of a combat trainer and tactical support aircraft" ) in 1966 as

#569430