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131-521: The original name was the German Blue Vienna, but that was quickly changed due to the first World War . In more recent years, rabbit keepers — especially rescue organizations — unfamiliar with the history of rabbit breeding in the US have been referring to mixed breed or "mutt" rabbits as "American". This has led to some confusion over the actual status of this historic breed. The American Rabbit

262-706: A Special Relationship with the British Empire , as particularly demonstrated by demands for tolerating only the English language in the United States . In a letter published on 16 July 1916 in the Minneapolis Journal , Edward Goldbeck, a member of Minnesota 's traditionally very large German-American community, sarcastically announced that his people would "abandon the hyphen", as soon as English-Americans did so. Meanwhile, he argued, "Let

393-458: A Santa Claus mask with white cotton balls in the beard. Fear can be learned by experiencing or watching a frightening traumatic accident. For example, if a child falls into a well and struggles to get out, he or she may develop a fear of wells, heights ( acrophobia ), enclosed spaces ( claustrophobia ), or water ( aquaphobia ). There are studies looking at areas of the brain that are affected in relation to fear. When looking at these areas (such as

524-527: A chemical smelling of banana, and a component of bee alarm pheromone. The experiment also showed that the bees' fear-induced pain tolerance was mediated by an endorphin . By using the forced swimming test in rats as a model of fear-induction, the first mammalian "alarm substance" was found. In 1991, this "alarm substance" was shown to fulfill criteria for pheromones: well-defined behavioral effect, species specificity, minimal influence of experience and control for nonspecific arousal. Rat activity testing with

655-434: A child's psyche development or personality. For example, parents tell their children not to talk to strangers in order to protect them. In school, they would be motivated to not show fear in talking with strangers, but to be assertive and also aware of the risks and the environment in which it takes place. Ambiguous and mixed messages like this can affect their self-esteem and self-confidence. Researchers say talking to strangers

786-400: A cold person warmer or a frightened animal look more impressive), sweating, increased blood glucose ( hyperglycemia ), increased serum calcium, increase in white blood cells called neutrophilic leukocytes, alertness leading to sleep disturbance and "butterflies in the stomach" ( dyspepsia ). This primitive mechanism may help an organism survive by either running away or fighting the danger. With

917-415: A comparably strong emotional response in both females and males, stress-induced sweat from females produced markedly stronger arousal in women than in men. Statistical tests pinpointed this gender-specificity to the right amygdala and strongest in the superficial nuclei. Since no significant differences were found in the olfactory bulb , the response to female fear-induced signals is likely based on processing

1048-418: A creature, species, or situations that should be avoided. SSDRs are an evolutionary adaptation that has been seen in many species throughout the world including rats, chimpanzees , prairie dogs , and even humans , an adaptation created to help individual creatures survive in a hostile world. Fear learning changes across the lifetime due to natural developmental changes in the brain. This includes changes in

1179-453: A danger or threat . Fear causes psychological changes that may produce behavioral reactions such as mounting an aggressive response or fleeing the threat. Fear in human beings may occur in response to a certain stimulus occurring in the present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to oneself. The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding

1310-424: A fear-provoking situation. This suggests that fear can develop in both conditions, not just simply from personal history. Fear is affected by cultural and historical context. For example, in the early 20th century, many Americans feared polio , a disease that can lead to paralysis. There are consistent cross-cultural differences in how people respond to fear. Display rules affect how likely people are to express

1441-460: A genetic effect that is the result of natural selection . From an evolutionary psychology perspective, different fears may be different adaptations that have been useful in our evolutionary past. They may have developed during different time periods. Some fears, such as fear of heights, may be common to all mammals and developed during the mesozoic period. Other fears, such as fear of snakes, may be common to all simians and developed during

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1572-524: A high testosterone level related to unhappiness in response to androstenone in men, and a high estradiol level related to disliking of androstenone in women. A German study from 2006 showed when anxiety-induced versus exercise-induced human sweat from a dozen people was pooled and offered to seven study participants, of five able to olfactorily distinguish exercise-induced sweat from room air, three could also distinguish exercise-induced sweat from anxiety induced sweat. The acoustic startle reflex response to

1703-404: A higher level of fear. Pathogens can suppress amygdala activity. Rats infected with the toxoplasmosis parasite become less fearful of cats, sometimes even seeking out their urine-marked areas. This behavior often leads to them being eaten by cats. The parasite then reproduces within the body of the cat. There is evidence that the parasite concentrates itself in the amygdala of infected rats. In

1834-596: A list of all German aliens, counting approximately 480,000 of them. The Committee of Internment of Alien Enemies recommended sending them to internment camps, though the idea was opposed by the War Department and the Attorney General. More than 4,000 German aliens were imprisoned in 1917–1918. The allegations included spying for Germany and endorsing the German war effort. When the United States entered

1965-420: A long loin, as opposed to the more common 'commercial' or rounded shape typical of quality New Zealand rabbit or Californian rabbit breeds. When shown, this shape calls for a slightly different posing posture than for commercial form rabbits, in order to best display the length of body and modified point of highest arch over the hips. Americans are a normal, as opposed to dwarf breed of rabbit. An example of

2096-682: A medium-sized rabbit, adult Americans weigh between 4–5.5 kg (8.8–12.1 lb), with does (females) being slightly larger than the bucks (males). The American rabbit was developed in Pasadena , California , by Lewis H. Salisbury. It was recognized in 1918 by the National Breeders and Fanciers Association (the forerunner of the American Rabbit Breeders Association ). Some suggest that the American

2227-399: A natural pheromone-containing solution, it has been shown that the impairment was associated with defective detection of related pheromones, and with changes in their inborn preference for pheromones related to sexual and reproductive activities. Lastly, alleviation of an acute fear response because a friendly peer (or in biological language: an affiliative conspecific ) tends and befriends

2358-542: A rat perceived alarm pheromones, it increased its defensive and risk assessment behavior, and its acoustic startle reflex was enhanced. It was not until 2011 that a link between severe pain, neuroinflammation and alarm pheromones release in rats was found: real time RT-PCR analysis of rat brain tissues indicated that shocking the footpad of a rat increased its production of proinflammatory cytokines in deep brain structures, namely of IL-1β , heteronuclear Corticotropin-releasing hormone and c-fos mRNA expressions in both

2489-403: A response to the stimulus in the form of fear or aggression commences, the amygdalae may elicit the release of hormones into the body to put the person into a state of alertness, in which they are ready to move, run, fight, etc. This defensive response is generally referred to in physiology as the fight-or-flight response regulated by the hypothalamus, part of the limbic system . Once the person

2620-414: A result of learning. This has been studied in psychology as fear conditioning , beginning with John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment in 1920, which was inspired after observing a child with an irrational fear of dogs. In this study, an 11-month-old boy was conditioned to fear a white rat in the laboratory. The fear became generalized to include other white, furry objects, such as a rabbit, dog, and even

2751-476: A separate experiment, rats with lesions in the amygdala did not express fear or anxiety towards unwanted stimuli. These rats pulled on levers supplying food that sometimes sent out electrical shocks. While they learned to avoid pressing on them, they did not distance themselves from these shock-inducing levers. Several brain structures other than the amygdalae have also been observed to be activated when individuals are presented with fearful vs. neutral faces, namely

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2882-435: A sound when sensing anxiety sweat was larger than when sensing exercise-induced sweat, as measured by electromyography analysis of the orbital muscle, which is responsible for the eyeblink component. This showed for the first time that fear chemosignals can modulate the startle reflex in humans without emotional mediation; fear chemosignals primed the recipient's "defensive behavior" prior to the subjects' conscious attention on

3013-552: A source of feedback or even stimulus change. Intrinsic feedback or information coming from within, muscle twitches, increased heart rate, are seen to be more important in SSDRs than extrinsic feedback, stimuli that comes from the external environment. Dr. Bolles found that most creatures have some intrinsic set of fears, to help assure survival of the species. Rats will run away from any shocking event, and pigeons will flap their wings harder when threatened. The wing flapping in pigeons and

3144-494: A term coined in analogy to keystone species . Pheromones may determine species compositions and affect rates of energy and material exchange in an ecological community . Thus pheromones generate structure in a food web and play critical roles in maintaining natural systems . Evidence of chemosensory alarm signals in humans has emerged slowly: Although alarm pheromones have not been physically isolated and their chemical structures have not been identified in humans so far, there

3275-401: Is called " social buffering ". The term is in analogy to the 1985 "buffering" hypothesis in psychology, where social support has been proven to mitigate the negative health effects of alarm pheromone mediated distress. The role of a "social pheromone" is suggested by the recent discovery that olfactory signals are responsible in mediating the "social buffering" in male rats. "Social buffering"

3406-594: Is called a phobia . Fear is closely related to the emotion anxiety , which occurs as the result of often future threats that are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable. The fear response serves survival by engendering appropriate behavioral responses, so it has been preserved throughout evolution . Sociological and organizational research also suggests that individuals' fears are not solely dependent on their nature but are also shaped by their social relations and culture, which guide their understanding of when and how much fear to feel. Many physiological changes in

3537-478: Is determined by the level of fear as well as the specific context, such as environmental characteristics (escape route present, distance to refuge), the presence of a discrete and localized threat, the distance between threat and subject, threat characteristics (speed, size, directness of approach), the characteristics of the subject under threat (size, physical condition, speed, degree of crypsis , protective morphological structures), social conditions (group size), and

3668-428: Is evidence for their presence. Androstadienone , for example, a steroidal, endogenous odorant, is a pheromone candidate found in human sweat, axillary hair and plasma. The closely related compound androstenone is involved in communicating dominance, aggression or competition; sex hormone influences on androstenone perception in humans showed a high testosterone level related to heightened androstenone sensitivity in men,

3799-432: Is how animals survive in the wild. Humans and animals both share these species-specific defense reactions, such as the flight-or-fight, which also include pseudo-aggression, fake or intimidating aggression and freeze response to threats, which is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system . These SSDRs are learned very quickly through social interactions between others of the same species, other species, and interaction with

3930-524: Is in safe mode, meaning that there are no longer any potential threats surrounding them, the amygdalae will send this information to the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) where it is stored for similar future situations, which is known as memory consolidation . Some of the hormones involved during the state of fight-or-flight include epinephrine , which regulates heart rate and metabolism as well as dilating blood vessels and air passages, norepinephrine increasing heart rate, blood flow to skeletal muscles and

4061-420: Is increased, which activates processes with the expected consequence of increasing consistency and decreasing arousal." In this context, it has been proposed that fear behavior is caused by an inconsistency between a preferred, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation, and functions to remove the inconsistent stimulus from the perceptual field, for instance by fleeing or hiding, thereby resolving

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4192-451: Is not something to be thwarted but allowed in a parent's presence if required. Developing a sense of equanimity to handle various situations is often advocated as an antidote to irrational fear and as an essential skill by a number of ancient philosophies. Fear of the unknown (FOTU) "may be a, or possibly the, fundamental fear" from early times when there were many threats to life. Although fear behavior varies from species to species, it

4323-489: Is often divided into two main categories; namely, avoidance/flight and immobility. To these, different researchers have added different categories, such as threat display and attack, protective responses (including startle and looming responses), defensive burying, and social responses (including alarm vocalizations and submission). Finally, immobility is often divided into freezing and tonic immobility . The decision as to which particular fear behavior to perform

4454-532: Is opposition to and/or fear of, hatred of, dislike of, persecution of, prejudice against, and discrimination against Germany , its inhabitants , its culture , and/or its language . Its opposite is Germanophilia . In the Pennsylvania Colony during British America , Anglo-Americans held much anti-German sentiment. The sentiments against the Palatine settlers, commonly referred to as

4585-522: Is to defend themselves and at the same time to inform members of the same species of danger and leads to observable behavior change like freezing, defensive behavior, or dispersion depending on circumstances and species. For example, stressed rats release odorant cues that cause other rats to move away from the source of the signal. After the discovery of pheromones in 1959, alarm pheromones were first described in 1968 in ants and earthworms, and four years later also found in mammals, both mice and rats. Over

4716-696: The Nashville Banner . The town, Berlin, Michigan, was renamed Marne, Michigan (in honor of those who fought in the Battle of the Marne ). The town of Berlin, Shelby County, Ohio, changed its name to its original name of Fort Loramie, Ohio . The city of Germantown in Shelby County, Tennessee , temporarily changed its name to Neshoba during the war. Fear Fear is an intensely unpleasant emotion in response to perceiving or recognizing

4847-617: The American Party , which had an openly xenophobic stance. One of many incidents described in a 19th-century account included the blocking of a funeral procession in New York by a group who proceeded to hurl insults at the pallbearers. Incidents such as these led to more meetings of Germans who would eventually form fraternal groups such as the Sons of Hermann in 1840, which was founded as a means to "improve and foster German customs and

4978-544: The British royal family . King George V was persuaded to change his German name of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to Windsor and relinquish all German titles and styles on behalf of his relatives who were British subjects. Prince Louis of Battenberg was not only forced to change his name to Mountbatten, he was forced to resign as First Sea Lord, the most senior position in the Royal Navy. The German Shepherd breed of dog

5109-544: The Chicago Symphony Orchestra until he finalized his naturalization papers. Orchestras replaced music by German composer Wagner with French composer Berlioz . After xenophobic Providence Journal editor John R. Rathom falsely accused Boston Symphony Orchestra conductor Karl Muck of refusing to play The Star-Spangled Banner and triggered a trial by media in October 1917, Muck and 29 of

5240-568: The Duke of Connaught , while visiting Berlin, Ontario, in May 1914, had discussed the importance of Canadians of German ethnicity (regardless of their origin) in a speech: "It is of great interest to me that many of the citizens of Berlin are of German descent. I well know the admirable qualities – the thoroughness, the tenacity, and the loyalty of the great Teutonic Race, to which I am so closely related. I am sure that these inherited qualities will go far in

5371-829: The First World War and some cultural sanctions. There were anti-German riots in Victoria, British Columbia , and Calgary , Alberta , in the first years of the war. It was this anti-German sentiment that precipitated the Berlin to Kitchener name change in 1916. The city was named after Lord Kitchener , famously pictured on the " Lord Kitchener Wants You " recruiting posters. Several streets in Toronto that had previously been named for Liszt, Humboldt, Schiller, Bismarck, etc., were changed to names with strong British associations, such as Balmoral. The Governor General of Canada,

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5502-767: The Pennsylvania Dutch (or Pennsylvania Germans), were deeply rooted in cultural biases and economic competition. Anglo-Americans in the Pennsylvania Colony viewed the Palatines with suspicion and often derided their language, customs, and religious practices. The Palatines, predominantly German-speaking Protestants from the Palatinate region of present-day Germany, arrived in Pennsylvania seeking religious freedom and economic opportunities in

5633-812: The Second Boer War on international financiers "chiefly German in origin and chiefly Jewish in race". Most of these ideas about German-Jewish conspiracies originated from right-wing figures such as Arnold White , Hilaire Belloc , and Leo Maxse , the latter using his publication the National Review to spread them. In 1914, when Germany invaded neutral Belgium and northern France, Imperial German Army regularly court martialed Belgian and French civilians under German military law for offenses including espionage , perfidy , or being francs-tireurs (illegal civilian combatants) and executed 6,500 of them. These acts were both exploited and exaggerated by

5764-697: The Transvaal congratulating him for repelling the British Jameson Raid . At that time, attacks on Germans in London were reported by the German press, but contrary to the reports, no attacks occurred. The Saturday Review suggested: "be ready to fight Germany, as Germania delenda est " ("Germany is to be destroyed"), a reference to Cato the Elder 's coda against the Carthaginians during

5895-766: The Waterloo Pioneer Memorial Tower in rural Kitchener, Ontario, commemorates the settlement by the Pennsylvania Dutch (actually Pennsilfaanisch Deitsch or German ) of the Grand River area in the 1800s in what later became Waterloo County, Ontario . When Britain declared war on Germany, naturalized Australian subjects born in enemy countries and Australian-born descendants of migrants born in enemy countries were declared "enemy aliens". Approximately 4,500 "enemy aliens" of German or Austro-Hungarian descent were interned in Australia during

6026-459: The amygdala ), it was proposed that a person learns to fear regardless of whether they themselves have experienced trauma, or if they have observed the fear in others. In a study completed by Andreas Olsson, Katherine I. Nearing and Elizabeth A. Phelps, the amygdala were affected both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in

6157-417: The cenozoic time period (the still-ongoing geological era encompassing the last 66 million of history). Still others, such as fear of mice and insects, may be unique to humans and developed during the paleolithic and neolithic time periods (when mice and insects become important carriers of infectious diseases and harmful for crops and stored foods). Nonhuman animals and humans innovate specific fears as

6288-407: The paraventricular nucleus and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis , and it increased stress hormone levels in plasma ( corticosterone ). The neurocircuit for how rats perceive alarm pheromones was shown to be related to the hypothalamus , brainstem , and amygdalae , all of which are evolutionary ancient structures deep inside or in the case of the brainstem underneath the brain away from

6419-615: The prefrontal cortex and the amygdala . The visual exploration of an emotional face does not follow a fixed pattern but modulated by the emotional content of the face. Scheller et al. found that participants paid more attention to the eyes when recognising fearful or neutral faces, while the mouth was fixated on when happy faces are presented, irrespective of task demands and spatial locations of face stimuli. These findings were replicated when fearful eyes are presented and when canonical face configurations are distorted for fearful, neutral and happy expressions. The brain structures that are

6550-402: The "recipient" rat (the rat perceiving the pheromone) depending which body region they were released from: Pheromone production from the face modified behavior in the recipient rat, e.g. caused sniffing or movement, whereas pheromone secreted from the rat's anal area induced autonomic nervous system stress responses, like an increase in core body temperature. Further experiments showed that when

6681-447: The "unknown". The irrational fear can branch out to many areas such as the hereafter, the next ten years or even tomorrow. Chronic irrational fear has deleterious effects since the elicitor stimulus is commonly absent or perceived from delusions. Such fear can create comorbidity with the anxiety disorder umbrella. Being scared may cause people to experience anticipatory fear of what may lie ahead rather than planning and evaluating for

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6812-572: The First World War, proportionately more than at any other time in our history. So there were these latent fears about foreigners ... It becomes very easy to stoke these racist, nativist fires and convince people there really is a threat. War propaganda is top-down driven, but it's effective because it re-enforces tendencies that already exist. A document in the Archives of Canada makes the following comment: "Although ludicrous to modern eyes,

6943-588: The Germans, and would very much rather be fighting the French! ... It was a fine sight to see the Germans coming on in solid formation, in front of our machine guns ... they were generally led by one officer in front who came along to certain death as cool as a cucumber, with his sword held straight up in front of him at the salute. Robert Graves who, like the King, also had German relatives, wrote shortly after

7074-702: The Imperial family's German roots and the presence of many German names in the Russian political elite. Negative comments about Germany were first made in Britain in the 1870s, following the Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–71. British war planners believed that they needed to prevent a possible German invasion of Britain. Britain, The Island Nation, feared invasion, leading to

7205-653: The Restriction Order in July 1915 prohibited enemy aliens and naturalized subjects from changing their name or the name of any business they ran. Under the War Precautions Act of 1914 (which survived the First World War), publication of German language material was prohibited and schools attached to Lutheran churches were forced to abandon German as the language of teaching or were closed by

7336-629: The Roman Republic. The Kaiser's reputation was further degraded by his angry tirades and the 1908 Daily Telegraph Affair . Following the signing of the Entente Cordiale alliance in 1904 between the United Kingdom and France, official relationships cooled, as did popular attitudes towards Germany and German residents in Britain. A fear of German militarism replaced a previous admiration for German culture and literature. At

7467-528: The Royal Commission on Alien Immigration believed that Germans were involved in prostitution and burglary , and many people also believed that Germans who were working in Britain were threatening the livelihoods of Britons by being willing to work for longer hours. Anti-German hostility began to intensify in early 1896 when Kaiser Wilhelm II sent the Kruger telegram to President Paul Kruger of

7598-597: The Russian people. It was further suggested by some writers that Russian citizens of German origin who did not speak Russian and follow the Orthodox faith should be considered foreigners. It was also proposed that people of German descent be forbidden from holding diplomatic posts, as they might not have "solidarity with respect to Russia". Despite the press campaign against Germans, Germanophobic feelings did not develop in Russia to any widespread extent and died out because of

7729-649: The United Kingdom. Most of these were found to be originating from Germany, whose government had introduced a protectionist policy to legally prohibit the import of goods in order to build up domestic industry (Merchandise Marks Act - Oxford University Press). In the 1890s, German immigrants in the UK were the targets of "some hostility". Joseph Bannister believed that German residents of Britain were mostly "gambling-house keepers, hotel-porters, barbers, 'bullies', runaway conscripts, bath-attenders, street musicians, criminals, bakers, socialists , cheap clerks , etc". Interviewees for

7860-630: The Volunteers, who would join it at Dorking, and would force upon England a disastrous peace. In 1894, the newspaper publisher Lord Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe commissioned author William Le Queux to write the serial novel The Great War in England in 1897 , which featured France and Russia combining their forces in an attempt to crush Britain. Happily, German intervention on Britain's side forced France and Russia to retreat. Twelve years later, however, Harmsworth asked him to reverse

7991-464: The War. In Australia, an official proclamation of 10 August 1914 required all German citizens to register their domiciles at the nearest police station and to notify authorities of any change of address. Under the later Aliens Restriction Order of 27 May 1915, enemy aliens who had not been interned had to report to the police once a week and could only change address with official permission. An amendment to

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8122-608: The acoustic startle reflex level. In analogy to the social buffering of rats and honeybees in response to chemosignals, induction of empathy by "smelling anxiety" of another person has been found in humans. A study from 2013 provided brain imaging evidence that human responses to fear chemosignals may be gender-specific . Researchers collected alarm-induced sweat and exercise-induced sweat from donors extracted it, pooled it and presented it to 16 unrelated people undergoing functional brain MRI . While stress-induced sweat from males produced

8253-446: The alarm pheromone, and their preference/avoidance for odors from cylinders containing the pheromone, showed that the pheromone had very low volatility . In 1993 a connection between alarm chemosignals in mice and their immune response was found. Pheromone production in mice was found to be associated with or mediated by the pituitary gland in 1994. In 2004, it was demonstrated that rats' alarm pheromones had different effects on

8384-447: The amount of experience with the type of the threat. Often laboratory studies with rats are conducted to examine the acquisition and extinction of conditioned fear responses. In 2004, researchers conditioned rats ( Rattus norvegicus ) to fear a certain stimulus, through electric shock. The researchers were able to then cause an extinction of this conditioned fear, to a point that no medications or drugs were able to further aid in

8515-487: The amygdala are generated by activation of the neurons in the region. Experimental data supports the notion that synaptic plasticity of the neurons leading to the lateral amygdalae occurs with fear conditioning. In some cases, this forms permanent fear responses such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or a phobia . MRI and fMRI scans have shown that the amygdalae in individuals diagnosed with such disorders including bipolar or panic disorder are larger and wired for

8646-405: The anti-German feeling was created by the press that tried to create the idea that all those of German birth or descent supported Germany uncritically. This is despite many Germans and offspring such as Gen. John Monash serving Australia capably and honorably. A booklet circulated widely in 1915 claimed that "there were over 3,000 German spies scattered throughout the states". Anti-German propaganda

8777-625: The authorities. German clubs and associations were also closed. The original German names of settlements and streets were officially changed. In South Australia , Grunthal became Verdun and Krichauff became Beatty . In New South Wales Germantown became Holbrook after the submarine commander Norman Douglas Holbrook . This pressure was strongest in South Australia where 69 towns changed their names, including Petersburg, South Australia, which became Peterborough (see Australian place names changed from German names ). Most of

8908-496: The bloodline. It is an albino variety of rabbit (otherwise known as red-eyed white) — while blue-eyed whites have appeared, they are considered sports in the American breed and can not be shown. The American may also be black, although it is not a recognized color in the American Rabbit Breeders Association (ARBA). The breed standard for American Rabbits calls for a mandolin or semi-arch shape and

9039-457: The body are associated with fear, summarized as the fight-or-flight response . An innate response for coping with danger, it works by accelerating the breathing rate ( hyperventilation ), heart rate, vasoconstriction of the peripheral blood vessels leading to blood pooling, dilating the pupils, increasing muscle tension including the muscles attached to each hair follicle to contract and causing "goosebumps", or more clinically, piloerection (making

9170-520: The brain, there are various regions of the brain involved in deciphering fear in humans and other nonhuman species. The amygdala communicates both directions between the prefrontal cortex , hypothalamus , the sensory cortex , the hippocampus , thalamus , septum , and the brainstem . The amygdala plays an important role in SSDR, such as the ventral amygdalofugal, which is essential for associative learning , and SSDRs are learned through interaction with

9301-689: The broader American society. The rebellion was primarily a response to the federal government's enforcement of a new direct tax, commonly known as the Direct Tax of 1798 or the House Tax. President John Adams granted pardons to Fries and several others who had been convicted of treason. Adams was motivated by the more specific constitutional interpretation of treason. He later remarked that the rebels were "obscure, miserable Germans, as unfamiliar with our language as they were with our laws," and suggested that they were being manipulated by prominent figures in

9432-475: The bust of Kaiser Wilhelm II from Victoria Park and dumped it into a lake; soldiers vandalized German stores. History professor Mark Humphries summarized the situation: Before the war, most people in Ontario probably didn't give the German community a second thought. But it's important to remember that Canada was a society in transition – the country had absorbed massive numbers of immigrants between 1896 and

9563-414: The capacity to fear is part of human nature . Many studies have found that certain fears (e.g. animals, heights) are much more common than others (e.g. flowers, clouds). These fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory. This phenomenon is known as preparedness . Because early humans that were quick to fear dangerous situations were more likely to survive and reproduce; preparedness is theorized to be

9694-418: The center of most neurobiological events associated with fear are the two amygdalae , located behind the pituitary gland. Each amygdala is part of a circuitry of fear learning. They are essential for proper adaptation to stress and specific modulation of emotional learning memory. In the presence of a threatening stimulus, the amygdalae generate the secretion of hormones that influence fear and aggression. Once

9825-449: The cortex, and involved in the fight-or-flight response , as is the case in humans. Alarm pheromone-induced anxiety in rats has been used to evaluate the degree to which anxiolytics can alleviate anxiety in humans. For this, the change in the acoustic startle reflex of rats with alarm pheromone-induced anxiety (i.e. reduction of defensiveness) has been measured. Pretreatment of rats with one of five anxiolytics used in clinical medicine

9956-569: The death of Mikhail Lomonosov was marked throughout the Russian Empire by articles being published that mentioned the difficulties that Lomonosov had encountered from the foreign members of the Russian Academy of Sciences , most of whom were of German descent. The authors then criticized contemporary German scholars for their neglect of the Russian language and for printing articles in foreign languages while they received funds from

10087-733: The development of the commercial rabbit breeds, such as the Californian and New Zealand, and the collapse of the domestic fur market, the Americans have been pretty much ignored by the commercial market. Following a population contraction in the 1980s, they are now among the rarest breeds of rabbits in North America. In 2005, when rabbit breeds were added to the American Livestock Breed Conservancy, Conservancy Priority List, Americans were listed among

10218-559: The development of the olfactory bulb and odor discrimination and it is highly expressed in developing rat brains, but absent in most regions of adult rat brains. Conditional deletion of the MAPK7gene in mouse neural stem cells impairs several pheromone-mediated behaviors, including aggression and mating in male mice. These behavior impairments were not caused by a reduction in the level of testosterone, by physical immobility, by heightened fear or anxiety or by depression. Using mouse urine as

10349-809: The early 18th century. Benjamin Franklin 's complaints about the Palatine refugees in his work Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind (1751) : Why should the Palatine boors be suffered to swarm into our settlements, and by herding together establish their language and manners to the exclusion of ours? Why should Pennsylvania, founded by the English, become a colony of aliens , who will shortly be so numerous as to Germanize us instead of us Anglifying them, and will never adopt our language or customs, any more than they can acquire our complexion. Pennsylvania

10480-530: The enemies, making Germany the villain. The result was the bestselling The Invasion of 1910 , which originally appeared in serial form in the Daily Mail in 1906. Now, Harmsworth used his newspapers the "Daily Mail" and "The Times" to denounce Berlin, inducing an atmosphere of paranoia, mass hysteria and Germanophobia that would reach their climax in the Naval Scare of 1908–09. German food such as

10611-454: The environment and others of the same species. An emotional response is created only after the signals have been relayed between the different regions of the brain, and activating the sympathetic nervous systems; which controls the flight, fight, freeze, fright, and faint response . Often a damaged amygdala can cause impairment in the recognition of fear (like the human case of patient S.M. ). This impairment can cause different species to lack

10742-416: The environment. These acquired sets of reactions or responses are not easily forgotten. The animal that survives is the animal that already knows what to fear and how to avoid this threat. An example in humans is the reaction to the sight of a snake, many jump backwards before cognitively realizing what they are jumping away from, and in some cases, it is a stick rather than a snake. As with many functions of

10873-408: The exodus of Anglo-Americans start at once! Let all those people go who think that America is a new England!" A much smaller minority of German Americans came out openly for Germany. Similarly, Harvard psychology professor Hugo Münsterberg dropped his efforts to mediate between America and Germany, and threw his efforts behind the German war effort. The Justice Department attempted to prepare

11004-636: The extinction of the Blue Imperial breed. The white variety was formally accepted by the ARBA in 1925. It was produced from sports thrown by the American Blues, crossed with White Flemish Giant . American Rabbits were popular animals up until the 1950s, kept for their fur and meat . As late as 1949, Americans (both Blue and White) were listed among the five or six most popular and most ideal rabbits to raise commercially for meat and fur. Since

11135-442: The extinction process. The rats showed signs of avoidance learning, not fear, but simply avoiding the area that brought pain to the test rats. The avoidance learning of rats is seen as a conditioned response , and therefore the behavior can be unconditioned, as supported by the earlier research. Species-specific defense reactions (SSDRs) or avoidance learning in nature is the specific tendency to avoid certain threats or stimuli, it

11266-559: The facial expression of fear and other emotions. Fear of victimization is a function of perceived risk and seriousness of potential harm. According to surveys, some of the most common fears are of demons and ghosts , the existence of evil powers, cockroaches , spiders , snakes , heights , water , enclosed spaces , tunnels , bridges , needles , social rejection , failure , examinations , and public speaking . Regionally some may more so fear terrorist attacks , death , war , criminal or gang violence , being alone ,

11397-459: The few who had immigrated from Germany (not born in Canada) could not morally fight against a country that was a significant part of their heritage. News reports during the war years indicate that "A Lutheran minister was pulled out of his house ... he was dragged through the streets. German clubs were ransacked through the course of the war. It was just a really nasty time period." Someone stole

11528-453: The future, nuclear war , flying , clowns , intimacy , people , and driving . Fear of the unknown or irrational fear is caused by negative thinking ( worry ) which arises from anxiety accompanied by a subjective sense of apprehension or dread. Irrational fear shares a common neural pathway with other fears, a pathway that engages the nervous system to mobilize bodily resources in the face of danger or threat. Many people are scared of

11659-448: The gene stathmin show no avoidance learning, or a lack of fear, and will often walk directly up to cats and be eaten. Animals use these SSDRs to continue living, to help increase their chance of fitness , by surviving long enough to procreate. Humans and animals alike have created fear to know what should be avoided, and this fear can be learned through association with others in the community, or learned through personal experience with

11790-524: The governments of the Allied Powers , who produced atrocity propaganda dehumanizing Germans as gorilla -like Huns who were all racially inclined to sadism and violence. In Great Britain, anti-German feeling led to infrequent rioting, assaults on suspected Germans and the looting of businesses owned by people with German-sounding names, occasionally even taking on an antisemitic tone. Increasing anti-German hysteria even threw suspicion upon

11921-434: The inconsistency. This approach puts fear in a broader perspective, also involving aggression and curiosity . When the inconsistency between perception and expectancy is small, learning as a result of curiosity reduces inconsistency by updating expectancy to match perception. If the inconsistency is larger, fear or aggressive behavior may be employed to alter the perception in order to make it match expectancy, depending on

12052-568: The making of good Canadians and loyal citizens of the British Empire". Some immigrants from Germany who considered themselves Canadians but were not yet citizens, were detained in internment camps during the War. In fact, by 1919 most of the population of Kitchener, Waterloo, and Elmira in Waterloo County, Ontario , were Canadian. The German-speaking Amish and Mennonites were Christian pacifists so they could not enlist and

12183-477: The meaning, i.e. on the emotional level, rather than the strength of chemosensory cues from each gender, i.e. the perceptual level. An approach-avoidance task was set up where volunteers seeing either an angry or a happy cartoon face on a computer screen pushed away or pulled toward them a joystick as fast as possible. Volunteers smelling androstadienone, masked with clove oil scent responded faster, especially to angry faces than those smelling clove oil only, which

12314-570: The natives in India, disturbances in Ireland, and a conflict with the United States threatening Canadian security, to employ her navy and standing army far from her own shores; in spite of this dangerous position England, on account of a quarrel with Germany over Denmark, would declare war on Germany. The latter would land an army in England which would conquer the remaining parts of the British army and

12445-457: The natural world. He theorized the species-specific defense reaction (SSDR). There are three forms of SSDRs: flight, fight (pseudo-aggression), or freeze. Even domesticated animals have SSDRs, and in those moments it is seen that animals revert to atavistic standards and become "wild" again. Dr. Bolles states that responses are often dependent on the reinforcement of a safety signal, and not the aversive conditioned stimuli. This safety signal can be

12576-530: The next two decades, identification and characterization of these pheromones proceeded in all manner of insects and sea animals, including fish, but it was not until 1990 that more insight into mammalian alarm pheromones was gleaned. In 1985, a link between odors released by stressed rats and pain perception was discovered: unstressed rats exposed to these odors developed opioid-mediated analgesia. In 1997, researchers found that bees became less responsive to pain after they had been stimulated with isoamyl acetate ,

12707-545: The occipito cerebellar regions including the fusiform gyrus and the inferior parietal / superior temporal gyri. Fearful eyes, brows and mouth seem to separately reproduce these brain responses. Scientists from Zurich studies show that the hormone oxytocin related to stress and sex reduces activity in your brain fear center. In threatening situations, insects, aquatic organisms, birds, reptiles, and mammals emit odorant substances, initially called alarm substances, which are chemical signals now called alarm pheromones . This

12838-406: The opposing political party. In the 19th century, the mass influx of German immigrants made them one of the largest European group of Americans by ancestry. This wave of migration triggered the formation of nativist and reactionary movements which were similar to those movements which exist in the contemporary Western world . These would eventually culminate in 1844 with the establishment of

12969-609: The orchestra's musicians were arrested and interned in Fort Oglethorpe , Georgia, until well after the Armistice. In Nashville, Tennessee , Luke Lea , the publisher of The Tennessean , together with "political associates", "conspired unsuccessfully to have the German-born Major Stahlman declared an "alien enemy" after World War I began." Stahlman was the publisher of a competing newspaper,

13100-593: The popularity of the invasion novel . According to Alfred Vagts " The Battle of Dorking ": appeared first in Blackwood's Magazine in the summer of 1871, at a time when the German Crown Prince and his English wife [the daughter of Queen Victoria] were visiting England. Impressed by the late German victories, the author, a Colonel Chesney, who remained anonymous for some time, told the story of how England, in 1875, would be induced by an insurrection of

13231-571: The privileges of the Baltic German nobility in the Baltic governorates and Finland be preserved. Mikhail Katkov published a harsh criticism of the article in the Moscow News , which in turn caused a flood of angry articles in which Russian writers expressed their irritation with Europeans in which some featured direct attacks on Germans. The following year, the 100th anniversary of

13362-478: The rarest 'Critical' category. The White variety was especially in danger of being dropped from the ARBA's active role in 2004, due to lack of representation at the annual ARBA convention. Since then, the American Rabbit has undergone a resurgence in population, and in 2012 ALBC shifted the American Rabbit from 'Critical' to the less-endangered 'Threatened' category. Among the significant events leading to

13493-442: The release of glucose from energy stores, and cortisol which increases blood sugar, increases circulating neutrophilic leukocytes, calcium amongst other things. After a situation which incites fear occurs, the amygdalae and hippocampus record the event through synaptic plasticity . The stimulation to the hippocampus will cause the individual to remember many details surrounding the situation. Plasticity and memory formation in

13624-660: The revival of the breed was the dedicated effort of breeders to ship breeding stock across the United States, and the discovery of a line of White American Rabbits among a Hutterite farming community in Alberta, Canada. Americans are included in the Slow Food USA project under Ark of Taste, Meat and Poultry. This has led to an increased interest in the American Rabbit as a heritage or homestead rabbit breed. Anti-German sentiment Anti-German sentiment (also known as anti-Germanism , Germanophobia or Teutophobia )

13755-684: The same time, journalists produced a stream of articles on the threat posed by Germany. In the Daily Telegraph Affair of 1908–09, the Kaiser, in a badly misjudged attempt to show Germany's friendship towards England, said that he was among a minority of Germans friendly to Britain, that he had sent a military plan to Queen Victoria during the Boer War which the British Army had used successfully, and that Germany's fleet buildup

13886-572: The same. For example, "continuation of scholarly education" is perceived by many educators as a risk that may cause them fear and stress, and they would rather teach things they've been taught than go and do research. The ambiguity of situations that tend to be uncertain and unpredictable can cause anxiety in addition to other psychological and physical problems in some populations; especially those who engage it constantly, for example, in war-ridden places or in places of conflict, terrorism, abuse, etc. Poor parenting that instills fear can also debilitate

14017-544: The sausage was deprecated by Germanophobes. In the late 19th century, the label Made in Germany was introduced. The label was originally introduced in Britain by the Merchandise Marks Act 1887 ( 50 & 51 Vict. c. 28), to mark foreign produce more obviously, as foreign manufacturers had been falsely marking inferior goods with the marks of renowned British manufacturing companies and importing them into

14148-645: The scattered running of rats are considered species-specific defense reactions or behaviors. Bolles believed that SSDRs are conditioned through Pavlovian conditioning, and not operant conditioning; SSDRs arise from the association between the environmental stimuli and adverse events. Michael S. Fanselow conducted an experiment, to test some specific defense reactions, he observed that rats in two different shock situations responded differently, based on instinct or defensive topography, rather than contextual information. Species-specific defense responses are created out of fear, and are essential for survival. Rats that lack

14279-417: The sensation of fear, and often can become overly confident, confronting larger peers, or walking up to predatory creatures. Robert C. Bolles (1970), a researcher at University of Washington, wanted to understand species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning among animals, but found that the theories of avoidance learning and the tools that were used to measure this tendency were out of touch with

14410-470: The series of physiological changes, the consciousness realizes an emotion of fear. There are observable physical reactions in individuals who experience fear. An individual might experience a feeling of dizziness, lightheaded, like they are being choked, sweating, shortness of breath, vomiting or nausea, numbness or shaking and any other like symptoms. These bodily reactions informs the individual that they are afraid and should proceed to remove or get away from

14541-435: The size of the inconsistency as well as the specific context. Aggressive behavior is assumed to alter perception by forcefully manipulating it into matching the expected situation, while in some cases thwarted escape may also trigger aggressive behavior in an attempt to remove the thwarting stimulus. In order to improve our understanding of the neural and behavioral mechanisms of adaptive and maladaptive fear, investigators use

14672-582: The spread of benevolence among Germans in the United States". In the mid-1850s and 1860s, Russia experienced an outbreak of Germanophobia after Austria refused to support it during the Crimean War . It was restricted mainly to a small group of writers in St. Petersburg that united around a left-wing newspaper. In 1864, it began with the publication of an article by a writer (using the pseudonym "Shedoferotti") who proposed that Poland be given autonomy and that

14803-586: The stimulus that is causing that fear. An influential categorization of stimuli causing fear was proposed by psychologist Jeffrey Alan Gray ; namely, intensity , novelty , special evolutionary dangers, stimuli arising during social interaction, and conditioned stimuli. Another categorization was proposed by Archer, who, besides conditioned fear stimuli, categorized fear-evoking (as well as aggression -evoking) stimuli into three groups; namely, pain , novelty, and frustration , although he also described " looming ", which refers to an object rapidly moving towards

14934-461: The threat (also known as the fight-or-flight response ), which in extreme cases of fear ( horror and terror ) can be a freeze response . The fear response is also implicated in a number of mental disorders , particularly anxiety disorders . In humans and other animals, fear is modulated by the process of cognition and learning. Thus, fear is judged as rational and appropriate, or irrational and inappropriate (or unconscious). An irrational fear

15065-831: The visual sensors of a subject, and can be categorized as "intensity". Russell described a more functional categorization of fear-evoking stimuli, in which for instance novelty is a variable affecting more than one category: 1) Predator stimuli (including movement, suddenness, proximity, but also learned and innate predator stimuli); 2) Physical environmental dangers (including intensity and heights); 3) Stimuli associated with increased risk of predation and other dangers (including novelty, openness, illumination, and being alone); 4) Stimuli stemming from conspecifics (including novelty, movement, and spacing behavior); 5) Species-predictable fear stimuli and experience (special evolutionary dangers); and 6) Fear stimuli that are not species predictable (conditioned fear stimuli). Although many fears are learned,

15196-588: The waiter's passport. In 1903, Erskine Childers published The Riddle of the Sands: A Record of Secret Service a novel in which two Englishmen uncover a plot by Germany to Invade England; it was later made into a 1979 film The Riddle of the Sands . At the same time, conspiracy theories which combined Germanophobia with antisemitism were concocted, they focused on the supposed foreign control of Britain, some of these conspiracy theories blamed Britain's entry into

15327-445: The war during his time at Oxford University as an undergraduate that: The eighteenth century owed its unpopularity largely to its Frenchness. Anti-French feeling among most ex-soldiers amounted almost to an obsession. Edmund, shaking with nerves, used to say at this time: "No more wars for me at any price! Except against the French. If ever there is a war against them, I'll go like a shot." Pro-German feeling had been increasing. With

15458-468: The war in 1917, some German Americans were looked upon with suspicion and attacked regarding their loyalty. Propaganda posters and newspaper commentary fed the growing fear. In Wisconsin, a Lutheran minister faced suspicion for hosting Germans in his home, while a language professor was tarred and feathered for having a German name and teaching the language. The Red Cross barred individuals with German last names from joining in fear of sabotage. One person

15589-540: The war over and the German armies beaten, we could give the German soldier credit for being the most efficient fighting man in Europe ;... Some undergraduates even insisted that we had been fighting on the wrong side: our natural enemies were the French. In Canada, there was some anti-German sentiment in Germanic communities, including Berlin, Ontario ( Kitchener, Ontario ) in Waterloo County, Ontario , before and

15720-427: The whole issue of a name for Berlin highlights the effects that fear, hatred and nationalism can have upon a society in the face of war." Internment camps across Canada opened in 1915 and 8,579 "enemy aliens" were held there until the end of the war; many were German speaking immigrants from Austria-Hungary , Germany, and Ukraine. Only 3,138 were classed as prisoners of war; the rest were civilians. Built in 1926,

15851-580: Was a major state and a former colony that saw an attraction and influence of German immigrants from the colonial era. A key event where German-Americans faced hardships was during the Fries's Rebellion . The participants in Fries's Rebellion were primarily German-speaking farmers, many of whom were recent immigrants or descendants of German immigrants. Their cultural and linguistic differences may have contributed to perceptions of them as outsiders or "other" by some in

15982-532: Was able to reduce their anxiety: namely midazolam , phenelzine (a nonselective monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor), propranolol , a nonselective beta blocker , clonidine , an alpha 2 adrenergic agonist or CP-154,526 , a corticotropin-releasing hormone antagonist . Faulty development of odor discrimination impairs the perception of pheromones and pheromone-related behavior, like aggressive behavior and mating in male rats: The enzyme Mitogen-activated protein kinase 7 (MAPK7) has been implicated in regulating

16113-1153: Was also inspired by several local and foreign companies who were keen to take the opportunity to eliminate Germany as a competitor in the Australian market. Germans in Australia were increasingly portrayed as evil by the very nature of their origins. After the revelation of the Zimmermann Telegram partly sparked the American declaration of war against Imperial Germany in April 1917, German Americans were sometimes accused of being too sympathetic to Germany. Former president Theodore Roosevelt denounced " hyphenated Americanism ", while also insisting that dual loyalties were impossible. A vocal source of criticism of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson 's "anti-hyphen" ideology and particularly to their demands for "100% Americanism" came, quite understandably, from America's enormous number of White ethnic immigrants and their descendants. Criticism from these circles occasionally argued that "100% Americanism" really meant Anglophilia and

16244-508: Was also observed to mitigate the conditioned fear responses of honeybees. A bee colony exposed to an environment of high threat of predation did not show increased aggression and aggressive-like gene expression patterns in individual bees, but decreased aggression. That the bees did not simply habituate to threats is suggested by the fact that the disturbed colonies also decreased their foraging. Biologists have proposed in 2012 that fear pheromones evolved as molecules of "keystone significance",

16375-516: Was directed not against Britain but the " yellow peril " of the East.. Articles in Harmsworth's Daily Mail regularly advocated anti-German sentiments throughout the twentieth century, telling their readers to refuse service at restaurants by Austrian or German waiters on the claim that they were spies and told them that if a German-sounding waiter claimed to be Swiss that they should demand to see

16506-434: Was interpreted as androstadienone-related activation of the fear system. A potential mechanism of action is, that androstadienone alters the "emotional face processing". Androstadienone is known to influence the activity of the fusiform gyrus which is relevant for face recognition . Cognitive-consistency theories assume that "when two or more simultaneously active cognitive structures are logically inconsistent, arousal

16637-461: Was killed by a mob; in Collinsville, Illinois , German-born Robert Prager was dragged from jail as a suspected spy and lynched. Some aliens were convicted and imprisoned on charges of sedition for refusing to swear allegiance to the United States war effort. Thousands were forced to buy war bonds to show their loyalty. In Chicago , Frederick Stock was forced to step down as conductor of

16768-453: Was originally accepted into the ARBA as a 'Blue' rabbit, and historically has been characterized as having the deepest, darkest fur of all blue or grey rabbits. The color at its best is "uniform rich, dark slate-blue, free from white hairs, sandy or rust color". A white variety named American White Rabbit was recognized in 1925. It was developed by selecting white sports (mutants), and adding in white red-eyed white (albino) Flemish giants in

16899-479: Was renamed Waterlow Road . Attitudes to Germany were not entirely negative among British troops fighting on the Western Front; the British writer Nicholas Shakespeare quotes this statement from a letter written by his grandfather during the First World War in which he says he would rather fight the French and describes German bravery: Personally, my opinion is that our fellows get on much best [sic] with

17030-707: Was renamed to the euphemistic " Alsatian "; the English Kennel Club only re-authorised the use of 'German Shepherd' as an official name in 1977. The German biscuit was renamed the Empire biscuit . Several streets in London which had been named after places in Germany or notable Germans had their names changed. For instance, Berlin Road in Catford was renamed Canadian Avenue , and Bismarck Road in Islington

17161-548: Was the first rabbit breed developed in the United States, however, the New Zealand predates the American Blue by several years. Mr. Salisbury did not disclose what breeds were used to come to this variety. The body shape suggests that it had been bred from blue Vienna , Beveren , Blue Imperial and Flemish Giants . Replication of the development of this breed would be difficult to impossible to accomplish, due to

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