161-523: The American Protective Association ( APA ) was an American anti-Catholic secret society established in 1887 by Protestants. The organization was the largest anti-Catholic movement in the United States during the later part of the 19th century, showing particular regional strength in the Midwest . The group grew rapidly during the early 1890s before collapsing just as abruptly in the aftermath of
322-616: A hospice inside the Vatican. That building would be torn down in 1996 to make way for construction of the Domus Sanctae Marthae . Leo was a drinker of the cocaine -infused wine tonic Vin Mariani , a precursor drink to Coca-Cola . He awarded a Vatican gold medal to the wine's creator, Angelo Mariani , and also appeared on a poster endorsing it. Leo XIII was a semi-vegetarian . In 1903, he attributed his longevity to
483-483: A suburbicarian diocese , Pecci continually refused due to his preference for Perugia. It is possible that the archbishop did not share the views of the Cardinal Secretary of State , Giacomo Antonelli . It is not true that Pius IX deliberately sent him to Perugia as a way of exiling him from Rome simply because Pecci's views were perceived to be liberalistic and conciliatory, as opposed to the conservatism of
644-630: A "prohibition of the importation of pauper labor" as a means of protecting "our citizen laborers" and for tighter standards in immigration and naturalization law. Although regarded by historians as a nativist movement, the APA was not automatically hostile to immigrants — quite the contrary. Many members, perhaps a majority, were themselves foreign-born, including Irish Protestants, Britons, and Scandinavian Lutherans. The organization permitted African-Americans to membership, with blacks elected representatives of their state organizations to national conventions of
805-412: A 13-point statement of principles which was made public and published. This platform stated that "loyalty to true Americanism , which knows neither birthplace, race, creed, or party" was the "first requisite for membership" in the APA, and that the organization did not control the political affiliations of its members. The group's fundamental opposition to Catholicism was spelled out in the third plank of
966-471: A British colony and instigated substantial immigration from England and Scotland , resulted in the country developing a predominantly Protestant religious character. Nonetheless, French bishop Jean Baptiste Pompallier was able to negotiate the inclusion of a clause guaranteeing freedom of religion in some of the versions of the treaties signed and oral promises during meetings beforehand. New Zealand has had several Catholic prime ministers , which
1127-565: A Catholic clerical presence until 1820, reflecting the legal disabilities of Catholics in Britain. Some of the Irish convicts had been transported to Australia for political crimes or social rebellion and authorities remained suspicious of the minority religion. Catholic convicts were compelled to attend Church of England services and their children and orphans were raised as Anglicans. The first Catholic priests to arrive came as convicts following
1288-546: A Nation 1707–1837 , the "defensive unity brought on by war with a Catholic French ' other ' helped transform Great Britain from a new and largely artificial polity into a nation with a strong self-image rooted in Protestantism." Catholics in Ireland gained the right to vote in the 1790s but they were politically inert for another three decades. Finally, they were mobilized by Daniel O'Connell into majorities in most of
1449-717: A Protestant who had immigrated from Ireland. In the late 19th century he mobilized the "Orange" or Protestant Irish, and fiercely fought against Irish Catholics as well as the French Catholics. He especially crusaded for the abolition of the French language in Manitoba and Ontario schools. In response to the 2021 Canadian Indian residential school gravesite discoveries , numerous churches and monuments in Western Canada have been vandalized or burned down. One of
1610-592: A State-controlled school system. Protestant Reformers , including Martin Luther , John Calvin , John Wycliffe , Henry VIII , Thomas Cranmer , John Thomas , Ellen G. White , John Knox , Charles Taze Russell , Isaac Newton , Roger Williams , Cotton Mather , and John Wesley , as well as most Protestants of the 16th–19th centuries, identified the Papacy with the Antichrist . The Centuriators of Magdeburg ,
1771-516: A Treasurer, Chaplain, and six others. These officers constituted a Supreme Executive Board that held day-to-day decision-making authority between conventions. Presidents of the various state councils of the APA and former officers were also accorded places on the Supreme Executive Board. The Supreme President and the working Supreme Secretary were full-time, paid functionaries of the organization. The constitutional power accorded to
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#17327825269711932-729: A cholera epidemic in Rome, he assisted Cardinal Giuseppe Antonio Sala in his duties as overseer of all the city hospitals. In 1836, he received his doctorate in theology and doctorates of civil and Canon Law in Rome. On 14 February 1837, Pope Gregory XVI appointed the 27-year-old Pecci as personal prelate even before he was ordained a priest on 31 December 1837 by the Cardinal Vicar Carlo Odescalchi . He celebrated his first Mass with his priest brother Giuseppe. Shortly thereafter, Gregory XVI appointed Pecci as Papal legate (provincial administrator) to Benevento ,
2093-452: A disgruntled former APA lecturer and founder of a rival organization, Walter Sims, who declared in 1895 that for the APA there was "not a membership in the United States of 120,000, but they call it a million." Membership claims by the APA actually far exceeded a mere exaggerated "million," with Supreme President Traynor claiming in June 1896 a membership for the organization of 2.5 million. Nor
2254-539: A great affection for France, and feared that the Third Republic would take advantage of the fact that most French Catholics were Royalists to abolish the Concordat of 1801 . At the advisement of Cardinal Rampolla , he urged French Catholics to "rally" to the republic. Leo's decision upset many French monarchists, who felt they were being forced to betray their king for their faith. Ultimately, this move split
2415-623: A group of Lutheran scholars in Magdeburg which was headed by Matthias Flacius , wrote the 12-volume Magdeburg Centuries in order to discredit the Papacy and lead other Christians to recognize the Pope as the Antichrist. The fifth round of talks in the Lutheran–Catholic dialogue notes, In calling the pope the "Antichrist", the early Lutherans stood in a tradition that reached back into
2576-701: A hostile attitude towards the Catholic Church as an establishment and the overwhelming political, social, spiritual and religious power of the Catholic Church. Anti-clerical governments often attacked the Pope's ability to appoint bishops in order to ensure that the Church would not be independent from the State, confiscated Church property, expelled Catholic religious orders such as the Jesuits , banned Classical Christian education , and sought to replace it with
2737-707: A minister in Northern Ireland was Dr Gerard Newe , in 1971. In 1986, at the annual conference of the Democratic Unionist Party , MP for Mid Ulster William McCrea interrupted councillor Ethel Smyth when she said she regretted the death of Sean Downes, a 24-year-old Catholic civilian who had been killed by a plastic bullet fired by the RUC during an anti-internment march in Andersonstown in 1984. McCrea shouted, "No. No. I'll not condemn
2898-654: A new group also calling itself the American Protective Association contributed anti-Catholicism to the defeats of Democratic candidate Timothy S. Hogan and incumbent Democratic Governor James M. Cox . A Missouri-based newspaper, " The Menace ," depicted Hogan and Cox as puppets of the pope. An affiliated organization was founded in Mexico City on September 8, 1895, called the Constitutional Reform Club . Its purpose
3059-455: A platform calling for restricted immigration, a halt to public money spent for ostensibly sectarian purposes, limitation of the vote to citizens alone, and equal taxation of all except public property, and formed committees to attend the national conventions of the various political parties in an effort to gain commitments for these principles into national party platforms. The issue of Free silver and monetary policy proved to be all dominant in
3220-529: A pontifical charter from Pope Leo XIII founded the Catholic University of America , establishing the national university of the Catholic Church in the United States. American newspapers criticized Pope Leo because they claimed that he was attempting to gain control of American public schools. One cartoonist drew Leo as a fox unable to reach grapes that were labeled for American schools; the caption read "Sour grapes!" In 1892, Pope Leo XIII opened
3381-527: A quarter of the population of Australia were Irish Australians . Many were descended from the 40,000 Irish Catholics who were transported as convicts to Australia before 1867. The majority consisted of British and Irish Protestants. The Catholics dominated the labour unions and the Labor Party. The growth of school systems in the late 19th century typically involved religious issues, pitting Protestants against Catholics. The issue of independence for Ireland
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#17327825269713542-638: A rapprochement between Paris and St. Petersburg. Under Otto von Bismarck , the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf in Prussia led to significant restrictions on the Catholic Church in the German Empire , including the Jesuits Law of 1872 . During Leo's papacy, compromises were informally reached and the anti-Catholic attacks subsided. The Centre Party in Germany represented Catholic interests and
3703-458: A result, they did not enforce the riot act. The riots were not suppressed until the Army moved in and dispersed the crowds by shooting them, killing hundreds of rioters. The violence lasted from 2 June to 9 June 1780. Public opinion, especially in middle-class and elite circles, repudiated anti-Catholicism and lower-class violence, and it also rallied behind the government of Lord North . Demands for
3864-403: A variety of European political crises, it was generally believed that the long papacy of the conservative Pius IX led many of the cardinals to vote for Pecci because his age and health created the expectation that his papacy would be somewhat brief. Following the conclave, John Henry Newman is reported to have said, "In the successor of Pius IX recognize a depth of thought, a tenderness of heart,
4025-506: A winning simplicity, and a power answering to the name of Leo, which prevent me from lamenting that Pius is no longer here". In the conclave, Pecci was perceived as the main " papabile " candidate; however, Cardinals Flavio Chigi and Tommaso Martinelli were also considered as potential candidates. But some cardinals who opposed Pecci, and were alarmed at the rising votes he was securing, banded together to cast their ballots for Cardinal Alessandro Franchi ; however, Franchi secured no votes in
4186-596: Is hostility towards Catholics and opposition to the Catholic Church , its clergy , and its adherents. At various points after the Reformation , many majority- Protestant states, including England , Northern Ireland , Prussia and Germany , Scotland , and the United States , turned anti-Catholicism, opposition to the authority of Catholic clergy ( anti-clericalism ), opposition to the authority of
4347-676: Is indicative of the widespread acceptance of Catholicism within the country; Jim Bolger , who lead the Fourth National Government of the 1990s, was the country's fourth Catholic prime minister; Bill English , who lead the Fifth National Government from 2016 to 2017, was the fifth and most recent. Probably the most notable of New Zealand's Catholic prime ministers was Michael Joseph Savage , an Australian -born trade unionist and social reformer who instigated numerous progressive policies as leader of
4508-494: The Editio Leonina in 1879. Leo XIII is particularly remembered for his belief that pastoral activity in political sociology was also a vital mission of the church as a vehicle of social justice and maintaining the rights and dignities of the human person. Leo XIII issued a record of eleven papal encyclicals on the rosary, earning him the title of the "Rosary Pope". In addition, he approved two new Marian scapulars. He
4669-656: The Sanctum Officium put Rosenberg's book on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (forbidden books list of the Church) for scorning and rejecting "all dogmas of the Catholic Church, indeed the very fundamentals of the Christian religion". Pope Leo XIII Pope Leo XIII ( Italian : Leone XIII ; born Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi Pecci ; 2 March 1810 – 20 July 1903) was head of
4830-587: The 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith , Article 26.4. In 1754, John Wesley published his Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament , which is currently an official Doctrinal Standard of the United Methodist Church . In his notes on the Book of Revelation (chapter 13), he commented: "The whole succession of Popes from Gregory VII are undoubtedly Antichrists. Yet this hinders not, but that
4991-558: The Act of Emancipation . The state of Northern Ireland came into existence in 1921, following the Government of Ireland Act 1920 . Though Catholics were a majority on the island of Ireland, comprising 74% of the population in 1911, they were a third of the population in Northern Ireland. In 1934, Sir James Craig , the first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland , said, "Since we took up office we have tried to be absolutely fair towards all
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5152-599: The Basilica of Saint John Lateran . Born in Carpineto Romano , near Rome, he was the sixth of the seven children of Count Ludovico Pecci (1767–1833) and his wife, Anna Francesca Prosperi Buzzi (1773–1824). His brothers included Giuseppe and Giovanni Battista Pecci. Until 1818, he lived at home with his family "in which religion counted as the highest grace on earth, as through her, salvation can be earned for all eternity". Together with Giuseppe, he studied in
5313-606: The Catholic Church from 20 February 1878 until his death in July 1903. Living until the age of 93, he was the oldest pope whose age can be validated, and had the fourth-longest reign of any pope, behind those of Peter the Apostle , Pius IX (his immediate predecessor) and John Paul II . He is well known for his intellectualism and his attempts to define the position of the Catholic Church with regard to modern thinking. In his famous 1891 encyclical Rerum novarum , Pope Leo outlined
5474-509: The Clinton, Iowa , law office of Henry F. Bowers to discuss the recent electoral defeat of incumbent mayor Arnold Walliker, which Bowers and others blamed on the organized efforts of Roman Catholics in the local organized labor movement. Seven men were in attendance, including the defeated former mayor and his brother. The decision was made by the seven men to establish a new political society to combat Catholic political influence, to be called
5635-562: The College of Cardinals , as Cardinal-Priest of San Crisogono . Pope Gregory XVI originally intended to name him as a cardinal; however, his death in 1846 put pause to that idea while the events that characterized the beginning of the papacy of Pius IX further postponed the idea of Pecci's elevation. By the time that Gregory XVI died, Leopold II repeatedly asked that Pecci be named as a cardinal. While Pius IX strongly desired having Pecci as close to Rome as possible, and repeatedly offered him
5796-579: The English crown to be "the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England" in place of the pope. Any act of allegiance to the latter was considered treasonous because the papacy claimed to have both spiritual and political power over its followers. It was under this act that saints Thomas More and John Fisher were executed and became martyrs for the Catholic faith. Queen Mary , Henry's daughter,
5957-648: The First Labour Government of the 1930s. Unification into the German Empire in 1871 saw a country with a Protestant majority and large Catholic minority, speaking German or Polish. Anti-Catholicism was common. The powerful German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck – a devout Lutheran – forged an alliance with secular liberals in 1871–1878 to launch a Kulturkampf (literally, "culture struggle") especially in Prussia,
6118-550: The First Vatican Council , was to take place in the Vatican per Pope Pius IX . Pecci was likely well informed since the pope named his brother Giuseppe to help prepare the event. During the 1870s, in his last years in Perugia, Pecci addressed the role of the church in modern society several times, defining the church as the mother of material civilization because it upheld human dignity of working people, opposed
6279-611: The Jesuit College in Viterbo until 1824. He enjoyed Latin and was known to have written his own Latin poems at the age of eleven. Leo was a descendant of the Italian leader Cola di Rienzo on his mother's side. His siblings were: In 1824, he and Giuseppe were called to Rome, where their mother was dying. Count Pecci wanted his children near him after the loss of his wife and so they stayed with him in Rome and attended
6440-702: The Portuguese authorities . A papal rescript (20 April 1888) condemned the Irish Plan of Campaign and all clerical involvement in it as well as boycotting, followed in June by the papal encyclical "Saepe Nos" that was addressed to all the Irish bishops. Of outstanding significance, not least for the English-speaking world, was Leo's encyclical Apostolicae curae on the invalidity of the Anglican orders, published in 1896. In 1899, he declared Bede
6601-413: The early modern period , the Catholic Church struggled to maintain its traditional religious and political role in the face of rising secular power in Catholic countries. As a result of these struggles, a hostile attitude towards the considerable political, social, spiritual and religious power of the Pope and the clergy arose in majority Catholic countries in the form of anti-clericalism . The Inquisition
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6762-1095: The last days even prior to the Reformation. Doctrinal works of literature which were published by the Lutherans , the Reformed churches , the Presbyterians , the Baptists , the Anabaptists , and the Methodists contain references to the Pope as the Antichrist, including the Smalcald Articles , Article 4 (1537), the Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope (1537), the Westminster Confession , Article 25.6 (1646), and
6923-569: The rebellion of 1641 , almost all of the lands which were owned by Irish Catholics were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers . Under the Penal Laws , no Irish Catholic could sit in the Parliament of Ireland , even though some 90% of Ireland's population was native Irish Catholic when the first of these bans was introduced in 1691. Tensions between Irish Catholics and Protestants have been blamed for much of " The Troubles ". During
7084-519: The religious persecution of them (frequently, they were derogatorily referred to as " papists " or " Romanists " in Anglophone and Protestant countries). Historian John Wolffe identifies four types of anti-Catholicism: constitutional-national, theological, popular and socio-cultural. Historically, Catholics who lived in Protestant countries were frequently suspected of conspiring against
7245-471: The rights of workers to a fair wage , safe working conditions , and the formation of trade unions , while affirming the rights to property and free enterprise , opposing both socialism and laissez-faire capitalism . With that encyclical, he became popularly titled as the "Social Pope" and the "Pope of the Workers", also having created the foundations for modern thinking in the social doctrines of
7406-598: The 1861 election. The Protestants narrowly elected Hugh Hoyles as the Conservative Prime Minister. Hoyles unexpectedly reversed his long record of militant Protestant activism and worked to defuse tensions. He shared patronage and power with the Catholics; all jobs and patronage were split between the various religious bodies on a per capita basis. This 'denominational compromise' was further extended to education when all religious schools were put on
7567-409: The 1894 statement of principles, which declared that while the APA was "tolerant of all creeds," it nevertheless "holds that subjection to and support of any ecclesiastical power, not created and controlled by American citizens, and which claims equal, if not greater, sovereignty than the government of the United States of America, is irreconcilable with American citizenship. It is therefore opposed to
7728-450: The 1896 campaign, however, and the agenda of the APA and its friends sank without a trace. The result proved a crushing disappointment for the APA and initiated a process of rapid membership decline. In 1898 Henry F. Bowers regained leadership of the organization he had established, but by this date the APA had already been reduced to what one historian has called "a shadow of its former self." The organization closed permanently in 1911 after
7889-502: The 18th century, the Peep o' Day Boys , an agrarian association composed of Irish Protestants, engaged in numerous acts of anti-Catholic violence through County Armagh . These acts culminated in the Armagh disturbances , a period of intense sectarian conflict during the 1780's and 1790's between the Peep o' Day Boys and the Catholic Defenders . The Peep o' Day Boys would conduct early morning raids on Catholic homes to confiscate weapons, which Irish Catholics were forbidden from owning under
8050-405: The 1950s, the split in the Australian Labor Party between allies and opponents of the Catholic anti-Communist B. A. Santamaria meant that the party (in Victoria and Queensland more than elsewhere) was effectively divided between pro-Catholic and anti-Catholic elements. As a result of such disunity the ALP was defeated at every single national election between 1955 and 1972. In the late 20th century,
8211-485: The 20th century by his successors. In his Memoirs , Emperor Wilhelm II discussed the "friendly, trustful relationship that existed between me and Pope Leo XIII." During Wilhelm's third visit to Leo: "It was of interest to me that the Pope said on this occasion that Germany must be the sword of the Catholic Church. I remarked that the old Roman Empire of the German nation no longer existed, and that conditions had changed. But he adhered to his words." Leo XIII possessed
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#17327825269718372-457: The APA played a dominant role in the organization of a convention of patriotic organizations to coordinate efforts in the upcoming 1896 electoral campaign. Joining the APA were representatives of the Loyal Orange Institution, the Junior Order of United American Mechanics , the League for the Protection of American Institutions , and other related groups — organizations which together fancifully claimed some 3 million adherents. The convention adopted
8533-413: The APA, and the secret society began capturing headlines in newspapers around the country. By September 1893 the head of the Buffalo, New York , local council of the APA – formerly a Loyal Orange Institution member from Toronto — boasted of more than 800 members in that city alone, and promised that "we are going to run this city just as the APA runs Kansas City , Detroit, Saginaw , and other cities of
8694-426: The American Protective Association, and a constitution and Masonic -influenced ritual was drawn up for this new organization. Bowers was elected the group's first "Supreme President." Aside from Bowers himself, there were six other founding members. Bowers would later relate that this "First Council" was composed of three Republicans , two Democrats , one Populist , and one Prohibitionist . The religious make-up of
8855-407: The Catholic Church , influencing the thoughts of his successors. He influenced the Mariology of the Catholic Church and promoted both the rosary and the scapular . Upon his election, he immediately sought to revive Thomism , the theological system of Thomas Aquinas , desiring to refer to it as the official theological and philosophical foundation for the Catholic Church. As a result, he sponsored
9016-417: The Catholic Church back to the mainstream of European life. Considered a great diplomat, he managed to improve relations with Russia , Germany , France , Britain and other countries. Pope Leo XIII was able to reach several agreements in 1896 that resulted in better conditions for the faithful and additional appointments of bishops. During the fifth cholera pandemic in 1891, he ordered the construction of
9177-490: The Catholic Church politically suspect, and it also made the position of her Catholic subjects largely untenable if they tried to maintain both allegiances at once. The Recusancy Acts, which made worship in the Anglican Church a legal obligation, date back to Elizabeth's reign. Assassination plots in which Catholics were prime movers fueled anti-Catholicism in England. These plots included the famous Gunpowder Plot , in which Guy Fawkes and other conspirators plotted to blow up
9338-493: The Catholic Church replaced the Anglican Church as the largest single Christian body in Australia ; and it continues to be so in the 21st century, although it still has fewer members than do the various Protestant churches combined. While older sectarian divides declined, commentators have observed a re-emergence of anti-Catholicism in Australia in recent decades amid rising secularism and broader anti-Christian movements. According to New Zealand historian Michael King ,
9499-422: The Catholic policy of mandatory celibacy for priests. During the Enlightenment Era , which spanned the 17th and 18th centuries, with its strong emphasis on the need for religious toleration , the Inquisition was a favorite target of attack for intellectuals. Institutional anti-Catholicism in Britain and Ireland began with the English Reformation under Henry VIII . The Act of Supremacy of 1534 declared
9660-406: The Church even though he had been brought up in a Catholic home. The long-term aim of many Nazis was the de-Christianization of Germany and the establishment of a form of Germanic paganism which would replace Christianity. however Richard J. Evans writes that Hitler believed that in the long run National Socialism and religion would not be able to co-exist, stressing repeatedly that Nazism
9821-526: The English Parliament while it was in session. The fictitious " Popish Plot " involving Titus Oates was a hoax that many Protestants believed to be true, exacerbating Anglican-Catholic relations. The Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689 involved the overthrow of King James II, of the Stuart dynasty, who favoured the Catholics, and his replacement by a Dutch Protestant. For decades the Stuarts were supported by France in plots to invade and conquer Britain, and anti-Catholicism persisted. The Gordon Riots of 1780
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#17327825269719982-434: The Fatherland, and of serving the interests of "sinister alien forces". Adolf Hitler had some regard for the organisational power of Catholicism, but towards its teachings he showed nothing but the sharpest hostility, calling them "the systematic cultivation of the human failure": To Hitler, Christianity was a religion that was only fit for slaves and he detested its ethics. Alan Bullock wrote: "Its teaching, he declared,
10143-409: The First Council was said by Bowers to include members of the Methodist , Baptist , Presbyterian , Congregationalist , and Lutheran religious denominations, as well as "one of no religion." During the APA's first two years the organization was small and regionally compact, with local councils limited to the Midwestern states of Iowa , Illinois , and Nebraska . No internal documents indicating
10304-428: The First World War, the Irish gave support for the war effort and comprised 20% of the army in France. However, the labour unions and the Irish in particular, strongly opposed conscription, and in alliance with like-minded farmers, defeated it in national plebiscites in 1916 and 1917 . The Anglicans in particular talked of Catholic "disloyalty". By the 1920s, Australia had its first Catholic prime minister . During
10465-407: The French Church politically and decreased its influence in France. Leo's move also failed to prevent the Concordant's eventual repealment, as it was later abrogated by the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State . In the light of a climate hostile to the Catholic Church, Leo continued the policies of Pius IX towards Italy without major modifications. In his relations with
10626-478: The GOP landslide year of 1894. Thus it took credit with the election of John W. Griggs to the governorship of New Jersey, by bringing up his opponent's, Alexander T. McGill support of a Catholic protection bill in 1875. It also claimed it had an influence in the elections in Upstate New York during the same period. Its leader Traynor said the APA had twenty members of Congress as members; he boasted that one hundred members had been elected by it. In December 1895,
10787-481: The Irish 1798 Rebellion . In 1803, Fr James Dixon was conditionally emancipated and permitted to celebrate Mass, but following the Irish led Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804, Dixon's permission was revoked. Fr Jeremiah Flynn , an Irish Cistercian , was appointed as Prefect Apostolic of New Holland and set out uninvited from Britain for the colony. Watched by authorities, Flynn secretly performed priestly duties before being arrested and deported to London. Reaction to
10948-459: The Irish Catholics generally supported the English language position which was advocated by the Protestants. Newfoundland long experienced social and political tensions between the large Irish Catholic working-class, on the one hand and the Anglican elite on the other. In the 1850s, the Catholic bishop organized his flock and made them stalwarts of the Liberal party. Nasty rhetoric was the prevailing style elections; bloody riots were common during
11109-422: The Irish parliamentary districts. They could only elect, but Catholics could not be seated in parliament. The Catholic emancipation issue became a major crisis. Previously anti-Catholic politicians led by the Duke of Wellington and Robert Peel reversed themselves to prevent massive violence. All Catholics in Britain were "emancipated" in the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 ; that is, they were freed from most of
11270-456: The Italian state took over Catholic schools, Pecci, fearing for his theological seminary, simply added all secular topics from other schools and opened the seminary to non-theologians. The new government also levied taxes on the Catholic Church and issued legislation according to which all episcopal or papal utterances were to be approved by the government before their publication. On 8 December 1869, an ecumenical council , which became known as
11431-425: The Italian state, Leo continued the Papacy's self-imposed incarceration-in-the-Vatican stance and continued to insist that Italian Catholics should not vote in Italian elections or hold any elected office. In his first consistory in 1879, he elevated his older brother, Giuseppe , to the cardinalate. He had to defend the freedom of the church against what Catholics considered Italian persecution and discrimination in
11592-710: The Jesuit Collegium Romanum . In 1828, the 18-year-old Vincenzo decided in favour of secular clergy , and Giuseppe entered the Jesuit order. Vincenzo studied at the Academia dei Nobili , mainly diplomacy and law. In 1834, he gave a student presentation, attended by several cardinals , on papal judgments. For his presentation, he received awards for academic excellence and gained the attention of Vatican officials. Cardinal Secretary of State Luigi Lambruschini introduced him to Vatican congregations. During
11753-576: The Ontario Ministry of Education that restricted the use of French as a language of instruction to the first two years of schooling. French Canada reacted vehemently and lost, dooming its French-language Catholic schools. This was a central reason for French Canada's distance from the World War I effort, as its young men refused to enlist. Protestant elements succeeded in blocking the growth of French-language Catholic public schools. However,
11914-596: The Papacy Ludwig von Pastor . He also refounded the Vatican Observatory "so that everyone might see clearly that the Church and her Pastors are not opposed to true and solid science, whether human or divine, but that they embrace it, encourage it, and promote it with the fullest possible devotion." Leo XIII brought normality back to the Catholic Church after the tumultuous years of Pius IX. Leo's intellectual and diplomatic skills helped regain much of
12075-813: The Penal Laws. This led to confrontations between them and the Defenders, which culminated in the Battle of the Diamond , a confrontation which saw six killed and many more wounded. Though the Orange Order would denounce the actions of the Peep o' Day Boys, further anti-Catholic violence would continue to erupt in Ireland in the years leading up the Irish Rebellion of 1798 . The Great Famine of Ireland
12236-534: The Roman Catholic Church had instigated the Civil War , during which they said Catholics and Irish made up large numbers of deserters, and that both Grover Cleveland and William McKinley were controlled by the Church. Although a veil of secrecy cloaked early doctrinal documents, which later said to have only "feebly indicated" the APA's organizational aims, the 1894 national convention approved
12397-640: The Supreme President was vast, including the ability to remove state officers at will — thereby making any organized dissent within the Supreme Executive Board between conventions highly problematic. National headquarters were based in Chicago until 1896, at which time they were moved to Washington, D.C. After 1897 the attenuated organization maintained headquarters wherever the Supreme Secretary resided. The primary form of organization
12558-689: The Venerable a Doctor of the Church . In 1880, the Santa Maria de Montserrat Abbey in Catalonia celebrated 1000 years of existence. On 11 September 1881, to coincide with the Catalan national day, Leo XIII proclaimed the Virgin of Montserrat to be Patron of Catalonia. This had implications beyond the purely religious sphere, influencing the development of Catalan nationalism . Leo XIII welcomed
12719-542: The West." Other cities in which the APA grew to exert powerful political influence during the middle years of the 1890s included Omaha , Rockford , Toledo , Duluth , and Louisville , with a slightly lesser impact in Rochester , St. Louis and Denver . Growth of the APA during the early 1890s was spurred by the circulation of forged documents, including in particular a set of purported “instructions to Catholics” advising
12880-524: The activities of Leo XIII that were important for the English-speaking world, he restored the Scottish hierarchy in 1878. The following year, on 12 May 1879, he raised to the rank of cardinal the convert theologian John Henry Newman , who would eventually be beatified by Pope Benedict XVI in 2010 and canonized by Pope Francis in 2019. In British India , too, Leo established a Catholic hierarchy in 1886 and regulated some longstanding conflicts with
13041-486: The administration of the Perugia see until 1880. As soon as he was elected to the papacy, Leo XIII worked to encourage understanding between the church and the modern world. When he firmly reasserted the scholastic doctrine that science and religion coexist, he required the study of Thomas Aquinas and opened the Vatican Secret Archives to qualified researchers, among whom was the noted historian of
13202-529: The affair in Britain led to two further priests being allowed to travel to the colony in 1820. The Church of England was disestablished in the Colony of New South Wales by the Church Act of 1836 . Drafted by the Catholic attorney-general John Plunkett , the act established legal equality for Anglicans, Catholics and Presbyterians and was later extended to Methodists. By the late 19th century approximately
13363-506: The area of education, expropriation and violation of Catholic Churches, legal measures against the church and acts of terrorism such as anticlerical groups attempting to throw the corpse of Pope Pius IX into the Tiber on 13 July 1881. The pope even considered moving his residence to Trieste or Salzburg , two cities in Austria , an idea that Emperor Franz Joseph I gently rejected. Among
13524-441: The ballot"; suspension of further immigration, and its resumption on guarantees of residence and educational qualifications; public inspections of all private schools, convents, monasteries, hospitals, educational and reformatory institutions. In New Jersey they were able to sponsor a "School Flag Act" and an act forbidding students from wearing religious garb in school. Representatives of the group also made public announcements that
13685-519: The basis of patronage , attacks on the public school system, the "remarkable" increase in untaxed church property and the "fact" that the army, navy "were almost entirely Romanized", "frequent desecration" of the American flag by priests and the federal government was controlled by the Jesuits . They said that Roman Catholics were under the complete political control of the Pope and were to required to obey its laws when they were in conflict with those of
13846-633: The basis which the Catholics had enjoyed since the 1840s. Alone in North America Newfoundland had a state funded system of denominational schools. The compromise worked and politics ceased to be about religion and became concerned with purely political and economic issues. The presence of Catholicism in Australia came with the 1788 arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney. The colonial authorities blocked
14007-471: The calculating boastfulness of Traynor and the resentful disparagement of Sims," Humphrey J. Desmond, the first serious scholar of the APA movement, would later declare. The Association took an active part in the mid-term election of 1894 and off-year elections of 1895, in some jurisdictions running its own ticket, but more often supporting candidates from the main parties who agreed with its agenda. It often took credit for Republican victories, especially in
14168-422: The camerlengo. On 18 February 1878, the conclave assembled in Rome. Cardinal Pecci was elected on the third ballot and chose the name Leo XIII. He was crowned on 3 March 1878. During the conclave, he secured his election on the third scrutiny with 44 out of 61 votes, more than the requisite two-thirds majority. While the 1878 conclave was characterized by fewer political influences than in previous conclaves due to
14329-591: The cardinalate in late 1853, and in light of continuing earthquakes and floods, he donated all resources for the festivities of his elevation to the victims. Much of the public attention turned on the conflict between the Papal States and Italian nationalism , which aimed at the Papal States' annihilation to achieve the Unification of Italy . In the consistory of 19 December 1853, he was elevated to
14490-456: The cardinals created by the late pope intended to vote for Bilio to honor the man that elevated them in the first place, they feared that voting for an ultra-conservative could potentially evoke a veto from one of the European powers and stall the election more than was necessary. To that end, there had been early talks about Austria possibly vetoing Bilio; however, this never occurred. Before
14651-409: The children and parents through the protest each day. Some protesters shouted sectarian abuse and threw stones, bricks, fireworks, blast bombs and urine-filled balloons at the schoolchildren, their parents and the RUC . The "scenes of frightened Catholic schoolgirls running a gauntlet of abuse from loyalist protesters as they walked to school captured world headlines". Death threats were made against
14812-612: The citizens of Northern Ireland... They still boast of Southern Ireland being a Catholic State. All I boast of is that we are a Protestant Parliament and a Protestant State." In 1957, Harry Midgley , the Minister of Education in Northern Ireland, said, in Portadown Orange Hall, "All the minority are traitors and have always been traitors to the Government of Northern Ireland." The first Catholic to be appointed
14973-413: The conclave, Cardinals Domenico Bartolini , Monaco, Bilio, Henry Edward Manning , Lorenzo Nina , and Franchi (proposed by Pecci's opponents) all agreed on supporting Pecci's candidacy, also determining that the next pope needed to be an Italian. Both Manning and Edward Henry Howard agreed to persuade the foreign cardinals to back Pecci's candidacy. Upon his election, he announced that he would assume
15134-476: The condition of the Catholic Church in that country . In Belgium, the school question was sharply debated between the Catholic majority and the liberal minority. Pecci encouraged the struggle for Catholic schools, but he was able to win the good will of the Court not only of the pious Queen Louise but also of King Leopold I , who was strongly liberal in his views. The new nuncio succeeded in uniting Catholics. At
15295-524: The death of John Downes [sic]. No Fenian. Never. No". In Northern Ireland and Scotland, Fenian is used by some as a derogatory word for Roman Catholics. In 2001 and 2002, the Holy Cross dispute occurred in the Ardoyne area of north Belfast . The Holy Cross school, a Catholic primary school for girls, is situated in the middle of a Protestant area. In June 2001—during the last week of school before
15456-618: The death of its founder. While the Association said it did not have any conflict with Catholicism or the Irish per se , they believed that the Roman Catholic Church was making inroads into the government of the United States with the goal of controlling it. They said that Catholics had congregated in areas of large cities , preventing the election of non-Catholics in those areas, that 60% to 90% of government employees were Catholic, often illiterate and current and hired on
15617-603: The economy and a reform of the tax system to stimulate trade with the neighboring provinces. Pecci was first destined for Spoleto , a province of 100,000. On 17 July 1841, he was sent to Perugia with 200,000 inhabitants. His immediate concern was to prepare the province for a papal visitation in the same year. Pope Gregory XVI visited hospitals and educational institutions for several days, asking for advice and listing questions. The fight against corruption continued in Perugia , where Pecci investigated several incidents. When it
15778-525: The election of 1896. Unlike the more powerful Know Nothing movement of the 1850s, the APA did not establish its own independent political party, but rather sought to exert influence by boosting its supporters in campaigns and at political conventions, particularly those of the Republican Party . The organization was particularly concerned about Roman Catholic influence in the public school system as well as unfettered Catholic immigration and what
15939-474: The elevation of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg (the later Ferdinand I of Bulgaria ) to Prince of Bulgaria in 1886. A fellow Catholic, whose wife was a member of the Italian House of Bourbon-Parma , the two had a lot in common. However, relations between the two degenerated when Ferdinand expressed his intention to allow his eldest son Crown Prince Boris (later Tsar Boris III ) to convert to Orthodoxy,
16100-466: The eleventh century . Not only dissidents and heretics but even saints had called the bishop of Rome the "Antichrist" when they wished to castigate his abuse of power . What Lutherans incorrectly understood as a papal claim to unlimited authority over everything and everyone reminded them of the Apocalyptic imagery of Daniel 11 , a passage that had been applied to the pope as the Antichrist of
16261-562: The end of his mission, the King granted him the Grand Cordon in the Order of Leopold . In 1843, Pecci had been named papal assistant . From 1846 to 1877, he was considered a popular and successful Archbishop of Perugia . In 1847, after Pope Pius IX granted unlimited freedom for the press in the Papal States, Pecci, who had been highly popular in the first years of his episcopate, became
16422-651: The establishment of a police force in London were subsequently made. Anglo-French conflicts during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , which lasted from 1793 until 1815, saw the rise of anti-Catholicism as an underlying method to unify the Protestant populations of England, Scotland and Wales. Permeating through all social classes , antagonism towards Catholicism became firmly enmeshed with British national identity . As noted by English historian Linda Colley in her seminal work Britons: Forging of
16583-568: The excesses of industrialization and developed large-scale charities for the needy. In August 1877, on the death of Cardinal Filippo de Angelis , Pope Pius IX appointed him Camerlengo , which required him to reside in Rome. Reportedly, Pius IX is alleged to have said to Pecci: "Monsignor, I have decided to summon you to the Senate of the Church. I feel sure this will be the first act of my pontificate that you will not feel called upon to criticize". These comments were reported to have been said due to
16744-592: The faithful against "keeping faith with heretics," and another alleged Papal encyclical over the signature of Pope Leo XIII calling for Catholics to "exterminate all heretics" on or about St. Ignatius Day [September 5], 1893. The Canadian-born W. J. H. Traynor , past Supreme Grand Master of the Loyal Orange Institution of the United States and editor of a weekly anti-Catholic newspaper from Detroit , The Patriotic American, succeeded Bowers as Supreme President in 1893. It would be he who would lead
16905-451: The final ballot that saw Pecci duly elected. Allegedly, those who were dedicated to thwarting his election were Cardinals Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano , Pietro Giannelli , Chigi, Lorenzo Ilarione Randi, Carlo Sacconi , Raffaele Monaco La Valletta , Luigi Amat di San Filippo e Sorso , and Johann Baptist Franzelin . It was also suggested that, before his death, Pius IX heavily favored Cardinal Luigi Bilio to succeed him, and while many of
17066-503: The first meeting between an Archbishop of Canterbury and a Pope since the Reformation when Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher visited Rome in 1960. Since then, the dialogue has continued through envoys and standing conferences. Meanwhile, both the nonconformist churches such as the Methodists, and the established Church of England, have dramatically declined in membership. Membership in the Catholic Church continues to grow in Britain, thanks to
17227-547: The government. From the beginning, the Catholic Church faced general persecution, regimentation and oppression. Aggressive anti-Church radicals like Alfred Rosenberg and Martin Bormann saw the conflict with the Churches as a priority concern, and anti-Church and anti-clerical sentiments were strong among grassroots party activists. To many Nazis, Catholics were suspected of insufficient patriotism, or even of disloyalty to
17388-774: The group during its period of greatest influence during the mid-1890s. Traynor, the son of a building contractor, had joined the Orange Order at the age of 17 and maintained membership and connections with a host of religious and nationalist secret societies, including the Illustrious Order of the Knights of Malta , the American Patriot League, the American Protestant Association , and other similar organizations. During
17549-628: The height of anti-Catholic legislation, half of the Prussian bishops were in prison or in exile, a quarter of the parishes had no priest, half the monks and nuns had left Prussia, a third of the monasteries and convents were closed, 1800 parish priests were imprisoned or exiled, and thousands of laymen were imprisoned for helping the priests. There were anti-Polish elements in Greater Poland and Silesia. The Catholics refused to comply; they strengthened their Centre Party. Pius IX died in 1878 and
17710-490: The holding of offices in National, State, or Municipal government by any subject or supporter of such ecclesiastical power." The program further spelled out the APA's belief that "non-sectarian free public schools" constituted the "bulwark of American institutions" and protested against employment of so-called "subjects of un-American ecclesiastical power" as public school teachers or administrators. The document also called for
17871-734: The immigration of Irish and more recently, the immigration of Polish workers. Conflict and rivalry between Catholicism and Protestantism since the 1920s, especially since the 1960s, has centered on the Troubles in Northern Ireland . Anti-Catholicism in Britain was long represented by the burning of an effigy of the Catholic conspirator Guy Fawkes during widespread celebrations of Guy Fawkes Night every 5 November. However, this celebration has lost most of its anti-Catholic connotations. According to Clive D. Field, only faint remnants of anti-Catholicism are found today. As punishment for
18032-556: The largest state in the new German Empire to destroy the political power of the Catholic Church and the Pope. Catholics were numerous in the South (Bavaria, Baden-Wuerttemberg) and west (Rhineland) and fought back. Bismarck intended to end Catholics' loyalty with Rome ( ultramontanism ) and subordinate all Germans to the power of his state. Priests and bishops who resisted the Kulturkampf were arrested or removed from their positions. By
18193-635: The last Pope in this succession will be more eminently the Antichrist, the Man of Sin, adding to that of his predecessors a peculiar degree of wickedness from the bottomless pit." Referring to the Book of Revelation, Edward Gibbon stated that "The advantage of turning those mysterious prophecies against the See of Rome , inspired the Protestants with uncommon veneration for so useful an ally." Protestants condemned
18354-479: The majority religion of Bulgaria. Leo strongly condemned the action, and when Ferdinand went through with the conversion anyway, Leo excommunicated him. The United States frequently attracted his attention and admiration. He confirmed the decrees of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884) and raised James Gibbons , the archbishop of that city, to the cardinalate in 1886. On 10 April 1887,
18515-405: The membership size of the early secret society exist, the organization's records having been destroyed in a fire. The organization was unquestionably tiny in this period, however, with membership topping the 11,000 mark only in the first weeks of 1892 — this after having "increased enormously" over the preceding six months. The years 1892 and 1893 initiated a period of dramatic growth in the size of
18676-476: The middle 1890s, the APA expanded from its Midwestern nexus to become a fully national organization, with Supreme President Traynor traveling extensively to help with establishment of new local councils. The organization seems to have legitimately crossed the 100,000 member threshold sometime in the middle of 1894, according to the sanguine estimate of Humphrey J. Desmond, published in 1912. Rather than citing its substantial and growing paid membership figures, however,
18837-624: The model of the national organization. A Junior American Protective Association for boys and girls aged 14–21 was established at a meeting of the Supreme Council in Milwaukee on 12 May 1895. A women's auxiliary was established sometime prior to September 1891 as the Women's American Protective Association (WAPA). A number of the APAs obligations and rituals were divulged in 1893–94, with
18998-611: The most controversial issues was public support for Catholic French-language schools. Although the Confederation Agreement of 1867 guaranteed the status of Catholic schools when they were legalized by provincial governments, disputes erupted in numerous provinces, especially in the Manitoba Schools Question in the 1890s and in Ontario in the 1910s. In Ontario, Regulation 17 was a regulation by
19159-403: The name "Leo" in memory of Pope Leo XII due to his admiration for the late pope's interest in education and his conciliatory attitude toward foreign governments. When asked what name he would take, the new pope responded: "As Leo XIII, in remembrance of Leo XII, whom I have always venerated". His election was formally announced to the people of Rome and the world at 1:15 pm. He retained
19320-500: The object of attacks in the media and at his residence. In 1848, revolutionary movements developed throughout Western Europe, including France, Germany and Italy. Austrian , French and Spanish troops reversed the revolutionary gains but at a price for Pecci and the Catholic Church, who could not regain their former popularity. Pecci called a provincial council in 1849 to reform the religious life in his dioceses in Spoleto and it
19481-517: The organization frequently made use of rhetorical diversion by trumpeting the number of votes it "controlled," with Traynor on a West coast organizing trip in February 1894 claiming to the press that the group had "control" of 2,000 votes in Tacoma, Washington (a town of 36,000 people) as part of 2 million votes "controlled" nationwide. The APA's systematic membership exaggeration was noted expressly by
19642-628: The organization. Segregated local councils for black members were organized in the Southern States in 1895 and 1896, but local councils in the North were integrated. There is no evidence of either widespread participation by Jews in the APA or official anti-Semitism as a part of organizational practice. Citing immigration figures for the decade of the 1880s, which were said to have shown that 3.25 million of 6.3 million immigrants to America were Roman Catholic, one 1894 APA apologetic moved beyond
19803-496: The papal court. Allegedly, Pecci had been a cardinal reserved " in pectore " by Gregory XVI in the consistory of 19 January 1846, with the pope's death just over four months later invalidating the appointment since his name was never actually revealed publicly. Pecci defended the papacy and its claims. When Italian authorities expropriated convents and monasteries of Catholic orders, turning them into administration or military buildings, Pecci protested but acted moderately. When
19964-708: The parents and school staff by the Red Hand Defenders , a loyalist paramilitary group. Fears of the Catholic Church were quite strong in the 19th century, especially among Presbyterian and other Protestant Irish immigrants across Canada. In 1853, the Gavazzi Riots left 10 dead in Quebec in the wake of Catholic Irish protests against anti-Catholic speeches by ex-monk Alessandro Gavazzi . The most influential newspaper in Canada, The Globe of Toronto,
20125-745: The penalties and restrictions they faced. Anti-Catholic attitudes continued, however. In 1937, ten young men and boys, aged from 13 to 23, burned to death in a fire on a farm in Kirkintilloch , Scotland. All were seasonal workers from Achill Sound in County Mayo, Ireland. The Vanguard , the official newspaper of the Scottish Protestant League , referred to the event in the following text: Since World War II , anti-Catholic feeling in England has abated somewhat. Ecumenical dialogue between Anglicans and Catholics culminated in
20286-565: The pope ( anti-papalism ), mockery of Catholic rituals , and opposition to Catholic adherents into major political themes and policies of religious discrimination and religious persecution . Major examples of groups that have targeted Catholics in recent history include Ulster loyalists in Northern Ireland during the Troubles and the second Ku Klux Klan in the United States. The anti-Catholic sentiment which resulted from this trend frequently led to religious discrimination against Catholic communities and individuals and it occasionally led to
20447-474: The pope also sought to impose secular power over them in alliance with their arch-enemies France and Spain. In 1570, Pope Pius V sought to depose Elizabeth with the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis , which declared that she was a heretic and purportedly dissolved the duty of all of Elizabeth's subjects to maintain their allegiance to her. This rendered Elizabeth's subjects who persisted in their allegiance to
20608-475: The pope sent a high ranking representative to the coronation of his successor, Alexander III , who was grateful and asked for all religious forces to unify. He asked the pope to ensure that his bishops abstain from political agitation . Relations improved further when Pope Leo XIII, because of Italian considerations, distanced the Vatican from the Rome-Vienna-Berlin alliance, and helped to facilitate
20769-458: The population, they produce more than one-half of the crime, if we except those cities in which there is a large percent of negro criminals." Although supreme power was nominally vested in a membership gathering at annual conventions each spring, in practice the APA was a centrally directed organization staffed by a "Supreme President," and other "Supreme" officers which included a Vice-President, two Secretaries (one actively working, one ceremonial),
20930-440: The prestige lost with the fall of the Papal States. He tried to reconcile the church with the working class, particularly by dealing with the social changes that were sweeping Europe. The new economic order had resulted in the growth of an impoverished working class who had increasing anticlerical and socialist sympathies. Leo helped reverse that trend. Although Leo XIII was no radical in either theology or politics, his papacy moved
21091-533: The purported full ritual read into the Congressional Record on 31 Oct 1893 in the petition of Henry M. Youmans for the unseating of Representative William S. Linton . An independent APA press developed in early 1893, and by 1894 the movement had seventy weeklies. The Association often used spurious canon laws, Jesuit and an cardinal oaths and unauthenticated quotes from the Catholic press in their propaganda. It also sponsored lecture tours of "ex-nuns" and priests, who often turned out to be phonies In Ohio in 1914
21252-420: The royal family and used the location to visit neighboring Germany, where he was particularly interested in the architectural completion of the Cologne Cathedral . In 1844, upon his initiative, a Belgian College in Rome was opened; 102 years later, in 1946, the future Pope John Paul II would begin his Roman studies there. Pecci spent several weeks in England with Bishop Nicholas Wiseman , carefully reviewing
21413-403: The situation in New Zealand has never been as clear as in Australia. Catholics first arrived in New Zealand in 1769, and the Church has had a continuous presence in the country from the time of permanent settlement by Irish Catholics in the 1820s, with the first Maori converted to Catholicism in the 1830s. The signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, which formalised New Zealand's status as
21574-436: The smallest Papal province, with a population of about 20,000. The main problems facing Pecci were a decaying local economy, insecurity from widespread bandits, and pervasive Mafia or Camorra structures, which were often allied with aristocratic families. Pecci arrested the most powerful aristocrat in Benevento and his troops captured others, who were either killed or imprisoned by him. With public order restored, he turned to
21735-420: The sparing use of meat and the consumption of eggs, milk and vegetables. His favourite poets were Virgil and Dante . Pope Leo XIII began his pontificate with a friendly letter to Tsar Alexander II in which he reminded the Russian monarch of the millions of Catholics living in his empire who would like to be good Russian subjects if their dignity were respected. After the assassination of Alexander II,
21896-492: The standard rationale of Papal political manipulation in arguing for a tightening of immigration standards for reasons of public safety: "Most all of the better class of immigrants are Protestants. It remains that, almost entirely, the lowest class are Roman Catholics.... Among these are mostly found the train wreckers, robbers, plunderers, murderers, and assassins of the country.... In the large cities criminal statistics show that while Roman Catholics furnish about four percent of
22057-612: The state in furtherance of papal interests. Their support of the alien pope led to allegations that they lacked loyalty to the state. In majority Protestant countries which experienced large scale immigration , such as the United States and Australia , suspicion of Catholic immigrants and/or discrimination against them frequently overlapped or was conflated with nativist , xenophobic , ethnocentric and/or racist sentiments (e.g. anti-Irish sentiment , anti-Filipino sentiment , anti-Italianism , anti-Spanish sentiment , and anti-Slavic sentiment , specifically anti-Polish sentiment ). In
22218-413: The state, citing the Papal encyclical issued by Leo XIII on January 10, 1890, Sapientiae Christianae . The APAs program and stated aims included the "perpetual" separation of Church and State ; maintenance of a free, non-sectarian public school system; prohibition of any government grant or special privilege to sectarian bodies; establishment of an educational qualification to vote, "purification of
22379-402: The stories that Pecci and Pius IX had a mutual animosity for each other and disagreed with each other in terms of policy; however, this purported animosity has never been proven. It was further alleged that by this stage Pecci desired a change of scenery from Perugia and hoped for either the bishopric of Albano or the position of datary of the Apostolic Dataria . It has also been said that Pecci
22540-405: The students. While archbishop, Pecci developed several activities in support of various Catholic charities . He founded homeless shelters for boys, girls and elderly women. Throughout his dioceses, he opened branches of a Bank, Monte di Pietà , which focused on low-income people and provided low-interest loans . He created soup kitchens , which were run by the Capuchins. Upon his elevation to
22701-413: The sudden death of King Victor Emmanuel II (9 January 1878) distracted the government's attention. In the conclave, the cardinals faced varied questions and discussed issues like church–state relations in Europe, specifically Italy; divisions in the church and the status of the First Vatican Council. It was also debated that the conclave be moved elsewhere, but Pecci decided otherwise in his capacity as
22862-442: The summer break—Protestant loyalists began picketing the school, claiming that Catholics were regularly attacking their homes and denying them access to facilities. The picket resumed on 3 September, when the new school term began. For weeks, hundreds of loyalist protesters tried to stop the schoolchildren and their parents from walking to school through their area. Hundreds of riot police , backed up by British soldiers , escorted
23023-408: Was "an insoluble opposition between the Christian and a heroic-German world view". Hitler's chosen deputy, Martin Bormann, was a rigid guardian of Nazi orthodoxy and saw Christianity and Nazism as "incompatible", as did the official Nazi philosopher, Alfred Rosenberg , who wrote in Myth of the Twentieth Century (1930) that the Catholic Church were among the chief enemies of the Germans. In 1934,
23184-412: Was a devout Catholic. She tried to reverse the Reformation during her five years as Queen (1553-1558), marrying the Catholic king of Spain and executing Protestant leaders. Protestants reviled her as "Bloody Mary". Anti-Catholicism among many of the English was not only grounded in their fear that the pope sought to reimpose religio-spiritual authority over England, it was also grounded in their fear that
23345-438: Was a favorite target of attack. After the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, anti-clerical forces gained strength in some primarily Catholic nations, such as France, Spain, Mexico, and certain regions of Italy (especially in Emilia-Romagna ). Certain political parties in these historically Catholic regions subscribed to and propagated an internal form of anti-Catholicism, generally known as anti-clericalism, that expressed
23506-475: Was a force for social change. It was encouraged by Leo's support for social welfare legislation and the rights of working people. Leo's forward-looking approach encouraged Catholic Action in other European countries, where the social teachings of the church were incorporated into the agenda of Catholic parties, particularly the Christian democratic parties, which became an acceptable alternative to socialist parties. Leo's social teachings were reiterated throughout
23667-418: Was a rebellion against the natural law of selection by struggle and the survival of the fittest ". For political reasons, Hitler was prepared to restrain his anti-clericalism, seeing danger in strengthening the Church by persecuting it, but he intended to wage a show-down against it after the war. Joseph Goebbels, the Minister for Propaganda, led the Nazi persecution of the Catholic clergy and wrote that there
23828-456: Was a secular ideology, founded on modern science: "Science, he declared, would easily destroy the last remaining vestiges of superstition". Germany could not tolerate the intervention of foreign influences such as the Pope and "Priests, he said, were 'black bugs', 'abortions in black cassocks ' ". Nazi ideology desired the subordination of the Church to the State and could not accept an autonomous establishment, whose legitimacy did not spring from
23989-460: Was a violent anti-Catholic riot in London against the Papists Act of 1778 . Passed by Parliament , the new law was supposed to reduce official discrimination against British Catholics . Lord George Gordon , head of the Protestant Association, warned that the law would enable Catholics who were serving in the British Army to become a dangerous threat. The protest evolved into riots and widespread looting . Local magistrates feared reprisals and as
24150-543: Was called a "local council," organized on a city-by-city basis, with the various local councils of a state joined into a statewide organization designated a "Superior Council." Multiple local councils could be organized within a single city, provided that at least 25 dues-paying members could be assembled, with charters issued by the Superior Council rather than the national organization. Dues were set at $ 1.00 per year, with an initial initiation fee of $ 1.00. Local and state organizations were populated by sets of officers following
24311-556: Was claimed that a bakery was selling bread below the prescribed pound weight, he personally went there, had all bread weighed and confiscated it if below legal weight. The confiscated bread was distributed to the poor. In 1843, Pecci, at only 33, was appointed Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium , a position that guaranteed the cardinal 's hat after completion of the tour. On 27 April 1843, Pope Gregory XVI appointed Pecci Archbishop and asked his Cardinal Secretary of State Lambruschini to consecrate him. Pecci developed excellent relations with
24472-423: Was edited by George Brown , a Presbyterian immigrant from Ireland who ridiculed and denounced the Catholic Church, Jesuits , priests, nunneries, etc. Irish Protestants remained a political force until the 20th century. Many belonged to the Orange Order , an anti-Catholic organization with chapters across Canada that was most powerful during the late 19th century. A key leader was Dalton McCarthy (1836–1898),
24633-568: Was exacerbated by the imposition of anti-Catholic laws. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the penal laws prohibited Irish Catholics from either purchasing or leasing land, from voting, from holding political office, from living either within 5 miles (8 km) away from a corporate town, from obtaining an education, from entering a profession, and doing many of the other things which a person needed to do in order to succeed and prosper in society. The laws had largely been reformed by 1793, and in 1829, Irish Catholics could again sit in parliament following
24794-425: Was in this council that the need for a Syllabus of Errors was discussed. He invested in enlarging the seminary for future priests and in hiring new and prominent professors, preferably Thomists . He called on his brother Giuseppe Pecci , a noted Thomist scholar, to resign his professorship in Rome and to teach in Perugia instead. His own residence was next to the seminary, which facilitated his daily contacts with
24955-452: Was long a sore point, until the matter was resolved by the Irish War of Independence . Limited freedom of belief is protected by Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia , but sectarianism in Australia was prominent (though generally nonviolent) in the 20th century, flaring during the First World War , again reflecting Ireland's place within the Empire, and the Catholic minority remained subject to discrimination and suspicion. During
25116-400: Was replaced by more conciliatory Pope Leo XIII who negotiated away most of the anti-Catholic laws beginning in 1880. Bismarck himself broke with the anti-Catholic Liberals and worked with the Catholic Centre Party to fight Socialism. Pope Leo officially declared the end of the Kulturkampf on 23 May 1887. The Catholic Church faced repression in Nazi Germany (1933–1945). Hitler despised
25277-415: Was reportedly in line to succeed Cardinal Alessandro Barnabò as the prefect for Propaganda Fide ; however, it was stymied by his opponent, Cardinal Antonelli. Pope Pius IX died on 7 February 1878, and during his closing years the liberal press had often insinuated that the Kingdom of Italy should take a hand in the conclave and occupy the Vatican . However, the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and
25438-404: Was seen as growing Catholic control of the political establishments of major American cities. Although it claimed a six-figure membership at its peak in early 1896, the organization's collapse was rapid, with only a hollow shell remaining by 1898. The rump organization was finally terminated in 1911 with the death of its founder. On the afternoon of Sunday, March 13, 1887, a meeting was called in
25599-464: Was the first pope never to have held any control over the Papal States , which had been dissolved by 1870, since Stephen II in the 8th century. Similarly, many of his policies were oriented towards mitigating the loss of the Papal States in an attempt to overcome the loss of temporal power, but nonetheless continuing the Roman Question . After his death in 1903, he was buried in the Vatican Grottoes before his remains were later transferred in 1924 to
25760-465: Was this all, with the APA proudly announcing at a closed convention of the national organization in Rochester in January 1896 that the organization maintained an astounding voting strength of 3.5 million votes — which, when added to the clout of other "patriotic" organizations in alliance with the APA accounted for "more than one-fourth of the voting population of the United States." The actual high watermark of APA membership actually lay "somewhere between
25921-471: Was to "combat the growing power and prestige of the Catholic clergy and defend the public schools. The APA was also active in Canada, where it is said to have worked with the Orangemen and "is said to have controlled elections in the chief cities of the Dominion in 1894 and 1895." In England they also apparently worked with the Orange Lodge. They were also reportedly active in Australia. Anti-Catholicism Anti-Catholicism , also known as Catholophobia ,
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