The American Bladesmith Society, or ABS, is a non-profit organization composed of knifemakers whose primary function is to promote the techniques of forging steel blades . The ABS was founded by knifemaker William F. Moran , who came up with the concept in 1972 when he was Chairman of the Knifemakers' Guild ; the following year, he introduced Damascus steel blades at an annual show. In 1976, he incorporated the organization, and it received non-profit status in 1985.
59-445: ABS knifemakers forge their blades, as opposed to making them via the stock-removal method . The ABS has developed a system of ratings designating whether a member is an Apprentice, a Journeyman, or a Master smith. The ABS has partnered with several colleges to offer courses in bladesmithing and has launched its own museum. As of 2022, the chairman of the board of directors of ABS is Steve Dunn. Bill Moran had been elected chairman of
118-520: A finishing process in industry. A belt, coated in abrasive material, is run over the surface to be processed in order to remove material or produce the desired finish. Belt grinding is a versatile process suitable for all kinds of different applications. There are three different applications of the belt grinding technology: Wide belt grinding is a familiar process in industry as well as home applications. There are several basic methods for belt grinding: In general there are three basic elements of
177-595: A mandrel . This process was referred to as "laminating" or "Damascus". These types of barrels earned a reputation for weakness and were never meant to be used with modern smokeless powder, or any kind of moderately powerful explosive. Because of the resemblance to Damascus steel, higher-end barrels were made by Belgian and British gun makers. These barrels are proof marked and meant to be used with light pressure loads. Current gun manufacturers make slide assemblies and small parts such as triggers and safeties for Colt M1911 pistols from powdered Swedish steel resulting in
236-457: A bulat helmet made for him in 1621. The exact origin or the manufacturing process of the bulat is unknown, but it was likely imported to Russia via Persia and Turkestan, and it was similar and possibly the same as Damascus steel. Pavel Petrovich Anosov successfully reproduced the process in the mid-19th century. Wadsworth and Sherby also researched the reproduction of bulat steel and published their results in 1980. A team of researchers based at
295-523: A crucible recipe, no added plant material is necessary to provide the required carbon content, and as such any nanowires of cementite or carbon nanotubes would not have been the result of plant fibers. A research team in Germany published a report in 2006 revealing nanowires and carbon nanotubes in a blade forged from Damascus steel, although John Verhoeven of Iowa State University in Ames suggests that
354-571: A handful of knifemakers had begun making Damascus blades: Bill Bagwell, Don Hastings, Michael Connor, and Sid Birt. By 1976 more than a dozen bladesmiths were making Damascus steel, and on December 4, 1976, Moran wrote the by-laws. In 1985, the ABS held its first "hammer-in" at Dubois, Wyoming in conjunction with the University of Wyoming . The following year it was moved to Washington, Arkansas in conjunction with Texarkana College . This campus had
413-459: A high reputation for being tough, resistant to shattering, and capable of being honed to a sharp, resilient edge. The term "Damascus steel" traces its roots to the medieval city of Damascus, Syria , perhaps as an early example of branding . However, there is now a general agreement that many of the swords, or at least the steel ingots from which they were forged, were imported from elsewhere. Originally, they came from either Southern India , where
472-413: A magic twist. Just like Damascus/ Wootz steel, Valyrian steel also seems to be a lost art from an ancient civilization. Unlike Damascus steel, however, Valyrian steel blades require no maintenance and cannot be damaged through normal combat. Verhoeven, Peterson, and Baker completed mechanical characterization of a Damascus sword, performing tensile testing as well as hardness testing . They found that
531-419: A maximum overall length of 15 inches, maximum width of 2 inches and blade length of 10 inches. Damascus blades or laminated blades are not allowed as test blades. Once the test begins, no work, not even light stropping, may be done to the test blade. The test blade is used to cut a free-hanging rope, chop through 2 2X4" pieces of lumber, after which it must retain an edge capable of shaving hair from
590-568: A replica of James Black ’s blacksmith shop where, during the winter of 1830–1831, American frontiersman James Bowie purchased a knife from Black. This hammer-in, named the Piney Woods Hammer-In, still occurs semi-annually. In 1988, the ABS established the criteria for Mastersmith and Journeyman. In 1991, Moran stepped down as its President. But the Society unanimously elected him “Chairman Emeritus,” meaning that he would serve on
649-561: A sesame-seed or snowflake patterning. When a knife or sword is wiped clean and treated with 'gold thread' alum, [the pattern] appears. Its value is greater than silver. During the smelting process to obtain wootz steel ingots, woody biomass and leaves are known to have been used as carburizing additives along with certain specific types of iron rich in microalloying elements. These ingots would then be further forged and worked into Damascus steel blades. Research now shows that carbon nanotubes can be derived from plant fibers, suggesting how
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#1732787450747708-474: A smooth faced contact wheel and fine grade abrasives. Damascus steel Damascus steel ( Arabic : فولاذ دمشقي) refers to the high carbon crucible steel of the blades of historical swords forged using the wootz process in the Near East , characterized by distinctive patterns of banding and mottling reminiscent of flowing water, sometimes in a "ladder" or "rose" pattern. "Damascus steel" developed
767-401: A specific process that may be difficult to replicate should the production technique or raw materials used be significantly altered. The claim that carbon nanowires were found has not been confirmed by further studies, and there is contention among academics about whether the nanowires observed are actually stretched rafts or rods formed out of cementite spheroids. Modern attempts to duplicate
826-929: A year at the school from basic knife making to the forging of Damascus steel. Upon his retirement from teaching in 2001, the school was renamed the William F. Moran School of Bladesmithing. The American Bladesmith Society is now associated with Texarkana College in Arkansas, Haywood Community College in North Carolina, and the New England School of Metalwork in Maine which offer Bladesmithing courses taught by experienced ABS Master Smiths and Journeyman Smiths. The ABS launched its own museum and Hall of Fame in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1995 in conjunction with
885-501: Is difficult, as crucible steel cannot be reliably distinguished from other types of steel by just one criterion, so the following distinguishing characteristics of crucible steel must be taken into consideration: By these definitions, modern recreations of crucible steel are consistent with historic examples. Bin iron : It is produced by the Western Barbarians. Some [types] have a spiral self-patterning, while others have
944-462: Is fully documented and well understood. Pattern-welded steel has been referred to as "Damascus steel" since 1973 when Bladesmith William F. Moran unveiled his "Damascus knives" at the Knifemakers' Guild Show. This "Modern Damascus" is made from several types of steel and iron slices welded together to form a billet , and currently, the term "Damascus" (although technically incorrect)
1003-462: Is so hard and sharp that it can cut gold and jade ... [The last two kinds come from Shanxi and the Southwest.] The reputation and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, such as the ability to cut through a rifle barrel or to cut a hair falling across the blade. Although many types of modern steel outperform ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process made
1062-758: Is that the steel was hardened by thrusting it six times in the back and thighs of a slave. This originated in an article on page 28 of the Chicago Tribune of November 4, 1894 titled Tempering Damascus Blades . The note asserts that a certain "Prof. von Eulenspiegel" found a scroll "among the ruins of ancient Tyre". "Eulenspiegel" is the name of the legendary prankster of medieval Germany. The exceptionally strong fictional Valyrian steel mentioned in George R. R. Martin's book series A Song of Ice and Fire , as well as its television adaptation Game of Thrones , appears to have been inspired by Damascus steel, but with
1121-557: Is widely accepted to describe modern pattern-welded steel blades in the trade. The patterns vary depending on how the smith works the billet. The billet is drawn out and folded until the desired number of layers are formed. To attain a Master Smith rating with the American Bladesmith Society that Moran founded, the smith must forge a Damascus blade with a minimum of 300 layers. J. D. Verhoeven and A. H. Pendray published an article on their attempts to reproduce
1180-553: The Historic Arkansas Museum . The first year inductions were held in 1996: James Black , James Bowie , Don Hastings, B. R. Hughes, William F. Moran , and William Scagel . Bladesmiths join the ABS as Regular members and are rated as Apprentice Smiths. After a three-year period as a member they may apply for the Journeyman test. An applicant is eligible to apply for Journeyman Smith judging and rating at
1239-571: The Technical University of Dresden that used x-rays and electron microscopy to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of cementite nanowires and carbon nanotubes . Peter Paufler, a member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures are a result of the forging process. Sanderson proposes that the process of forging and annealing accounts for the nano-scale structures. German researchers have investigated
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#17327874507471298-407: The 54-fold samples had an impact toughness of 4.36 J/cm , while the 250-fold samples had an impact toughness of 5.49 J/cm . Tensile testing showed that yield strengths and elongations for both samples were similar, at around 475 MPa and 3.2% respectively. However, the maximum strength of the 54-fold samples was notably lower than that of the 250-fold samples (750 MPa vs. 860 MPa). This study showed that
1357-483: The Annual ABS meeting, after they have been a member of the ABS for 3 years. Following the "Introduction to Bladesmithing Course," the applicant may take the test under the supervision of a Master Smith. The applicant must have personally forged and performed all work on the test blade, with no other person physically assisting in its construction or heat-treating. The test knife must be a carbon steel forged blade with
1416-463: The Damascus steel was somewhat comparable to hot-rolled steel bars with 1.0 wt% carbon with regards to mechanical properties. The average yield strength of 740 MPa was higher than the hot-rolled steel yield strength of 550 MPa, and the average tensile strength of 1070 MPa was higher than the hot-rolled steel tensile strength of 965 MPa. These results are likely due to the finer pearlite spacing in
1475-446: The Damascus steel, refining the microstructure. The elongation and reduction in area were also slightly higher than the hot-rolled steel averages. Rockwell hardness measurements of the Damascus steel ranged from 62 to 67. These mechanical properties were consistent with the expected properties from the constituent steels of the material, falling between the upper and lower bounds created by the original steels. Another study investigated
1534-439: The Damascus to the original materials, finding that the properties of the Damascus steel lie in between those of the two constituent steels, which is consistent with composite material properties. The processing and design of the laminations and bands can have a significant effect on mechanical properties as well. Regardless of tempering temperature and the liquid the steel is quenched in, the impact strength of Damascus steel where
1593-534: The Knifemakers' Guild in 1972. At that time, there were fewer than a dozen practicing bladesmiths in America, and this number was decreasing, whereas the number of stock removal knifemakers was increasing. To remedy this, Moran unveiled 8 pattern welded blades at the 1973 show, dubbing them "Damascus Steel," and he handed out a booklet on how to forge the steel to the knifemakers in attendance. Within months,
1652-463: The Master title under these requirements was Wayne Goddard. Wyoming knifemaker Audra Draper became the first woman to hold a Master smith title in 1999. Knifemakers who have attained this title frequently use the suffix "MS" when informing the public about their knives. Belt grinding Belt grinding is an abrasive machining process used on metals and other materials. It is typically used as
1711-402: The aggregation of carbon onto these carbide formers, as carbon migrates much more rapidly than the carbide formers. Progressive thermal cycling leads to the coarsening of the cementite spheroids via Ostwald ripening . In Russia, chronicles record the use of a material known as bulat steel to make highly valued weapons, including swords, knives, and axes. Tsar Michael of Russia reportedly had
1770-478: The belt-grinding machine: work rest support, grinding head and a regulating head. These components differ for all the methods but in general the workpiece is pressed between the grinding head and the rest support. The objective of the regulating head is to coordinate the belt pressure. One of the most common methods is wide belt grinding. The belt grinding process is variable by adjusting certain parameters such as belt speed, grinding pressure, feed speed, durometer of
1829-447: The blades extraordinary for their time, as Damascus steel was very flexible and very hard at the same time. Extant examples of patterned crucible steel swords were often tempered in such a way as to retain a bend after being flexed past their elastic limit . The blade that Beowulf used to kill Grendel's mother in the story Beowulf was described in some Modern English translations as "damascened". A common misconception
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1888-718: The board for the balance of his life. In 1988, on the grounds of Historic Washington State Park in Hempstead County, Arkansas , the ABS and Texarkana College founded a Bladesmithing School in collaboration with the Pioneer Washington Foundation and the Arkansas State Parks. The campus was located near where historians believed that James Black had first forged the Bowie knife . From 1988 to 2001, Bill Moran taught at least one class
1947-496: The carbides was thought to permanently destroy the pattern. However, Verhoeven and Pendray discovered that in samples of true Damascus steel, the Damascene pattern could be recovered by thermally cycling and thermally manipulating the steel at a moderate temperature. They found that certain carbide forming elements, one of which was vanadium, did not disperse until the steel reached higher temperatures than those needed to dissolve
2006-488: The carbides. Therefore, a high heat treatment could remove the visual evidence of patterning associated with carbides but did not remove the underlying patterning of the carbide forming elements. A subsequent lower-temperature heat treatment, at a temperature at which the carbides were again stable, could recover the structure by the binding of carbon by those elements and causing the segregation of cementite spheroids to those locations. Thermal cycling after forging allows for
2065-547: The contact drum, size of the contact drum and the abrasive belt that is used. The machines can be made for wet or dry operation. Furthermore, a wide belt grinding machine can be constructed with single or multiple heads. The first head is used for coarse grinding and the next heads gradually make a finer finish. Wide belt grinding is also used as a high stock removal method for special metals (e.g. stainless steel , titanium , and nickel alloys). There are several objectives possible for grinding with coated abrasives. Among them are
2124-502: The distinctive surface patterns on the swords, in the same way that Damask fabrics (also named for Damascus), got their name. [REDACTED] Damascus blades were first manufactured in the Near East from ingots of wootz steel that were imported from Southern India (present-day Telangana Tamil Nadu and Kerala ). Al Kindi states that crucible steel was also made in Khorasan known as Muharrar, in addition to steel that
2183-498: The elemental, structural, and visual characteristics of Damascus steel. They started with a cake of steel that matched the properties of the original wootz steel from India, which also matched a number of original Damascus swords that Verhoeven and Pendray had access to. The wootz was in a soft, annealed state, with a grain structure and beads of pure iron carbide in cementite spheroids, which resulted from its hypereutectoid state. Verhoeven and Pendray had already determined that
2242-506: The first Master bladesmith ratings were awarded to: Bill Bagwell, Jimmy Fikes, Don Fogg, Don Hastings, Bill Moran, and James Schmidt. Years later, tests were established for a maker to attain a rating of "Master smith." The tests for Master smith include using a forged Damascus steel blade with a minimum of 300 layers and fashioned as a "stick tang knife" (as opposed to a full-tang) to cut a free hanging rope, chop through 2 2X4" pieces of lumber, and retain an edge capable of shaving hair. Lastly,
2301-579: The folding process has a significant impact on the mechanical properties of the steel, with increasing toughness as fold numbers increase. This effect is likely due to the thinning and refinement of the microstructure, and to achieve optimal properties, the steel should be folded a few hundred times. Further studies of Damascus steel created other steels showed similar results, confirming that increasing folds results in greater impact strength and toughness, and extending this finding to be consistent at higher temperatures. They also compare mechanical properties of
2360-449: The grains on the surface of the steel were grains of iron carbide—their goal was to reproduce the iron carbide patterns they saw in the Damascus blades from the grains in the wootz. Although such material could be worked at low temperatures to produce the striated Damascene pattern of intermixed ferrite / pearlite and cementite spheroid bands in a manner identical to pattern-welded Damascus steel, any heat treatment sufficient to dissolve
2419-406: The impact is perpendicular to the band orientation is significantly higher than the impact strength where the impact is parallel to the band orientation. This is due to the failure and fracture mechanisms in Damascus steel, where cracks propagate fastest along the interfaces between the two constituent steels. When impact is directed parallel to the bands, cracks are able to propagate easily along
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2478-487: The judge's arm. Lastly, the knife is placed into a vise and flexed. The knife must spring back without breaking and must remain functional. If successful, the applicant must submit 5 forged carbon steel knives for judging on symmetry, balance, and aesthetics. Knifemakers who have attained this title frequently use the suffix "JS" when informing the public about their knives. At the New York Knife Show in 1981,
2537-409: The knife is placed into a vise and flexed for 90 degrees. The knife must spring back without breaking, must remain functional, and must not slip from the handle. Once the performance test is passed, the applicant must submit 5 knives to a panel of judges; all knives are judged on balance, beauty, and symmetry, but one must be either an "Art Knife" or a "European style" dagger . The first smith to receive
2596-403: The lamination interfaces. When impact is directed perpendicular to the bands, the lamination interfaces are effectively protected, deflecting the cracks and increasing the energy required for cracks to propagate through the material. Band orientation should be chosen to protect against deformation and increase toughness. Identification of crucible "Damascus" steel based on metallurgical structures
2655-470: The metal have not always been entirely successful due to differences in raw materials and manufacturing techniques, but several individuals in modern times have successfully produced pattern forming hypereutectoid crucible steel with visible carbide banding on the surface, consistent with original Damascus Steel. Recreating Damascus steel has been attempted by archaeologists using experimental archaeology . Many have attempted to discover or reverse-engineer
2714-533: The name "Damascus Steel" is contentious. Islamic scholars al-Kindi (full name Abu Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, circa 800 CE – 873 CE) and al-Biruni (full name Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, circa 973 CE – 1048 CE) both wrote about swords and steel made for swords, based on their surface appearance, geographical location of production or forging, or the name of the smith, and each mentions "damascene" or "damascus" swords to some extent. Drawing from al-Kindi and al-Biruni, there are three potential sources for
2773-420: The nanotubes were formed in the steel. Some experts expect to discover such nanotubes in more relics as they are analyzed more closely. Wootz was also mentioned to have been made out of a co-fusion process using "shaburqan" (hard steel, likely white cast iron) and "narmahan" (soft steel) by Biruni, both of which were forms of either high- and low-carbon bloomery iron, or low-carbon bloom with cast iron. In such
2832-402: The performances of the belt grinding process. In the wide belt method, a contact wheel supports the abrasive belt. The selection of the contact wheel and abrasive to match the grinding parameters required for a specific operation is very critical. Stock removal generally requires a harder, serrated rubber contact wheel, and coarse grade ceramic abrasives. Finishing generally requires the use of
2891-444: The possibility of manufacturing high-strength Damascus steel through laser additive manufacturing techniques as opposed to the traditional folding and forging. The resulting samples exhibited superior mechanical properties to ancient Damascus steels, with a tensile strength of 1300 MPa and 10% elongation. Prior to the early 20th century, all shotgun barrels were forged by heating narrow strips of iron and steel and shaping them around
2950-407: The process by which it was made. Since the well-known technique of pattern welding —the forge-welding of a blade from several differing pieces—produced surface patterns similar to those found on Damascus blades, some modern blacksmiths were erroneously led to believe that the original Damascus blades were made using this technique. However today, the difference between wootz steel and pattern welding
3009-553: The properties of Damascus steel produced from 1075 steel and 15N20 steel, which have approximately equal amounts of carbon, but the 15N20 steel notably has 2 wt% nickel. The 1075 steel is known for high strength, but low toughness, with a pearlitic microstructure, and the 15N20 steel is known for high toughness with a ferritic microstructure. The mechanical properties of the resultant laminate Damascus steel were characterized, in samples with 54 folds in production as well as samples with 250 folds. Charpy V-notch impact tests showed that
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#17327874507473068-462: The research team which reported nanowires in crucible steel was seeing cementite , which can itself exist as rods, so there might not be any carbon nanotubes in the rod-like structure. Production of these patterned swords gradually declined, ceasing by around 1900, with the last account being from 1903 in Sri Lanka documented by Coomaraswamy . Some gunsmiths during the 18th and 19th century used
3127-466: The right application (e.g. finish or stock removal), time saving and efficiency of the abrasive tool. To achieve the above objectives, it is essential to look in more detail to the variables which affect them. These include the work material properties, the grit and abrasive type of the grinding belt, belt speed, belt sequences, contact wheel hardness and diameter, serration, type of lubricant (or dry) and grinding pressure. Changing these variables will affect
3186-438: The steel-making techniques used were first developed, or from Khorasan , Iran . The reputation and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, such as the ability to cut through a rifle barrel or to cut a hair falling across the blade. Although many types of modern steel outperform ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process made the blades extraordinary for their time, as Damascus steel
3245-546: The term "Damascus" in the context of steel: The most common explanation is that steel is named after Damascus, the capital city of Syria and one of the largest cities in the ancient Levant . In Damascus, where many of these swords were sold, there is no evidence of local production of crucible steel, though there is evidence of imported steel being forged into swords in Damascus. The name could have been an early form of branding . "Damascus steel" may either refer to swords made or sold in Damascus directly, or simply those with
3304-445: The term "damascus steel" to describe their pattern-welded gun barrels, but they did not use crucible steel. Several modern theories have ventured to explain this decline: The discovery of alleged carbon nanotubes in the Damascus steel's composition, if true, could support the hypothesis that wootz production was halted due to a loss of ore sources or technical knowledge, since the precipitation of carbon nanotubes probably resulted from
3363-533: The wootz steel to Damascus, where a weapons industry thrived. From the 3rd century to the 17th century, steel ingots were being shipped to the Middle East from South India. Bin iron, which is produced by the Western Barbarians [Xi Fan 西番], is especially fine. The Bao zang lun states: 'There are five kinds of iron ... [The first two come from Hubei and Jiangxi.] Bin iron is produced in Persia [Bosi 波斯]; it
3422-545: Was imported. There was also domestic production of crucible steel outside of India, including Merv (Turkmenistan) and Yazd , Iran. In addition to being made into blades in India (particularly Golconda) and Sri Lanka, wootz / ukku was exported as ingots to various production centers, including Khorasan , and Isfahan , where the steel was used to produce blades, as well as across the Middle East. The Arabs introduced
3481-569: Was very flexible and very hard at the same time. The methods used to create medieval Damascus steel died out by the late 19th century. Modern steelmakers and metallurgists have studied it extensively, developing theories on how it was produced, and significant advances have been made. While the exact pattern of medieval Damascus steel has not been reproduced, many similar versions have been made, using similar techniques of lamination, banding, and patterning. These modern reproductions have also been called Damascus steel or "Modern Damascus". The origin of
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