Major Anthony Brockholls (or Brockholst ) ( c. 1656 – August 29, 1723) was an English born Commander-in-Chief (1677–78) and then acting Governor (1681–82) of New York .
134-677: In 1677, he received a special commission as Commander-in-Chief and when Sir Edmund Andros fled the Province of New York , he became the acting Governor of New York due to his seniority on the New York Executive Council . During Leisler's Rebellion in New York, Brockholls was denounced as "a rank Papist," and had a price set on his head by the then acting-Governor of that Colony, Jacob Leisler . In June 1681, while acting as Governor of New York, Brockholst presided over
268-805: A patriarchal society, was the matrilineal kinship system of Iroquois society and the related power of women. The Canadian historian D. Peter MacLeod wrote about the Canadian Iroquois and the French in the time of the Seven Years' War: Most critically, the importance of clan mothers, who possessed considerable economic and political power within Canadian Iroquois communities, was blithely overlooked by patriarchal European scribes. Those references that do exist, show clan mothers meeting in council with their male counterparts to take decisions regarding war and peace and joining in delegations to confront
402-457: A "horrid Popish plot." His council engaged in a lengthy process to harmonize dominion and English laws. This work consumed so much time that Andros, in March 1687, issued a proclamation stating that pre-existing laws would remain in effect until they were revised. Since Massachusetts had no pre-existing tax laws, a scheme of taxation was created that would apply to the entire dominion. Developed by
536-708: A Mohawk war party by the shores of what is now called Lake Champlain, and again in June 1610, Champlain fought against the Mohawks. The Iroquois became well known in the southern colonies in the 17th century by this time. After the first English settlement in Jamestown, Virginia (1607), numerous 17th-century accounts describe a powerful people known to the Powhatan Confederacy as the Massawomeck , and to
670-468: A committee of landowners, the first proposal derived its revenues from import duties, principally alcohol. After much debate, a different proposal was abruptly proposed and adopted, reviving previous Massachusetts tax laws. These laws had been unpopular with farmers who felt the taxes on livestock were too high. To bring in immediate revenue, Andros also received approval to increase the import duties on alcohol. Many Massachusetts communities stiffly resisted
804-807: A derogatory name adopted from the traditional enemies of the Haudenosaunee. A less common, older autonym for the confederation is Ongweh’onweh , meaning "original people". Haudenosaunee derives from two phonetically similar but etymologically distinct words in the Seneca language : Hodínöhšö:ni:h , meaning "those of the extended house", and Hodínöhsö:ni:h , meaning "house builders". The name "Haudenosaunee" first appears in English in Lewis Henry Morgan 's work (1851), where he writes it as Ho-dé-no-sau-nee . The spelling "Hotinnonsionni"
938-603: A directive issued by dominion councillors remaining in Boston, who ordered frontier militia commanders to take into custody any Abenaki suspected of participating in the raids. This directive sparked a problem in Maine, when twenty Abenaki, including women and children, were taken into custody by colonial militia. The local authorities faced the dilemma of housing the captives, shipping them first to Falmouth and then to Boston, angering other natives, who seized English hostages to ensure
1072-680: A distinct language, territory, and function in the League. The League is composed of a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems , each representing a clan of a nation. When Europeans first arrived in North America, the Haudenosaunee ( Iroquois League to the French, Five Nations to the British) were based in what is now central and west New York State including the Finger Lakes region, occupying large areas north to
1206-410: A force to the duke's territory in Maine, where they established a fort at Pemaquid (present-day Bristol ). Andros annoyed Massachusetts fishermen by restricting their use of the duke's land for drying fish. In November 1677, Andros departed for England, where he would spend the following year. During this visit, he was knighted as a reward for his performance as governor, and he sat in on meetings of
1340-571: A friendly personal relationship between Andros and Governor Carteret, the governance issue eventually prompted Andros to have Carteret arrested. In a dispute centering on the collection of customs duties in ports on the Jersey side of the Hudson, Andros, in 1680, sent a company of soldiers to Philip Carteret's home in Elizabethtown . According to Carteret's account of the incident, he was beaten by
1474-717: A frontier war with the Iroquois to the north, having persuaded the intervening Susquehannocks to move to the Potomac River , well within Maryland territory. Furthermore, the Lenape , who dominated Delaware Bay , were unhappy with seizures of their lands by Virginia and Maryland settlers, and war between these groups had been imminent in 1673 when the Dutch retook New York. When Andros came to New York, he moved to stabilize
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#17327762388581608-474: A garrison house on the city's south side, where many officials took refuge. The old Massachusetts colonial leadership, restored due to the rebellion and headed by ex-governor Simon Bradstreet , then summoned Governor Andros to surrender, for his safety because of the mob which they claimed "whereof we were wholly ignorant". He refused, and instead tried to escape to the Rose , the only Royal Navy ship near Boston at
1742-511: A large estate. Anthony Brockholls's parents are unknown, but he is said to have been a member of the Catholic family of Brockholes of Claughton, Lancashire, England. On May 2, 1681, Brockholls was married to Susannah Maria Schrick (or Schrect or Shrik) in Albany . She was the daughter of Paulus Schrick. While most of their children died in childhood, they were the parents of: Brockholls left
1876-510: A negative quality in a region home to many Puritans . His actions in New England resulted in his overthrow during the 1689 Boston revolt . He became governor of Virginia three years later. Andros was considered a more effective governor in New York and Virginia. However, he became the enemy of prominent figures in both colonies, many of whom worked to remove him from office. Despite these enmities, he managed to negotiate several treaties of
2010-561: A particular pique on account of some earlier dealings". Iroquois The Iroquois ( / ˈ ɪr ə k w ɔɪ , - k w ɑː / IRR -ə-kwoy, -kwah ), also known as the Five Nations , and later as the Six Nations from 1722 onwards; alternatively referred to by the endonym Haudenosaunee ( / ˌ h oʊ d ɪ n oʊ ˈ ʃ oʊ n i / HOH -din-oh- SHOH -nee ; lit. ' people who are building
2144-851: A result of the Beaver Wars, they pushed Siouan -speaking tribes out and reserved the territory as a hunting ground by right of conquest . They finally sold to British colonists their remaining claim to the lands south of the Ohio in 1768 at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix . Historian Pekka Hämäläinen writes of the League, "There had never been anything like the Five Nations League in North America. No other Indigenous nation or confederacy had ever reached so far, conducted such an ambitious foreign policy, or commanded such fear and respect. The Five Nations blended diplomacy, intimidation, and violence as
2278-698: A special court that appointed Captain John Youngs (son of John Youngs ), High sheriff of Yorkshire to give a petition to the Duke of York for the privilege of setting up a general assembly in the Province of New York. Upon Governor Dongan's arrive in 1683, the petition was granted and the first assembly of New York began in October 1683. In March 1689, during the wars with the Abenaki Indians on
2412-511: A spy, offering the idea of going to Paris, ostensibly to meet with the exiled James, but to actually attempt to acquire French military plans. This plan was rejected. He married his second wife, Elizabeth Crisp Clapham, in England in July 1691. She was the widow of Christopher Clapham, who was connected by that marriage to his first wife's family. Andros' next opportunity for employment came with
2546-767: A will on June 15, 1710, witnessed by Nicholas Bayard, Abraham Post, and William Cutler. He died on August 29, 1723 in Bergen County , New Jersey . His granddaughter through his daughter Susannah, was Susanna French, who married William Livingston , " War-Governor " during the American Revolution , and was the mother of Henry Brockholst Livingston , who was associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1806 to 1823. Edmund Andros Sir Edmund Andros (6 December 1637 – 24 February 1714; also spelled Edmond )
2680-480: Is also attested from later in the nineteenth century. An alternative designation, Ganonsyoni , is occasionally encountered as well, from the Mohawk kanǫhsyǫ́·ni "the extended house", or from a cognate expression in a related Iroquoian language; in earlier sources it is variously spelled "Kanosoni", "akwanoschioni", "Aquanuschioni", "Cannassoone", "Canossoone", "Ke-nunctioni", or "Konossioni". More transparently,
2814-403: Is attested in any Indian language as a name for any Iroquoian group, and the ultimate origin and meaning of the name are unknown." Jesuit priest and missionary Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix wrote in 1744: The name Iroquois is purely French, and is formed from the [Iroquoian-language] term Hiro or Hero , which means I have said —with which these Indians close all their addresses, as
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#17327762388582948-470: Is in Samuel de Champlain 's account of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603. Other early French spellings include "Erocoise", "Hiroquois", "Hyroquoise", "Irecoies", "Iriquois", "Iroquaes", "Irroquois", and "Yroquois", pronounced at the time as [irokwe] or [irokwɛ]. Competing theories have been proposed for this term's origin, but none have gained widespread acceptance. By 1978 Ives Goddard wrote: "No such form
3082-577: Is said to have attempted an escape dressed in women's clothing. The story, although it circulated widely, was disputed by the Anglican minister Robert Ratcliff, who claimed that story and others had "not the least foundation of Truth" and that they were "falsehoods, and lies" propagated to "render the Governour odious to his people." He escaped Castle Island on 2 August after his servant plied the sentries with alcohol. He managed to flee to Rhode Island but
3216-599: The Covenant Chain with the Iroquois , establishing a long-lived peace involving the colonies and other tribes that interacted with that confederacy. His actions and governance generally followed his instructions upon appointment to office, and he received approbation from the monarchs and governments that appointed him. Andros was recalled to England from Virginia in 1698 and resumed the title of Bailiff of Guernsey. Although he no longer resided entirely on Guernsey, he
3350-505: The Earl of Craven , one of the queen's closest advisors, and a friend who served as his patron for many years. In 1672 he was commissioned major . After his father died in 1674, Edmund Andros acquired Sausmarez Manor which added to his family's already substantial landholdings in Guernsey that included the fief of Anneville (from 1659) and several other fiefs. He was then appointed as
3484-575: The English fort at Pemaquid , Fort Charles , then the easternmost outpost of colonial Massachusetts (present-day Bristol, Maine ), he commanded thirty-six men at the Siege of Pemaquid . In June 1695, Colonel Anthony Brockholls and Captain Arent Schuyler were among several men from New York who purchased a tract of land, five thousand five hundred acres, which became Pompton , where he built
3618-658: The Great Swamp Fight against the Narragansetts in December 1675, and specifically outlawed the sale of munitions to tribes known to be allied to Philip. The charges poisoned the atmosphere between Andros and Massachusetts leaders, even though Andros' conduct met with approval in London. In the meeting with the Iroquois, Andros was given the name Corlaer , a name historically used by the Iroquois to refer to
3752-460: The Kennebec and St. Croix Rivers , but with the intervening Dutch retaking of the territory, Charles issued a new patent to James. Andros arrived in New York harbor in late October and negotiated the handover of the Dutch territories with local representatives and Dutch Governor Anthony Colve , which took place on 10 November 1674. Andros agreed to confirm the existing property holdings and allow
3886-461: The Lords of Trade in which agents for Massachusetts Bay defended its charter, and gave detailed accounts of the state of his colony. The southernmost territories of the duke, roughly encompassing northern Delaware , were desired by Charles Calvert, Baron Baltimore , who sought to extend the reach of his proprietary Province of Maryland into the area. At the same time, Calvert was seeking an end to
4020-552: The Neutral Nation (1651), Erie Tribe (1657), and Susquehannock (1680). The traditional view is that these wars were a way to control the lucrative fur trade to purchase European goods on which they had become dependent. Starna questions this view. Recent scholarship has elaborated on this view, arguing that the Beaver Wars were an escalation of the Iroquoian tradition of "Mourning Wars". This view suggests that
4154-690: The Ohio Valley . From east to west, the League was composed of the Mohawk , Oneida , Onondaga , Cayuga , and Seneca nations . In about 1722, the Iroquoian -speaking Tuscarora joined the League, having migrated northwards from the Carolinas after a bloody conflict with white settlers. A shared cultural background with the Five Nations of the Iroquois (and a sponsorship from the Oneida) led
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4288-713: The Onontio [the Iroquois term for the French governor-general] and the French leadership in Montreal, but only hint at the real influence wielded by these women. Eighteenth-century English historiography focuses on the diplomatic relations with the Iroquois, supplemented by such images as John Verelst 's Four Mohawk Kings , and publications such as the Anglo-Iroquoian treaty proceedings printed by Benjamin Franklin . A persistent 19th and 20th century narrative casts
4422-683: The Petun , Erie, and Susquehannock. Trying to control access to game for the lucrative fur trade, they invaded the Algonquian peoples of the Atlantic coast (the Lenape , or Delaware ), the Anishinaabe of the boreal Canadian Shield region, and not infrequently the English colonies as well. During the Beaver Wars, they were said to have defeated and assimilated the Huron (1649), Petun (1650),
4556-639: The Virginian and Maryland settlers. He also extended an offer given by the Mohawk for the Susquehannocks to settle among them. These offers were well received, but Maryland authorities could not convince their Indian allies to accept Andros' offered peace terms, organizing them to march toward the Delaware to fulfill the goal of strengthening the Maryland claim to the area. Andros responded by urging
4690-465: The corn/beans/squash agricultural complex enabled them to support a large population. They made war primarily against neighboring Algonquian peoples . Muir uses archaeological data to argue that the Iroquois expansion onto Algonquian lands was checked by the Algonquian adoption of agriculture. This enabled them to support their own populations large enough to resist Iroquois conquest. The People of
4824-564: The relief of Copenhagen in 1659. As a result of these experiences he gained fluency in French , Swedish , and Dutch . He remained a firm supporter of the Stuarts while they were in exile. Charles II , after his restoration to the throne, specifically commended the Andros family for its support. Andros served as a courtier to Elizabeth of Bohemia from 1660 until she died in 1662. During
4958-465: The 1660s he served in the English army against the Dutch . He was next commissioned a major in the regiment of Sir Tobias Bridge , which was sent to Barbados in 1666. He returned to England two years later, carrying despatches and letters. In 1671, he married Mary Craven, the daughter of Thomas Craven of Burnsall in the West Riding of Yorkshire (now North Yorkshire ), the son of a cousin to
5092-537: The 19th century. The historiography of the Iroquois peoples is a topic of much debate, especially regarding the American colonial period. French Jesuit accounts of the Iroquois portrayed them as savages lacking government, law, letters, and religion. But the Jesuits made considerable effort to study their languages and cultures, and some came to respect them. A source of confusion for European sources, coming from
5226-480: The Algonquian names for their Iroquois competitors. The Iroquois Confederacy is believed to have been founded by the Great Peacemaker at an unknown date estimated between 1450 and 1660, bringing together five distinct nations in the southern Great Lakes area into "The Great League of Peace". Other research, however, suggests the founding occurred in 1142. Each nation within this Iroquoian confederacy had
5360-624: The Allegheny mountains into present-day Virginia and Kentucky and into the Ohio Valley . The St. Lawrence Iroquoians , Wendat (Huron), Erie , and Susquehannock , all independent peoples known to the European colonists, also spoke Iroquoian languages . They are considered Iroquoian in a larger cultural sense, all being descended from the Proto-Iroquoian people and language. Historically, however, they were competitors and enemies of
5494-744: The Atlantic Ocean; from the St. Lawrence River to the Chesapeake Bay . Michael O. Varhola has argued their success in conquering and subduing surrounding nations had paradoxically weakened a Native response to European growth, thereby becoming victims of their own success. The Five Nations of the League established a trading relationship with the Dutch at Fort Orange (modern Albany, New York), trading furs for European goods, an economic relationship that profoundly changed their way of life and led to much over-hunting of beavers. Between 1665 and 1670,
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5628-427: The Bailiff of Guernsey, succeeding his father. This appointment was for life and came with the authority to appoint a lieutenant bailiff, a position he filled with his uncle, Charles Andros, seigneur of the fief d'Anneville. This allowed Edmund Andros to travel to America. He was appointed by the James, Duke of York to be the first proprietary governor of the Province of New York . The province's territory included
5762-416: The Confederacy dispute this historical interpretation, regarding the League of the Great Peace as the foundation of their heritage. The Iroquois may be the Kwedech described in the oral legends of the Mi'kmaq nation of Eastern Canada. These legends relate that the Mi'kmaq in the late pre-contact period had gradually driven their enemies – the Kwedech – westward across New Brunswick , and finally out of
5896-506: The Dutch governor in New Netherland and continued when the English took over the colony and renamed it New York (in the same way the French governor was dubbed Onontio ). One other consequence was the establishment at Albany of a colonial department for Indian affairs, with Robert Livingston as its first head. Philip was known to be in the Berkshires in western Massachusetts that winter and New Englanders accused Andros of sheltering him. Historian John Fiske suggests that Philip's purpose
6030-420: The English flag. Andros came ashore, had a brief conversation with the fort commander, read his commission, and returned to New York City. This was the full extent of Andros' attempt to claim the territory, but it would be remembered in Connecticut when later attempts were made to assert New York authority. Following his Connecticut expedition, Andros traveled into Iroquois country to establish relations. He
6164-420: The French as the Antouhonoron . They were said to come from the north, beyond the Susquehannock territory. Historians have often identified the Massawomeck / Antouhonoron as the Haudenosaunee. In 1649, an Iroquois war party, consisting mostly of Senecas and Mohawks, destroyed the Huron village of Wendake . In turn, this ultimately resulted in the breakup of the Huron nation. With no northern enemy remaining,
6298-407: The Grand Council, which still exists. The Iroquois Confederacy was the decentralized political and diplomatic entity that emerged in response to European colonization, which was dissolved after the British defeat in the American Revolutionary War . Today's Iroquois/Six Nations people do not make any such distinction, use the terms interchangeably, but prefer the name Haudenosaunee Confederacy. After
6432-405: The Great Lakes. Many archaeologists and anthropologists believe that the League was formed about 1450, though arguments have been made for an earlier date. One theory argues that the League formed shortly after a solar eclipse on August 31, 1142, an event thought to be expressed in oral tradition about the League's origins. Some sources link an early origin of the Iroquois confederacy to
6566-608: The Haudenosaunee League. Those on the borders of Haudenosaunee territory in the Great Lakes region competed and warred with the nations of the League. French, Dutch, and English colonists, both in New France (Canada) and what became the Thirteen Colonies , recognized a need to gain favor with the Iroquois people, who occupied a significant portion of lands west of the colonial settlements. Their first relations were for fur trading , which became highly lucrative for both sides. The colonists also sought to establish friendly relations to secure their settlement borders. For nearly 200 years,
6700-405: The Haudenosaunee confederacy is often referred to as the Six Nations (or, for the period before the entry of the Tuscarora in 1722, the Five Nations). The word is Rotinonshón:ni in the Mohawk language . The origins of the name Iroquois are somewhat obscure, although the term has historically been more common among English texts than Haudenosaunee. Its first written appearance as "Irocois"
6834-407: The Iroquoian-speaking Tuscarora people from the southeast were accepted into the confederacy, from which point it was known as the "Six Nations". The Confederacy likely came about between the years 1450 CE and 1660 CE as a result of the Great Law of Peace , said to have been composed by the Deganawidah the Great Peacemaker, Hiawatha , and Jigonsaseh the Mother of Nations. For nearly 200 years,
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#17327762388586968-399: The Iroquois Confederacy nations. In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, and over 81,000 in the United States. Haudenosaunee ("People of the Longhouse") is the autonym by which the Six Nations refer to themselves. While its exact etymology is debated, the term Iroquois is of colonial origin. Some scholars of Native American history consider "Iroquois"
7102-453: The Iroquois League. The explorer Robert La Salle in the 17th century identified the Mosopelea as among the Ohio Valley peoples defeated by the Iroquois in the early 1670s. The Erie and peoples of the upper Allegheny valley declined earlier during the Beaver Wars . By 1676 the power of the Susquehannock was broken from the effects of three years of epidemic disease, war with the Iroquois, and frontier battles, as settlers took advantage of
7236-473: The Iroquois as "an expansive military and political power ... [who] subjugated their enemies by violent force and for almost two centuries acted as the fulcrum in the balance of power in colonial North America". Historian Scott Stevens noted that the Iroquois themselves began to influence the writing of their history in the 19th century, including Joseph Brant (Mohawk), and David Cusick (Tuscarora, c. 1780–1840). John Arthur Gibson (Seneca, 1850–1912)
7370-484: The Iroquois by referring to them as "children" (implying subservience to the English) rather than "brethren" (implying equality). He returned to Boston amid further attacks on the New England frontier by Abenaki parties, who admitted that they were doing so in part because of French encouragement. During Andros's presence in New York, the situation in Maine deteriorated again, with groups of colonists raiding Indian villages and taking prisoners. These actions were taken per
7504-408: The Iroquois established seven villages on the northern shores of Lake Ontario in present-day Ontario , collectively known as the "Iroquois du Nord" villages . The villages were all abandoned by 1701. Over the years 1670–1710, the Five Nations achieved political dominance of much of Virginia west of the Fall Line and extending to the Ohio River valley in present-day West Virginia and Kentucky. As
7638-529: The Iroquois had "such absolute Notions of Liberty that they allow no Kind of Superiority of one over another, and banish all Servitude from their Territories". As raids between the member tribes ended and they directed warfare against competitors, the Iroquois increased in numbers while their rivals declined. The political cohesion of the Iroquois rapidly became one of the strongest forces in 17th- and 18th-century northeastern North America. The League's Council of Fifty ruled on disputes and sought consensus. However,
7772-416: The Iroquois had lost control of considerable territory. Knowledge of Iroquois history stem from Haudenosaunee oral tradition , archaeological evidence, accounts from Jesuit missionaries, and subsequent European historians. Historian Scott Stevens credits the early modern European value of written sources over oral tradition as contributing to a racialized, prejudiced perspective about the Iroquois through
7906-442: The Iroquois launched large-scale attacks against neighboring tribes to avenge or replace the many dead from battles and smallpox epidemics. In 1628, the Mohawk defeated the Mahican to gain a monopoly in the fur trade with the Dutch at Fort Orange (present-day Albany), New Netherland . The Mohawk would not allow northern native peoples to trade with the Dutch. By 1640, there were almost no beavers left on their lands, reducing
8040-402: The Iroquois resisted attacking their own peoples. The Iroquois remained a large politically united Native American polity until the American Revolution , when the League was divided by their conflicting views on how to respond to requests for aid from the British Crown. After their defeat, the British ceded Iroquois territory without consultation, and many Iroquois had to abandon their lands in
8174-403: The Iroquois to middlemen in the fur trade between Indian peoples to the west and north, and Europeans eager for the valuable thick beaver pelts. In 1645, a tentative peace was forged between the Iroquois and the Huron, Algonquin, and French. In 1646, Jesuit missionaries at Sainte-Marie among the Hurons went as envoys to the Mohawk lands to protect the precarious peace. Mohawk attitudes toward
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#17327762388588308-404: The Iroquois turned their forces on the Neutral Nations on the north shore of Lakes Erie and Ontario, the Susquehannocks, their southern neighbor. Then they destroyed other Iroquoian-language tribes, including the Erie , to the west, in 1654, over competition for the fur trade. Then they destroyed the Mohicans . After their victories, they reigned supreme in an area from the Mississippi River to
8442-485: The Iroquois were a powerful factor in North American colonial policy. Alliance with the Iroquois offered political and strategic advantages to the European powers, but the Iroquois preserved considerable independence. Some of their people settled in mission villages along the St. Lawrence River , becoming more closely tied to the French. While they participated in French-led raids on Dutch and English colonial settlements, where some Mohawk and other Iroquois settled, in general
8576-433: The Iroquois. In a council held at the Lenape village of Shackamaxon (site of present-day Philadelphia ) in February and March 1677, all of the major parties met; still, no final agreements were reached, and Andros ordered the Susquehannocks remaining with the Lenape to disperse to other parts of New York in April. Maryland sent Henry Coursey to New York to engage Andros and eventually the Iroquois in peace talks, while at
8710-420: The Jerseys also created problems for Andros. James had awarded the territory west of the Hudson River to proprietors John Berkeley and George Carteret , and Berkeley had then deeded the western portion (which became known as West Jersey ) to a partnership of Quakers . Berkeley had not transferred his proprietary rights to this group, and the exact nature of the rights James had given both Berkeley and Carteret
8844-425: The Latins did of old with their dixi —and of Koué , which is a cry sometimes of sadness, when it is prolonged, and sometimes of joy, when it is pronounced shorter. In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that Charlevoix's etymology was dubious, and that "no other nation or tribe of which we have any knowledge has ever borne a name composed in this whimsical fashion". Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron , and
8978-457: The League, giving rise to the many historic references to "Five Nations of the Iroquois". With the addition of the southern Tuscarora in the 18th century, these original five tribes still compose the Haudenosaunee in the early 21st century: the Mohawk , Onondaga , Oneida , Cayuga , and Seneca . According to legend, an evil Onondaga chieftain named Tadodaho was the last converted to the ways of peace by The Great Peacemaker and Hiawatha. He
9112-428: The Lower St. Lawrence River region. The Mi'kmaq named the last-conquered land Gespedeg or "last land", from which the French derived Gaspé . The "Kwedech" are generally considered to have been Iroquois, specifically the Mohawk ; their expulsion from Gaspé by the Mi'kmaq has been estimated as occurring c. 1535–1600. Around 1535, Jacques Cartier reported Iroquoian-speaking groups on the Gaspé peninsula and along
9246-440: The Mohawk Valley and elsewhere and relocate to the northern lands retained by the British. The Crown gave them land in compensation for the five million acres they had lost in the south, but it was not equivalent to earlier territory. Modern scholars of the Iroquois distinguish between the League and the Confederacy. According to this interpretation, the Iroquois League refers to the ceremonial and cultural institution embodied in
9380-435: The Patent to the Lordship of Alderney . A less contentious standoff also occurred when settlers sent by William Penn sought to establish what is now Burlington, New Jersey . Andros insisted they had no right to settle there without the duke's permission. Still, he agreed to allow their settlement after they agreed to receive commissions falling under the authority of the New York gubernatorial administration. This situation
9514-435: The Puritan churches in Boston if its meetinghouse could be used for the Church of England services. When he was rebuffed, he demanded and was given keys to Samuel Willard 's Third Church in 1687. Services were held there under the auspices of Rev. Robert Ratcliff until 1688, when King's Chapel was built. These actions highlighted him as pro-Anglican in the eyes of local Puritans, who would later accuse him of involvement in
9648-680: The Six Nations/Haudenosaunee Confederacy were a powerful factor in North American colonial policy, with some scholars arguing for the concept of the Middle Ground, in that European powers were used by the Iroquois just as much as Europeans used them. At its peak around 1700, Iroquois power extended from what is today New York State, north into present-day Ontario and Quebec along the lower Great Lakes – upper St. Lawrence , and south on both sides of
9782-529: The St. Lawrence River, east to Montreal and the Hudson River , and south into what is today northwestern Pennsylvania. At its peak around 1700, Iroquois power extended from what is today New York State, north into present-day Ontario and Quebec along the lower Great Lakes – upper St. Lawrence , and south on both sides of the Allegheny Mountains into present-day Virginia and Kentucky and into
9916-459: The St. Lawrence River. Archeologists and anthropologists have defined the St. Lawrence Iroquoians as a distinct and separate group (and possibly several discrete groups), living in the villages of Hochelaga and others nearby (near present-day Montreal), which had been visited by Cartier. By 1608, when Samuel de Champlain visited the area, that part of the St. Lawrence River valley had no settlements, but
10050-423: The Susquehannocks to retreat into New York, where they would be beyond Maryland's reach, and delivering a strongly worded threat to Maryland, that it would either have to acknowledge his sovereignty over the Susquehannocks, or they would have to take them back peaceably. He also offered his services as a mediator, pointing out that the absence of the Susquehannocks now left Maryland settlements open to direct attack by
10184-859: The Tuscarora to becoming accepted as the sixth nation in the confederacy in 1722; the Iroquois become known afterwards as the Six Nations. Other independent Iroquoian-speaking peoples, such as the Erie , Susquehannock , Huron (Wendat) and Wyandot , lived at various times along the St. Lawrence River , and around the Great Lakes . In the American Southeast, the Cherokee were an Iroquoian-language people who had migrated to that area centuries before European contact. None of these were part of
10318-480: The adoption of corn as a staple crop. Archaeologist Dean Snow argues that the archaeological evidence does not support a date earlier than 1450. He has said that recent claims for a much earlier date "may be for contemporary political purposes". Other scholars note that anthropological researchers consulted only male informants, thus losing the half of the historical story told in the distinct oral traditions of women. For this reason, origin tales tend to emphasize
10452-483: The charter. In October 1687, Andros finally decided to travel to Connecticut to see the matter personally. Accompanied by an honor guard, he arrived in Hartford on 31 October and met with the colonial leadership that evening. According to legend, the charter was laid out on the table for all to see during this meeting. The lights in the room unexpectedly went out, and when relit, the charter had disappeared. The charter
10586-404: The circumstances dictated, creating a measured instability that only they could navigate. Their guiding principle was to avoid becoming attached to any single colony, which would restrict their options and risk exposure to external manipulation." Beginning in 1609, the League engaged in the decades-long Beaver Wars against the French, their Huron allies, and other neighboring tribes, including
10720-436: The colonial administration often suffered from defects of the form (for example, lacking an imprint of the colonial seal), and most of them did not include a quit-rent payment. Land grants in colonial Connecticut and Rhode Island had been made before either colony had a charter, and there were conflicting claims in some areas. How Andros approached the issue was necessarily divisive since it threatened any landowner whose title
10854-415: The colonial charter not long after he arrived in Boston. Unlike Rhode Island, whose officials readily acceded to the dominion, Connecticut officials formally acknowledged Andros' authority but did little to assist him. They continued to run their government according to the charter, holding quarterly legislature meetings and electing colony-wide officials, while Treat and Andros negotiated over the surrender of
10988-513: The colonies in the dominion having reverted to their previous forms of governance. Massachusetts and its surrounding territories were reorganized into the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1691. Andros was well received at court upon his return to England. The new king, William III , recalled that Andros had visited his court in the Netherlands and expressed approval of Andros' service. In search of employment, Andros offered his services as
11122-444: The colonies the dominion absorbed. Still, because of the inconvenience of travel and the fact that travel costs were not reimbursed, the council's quorums were dominated by representatives from Massachusetts and Plymouth. The Lords of Trade had insisted that he govern without an assembly, something he expressed concern over while his commission was being drafted. In a brief work, Sir Edmund Andros , historian Henry Ferguson attested to
11256-607: The confederacy did not speak for all five tribes, which continued to act independently and form their own war bands. Around 1678, the council began to exert more power in negotiations with the colonial governments of Pennsylvania and New York, and the Iroquois became very adroit at diplomacy, playing off the French against the British as individual tribes had earlier played the Swedes, Dutch, and English. Iroquoian-language peoples were involved in warfare and trading with nearby members of
11390-695: The dominion council formally extended its laws over Connecticut, completing the assimilation of the New England colonies. On 7 May 1688, the provinces of New York , East Jersey , and West Jersey were added to the Dominion. Because they were remote from Boston, where Andros had his seat, New York and the Jerseys were run by Lieutenant Governor Francis Nicholson from New York City . Nicholson, an army captain and protégé of colonial secretary William Blathwayt , came to Boston in early 1687 as part of Andros' honor guard and had been promoted to his council. During
11524-590: The fact that the deliberation of certain policies by an assembly of legislators may have proven inefficient. The Dominion initially consisted of the territories of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (including present-day Maine ), Plymouth Colony , Rhode Island , Connecticut and New Hampshire , and was extended to include New York, and East and West Jersey in 1688. Andros' wife, who had joined him in Boston, died in 1688, not long after her arrival. Shortly after his arrival, Andros asked each of
11658-485: The first attempts to enforce the revenue laws. Several towns refused to choose commissioners to assess the town population and estates, and officials from a number of them were consequently arrested and brought to Boston. Some were fined and released, while others were imprisoned until they promised to perform their duties. The leaders of Ipswich , who had been most vocal in opposing the law, were tried and convicted of misdemeanor offenses. The other provinces did not resist
11792-418: The former territories of New Netherland , ceded to England by the Treaty of Westminster , including all of present-day New Jersey , the Dutch holdings on the Hudson River from New Amsterdam (renamed New York City ) to Albany , as well as Long Island , Martha's Vineyard , and Nantucket . In 1664, Charles II granted James all of this territory, as well as all of the land in present-day Maine between
11926-472: The imposition of the new law, even though, at least in Rhode Island, the rates were higher than they had been under the previous colonial administration. Plymouth's relatively poor landowners were hard hit because of the high rates on livestock, and funds derived from whaling, once sources of profit for the individual towns, were now directed to the dominion government. One consequence of the tax protest
12060-523: The indigenous nations sometimes tried to remain neutral in the various colonial frontier wars, some also allied with Europeans, as in the French and Indian War , the North American front of the Seven Years' War. The Six Nations were split in their alliances between the French and British in that war. In Reflections in Bullough's Pond , historian Diana Muir argues that the pre-contact Iroquois were an imperialist, expansionist culture whose cultivation of
12194-440: The later revisions to Connecticut's boundaries, but Andros pressed his claim, arguing that York's grant had superseded those revisions. Andros used the outbreak of King Philip's War in July 1675 as an excuse to go by ship to Connecticut with a small military force to establish the duke's claim. When he arrived at Saybrook at the mouth of the river on 8 July, he found the fort there occupied by Connecticut militia, who were flying
12328-582: The longhouse ' ) are an Iroquoian-speaking confederacy of Native Americans and First Nations peoples in northeast North America. They were known by the French during the colonial years as the Iroquois League , and later as the Iroquois Confederacy , while the English simply called them the "Five Nations". The peoples of the Iroquois included (from east to west) the Mohawk , Oneida , Onondaga , Cayuga , and Seneca . After 1722,
12462-451: The migration of a majority to Canada, the Iroquois remaining in New York were required to live mostly on reservations. In 1784, a total of 6,000 Iroquois faced 240,000 New Yorkers, with land-hungry New Englanders poised to migrate west. "Oneidas alone, who were only 600 strong, owned six million acres, or about 2.4 million hectares. Iroquoia was a land rush waiting to happen." By the War of 1812 ,
12596-525: The now-vacated colonial charter, Andros essentially declared them void. He required landowners to recertify their ownership, paying fees to the dominion and becoming subject to the charging of a quit-rent. Andros attempted to compel the certification of ownership by issuing writs of intrusion, but large landowners who owned many parcels contested these individually rather than recertifying all of their lands. Since Andros' commission included Connecticut, he asked Connecticut Governor Robert Treat to surrender
12730-455: The other complaints, led the duke to order Andros back to England to explain the situation. Andros left the province in January 1681, charging Anthony Brockholls with the administration of the New York government. Expecting a short visit to England, his wife remained in New York. During his time in New York, he was thought to have demonstrated good administrative abilities. Still, his manner
12864-484: The peace soured while the Jesuits were traveling, and their warriors attacked the party en route. The missionaries were taken to Ossernenon village, Kanienkeh (Mohawk Nation) (near present-day Auriesville , New York), where the moderate Turtle and Wolf clans recommended setting them free, but angry members of the Bear clan killed Jean de Lalande and Isaac Jogues on October 18, 1646. The Catholic Church has commemorated
12998-491: The people. It was noted that those who made these complaints had, during the colonial charter, excluded large numbers of voters through the requirement of church membership and then taxed them. Andros had been instructed to bring colonial land title practices more in line with those in England and introduce quit-rents to raise colonial revenues. Titles previously issued in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine under
13132-535: The power centers and the unexpected end of the dominion in 1689. In 1687 the governor of New France , the Marquis de Denonville , launched an attack against Seneca villages in what is now western New York . His objective was to disrupt trade between the English at Albany and the Iroquois confederation, to which the Seneca belonged, and to break the Covenant Chain , a peace Andros had negotiated in 1677 while he
13266-635: The region. These tribes migrated to regions around the Mississippi River and the Piedmont regions of the east coast. Other Iroquoian-language peoples, including the populous Wyandot (Huron) , with related social organization and cultures, became extinct as tribes as a result of disease and war. They did not join the League when invited and were much reduced after the Beaver Wars and high mortality from Eurasian infectious diseases. While
13400-723: The resignation in February 1692 of Lord Effingham as governor of the Province of Virginia . Although Francis Nicholson, formerly dominion lieutenant governor, was then serving as lieutenant governor of Virginia and sought the superior position, William awarded the governorship to Andros, and awarded Nicholson yet another lieutenant governorship, this time that of Maryland . This was destined to make Andros' tenure more complicated because his relationship with Nicholson had deteriorated for other reasons. The exact reasons for this hostility are unclear: one contemporary wrote that Nicholson "especially [resented] Sir Edmund Andros, against whom he has
13534-517: The safe return of the captives. Andros castigated the Mainers for their unwarranted acts and ordered the Indians released and returned to Maine. A brief skirmish during exchanging captives resulted in the deaths of four English hostages and sparked discontent in Maine. Faced with this discord, Andros returned to Maine with a significant force and began constructing additional fortifications to protect
13668-484: The same time, they sent surveyors to lay out plots on land also claimed by New York on Delaware Bay. Coursey was instructed to offer Andros what was, in essence, a £100 bribe that an Indian peace might be reached in exchange for that land. Andros refused the bribe, and Coursey ended up being compelled to negotiate further through Andros and the Mohawk in Albany. The peace agreed upon in negotiations that followed in Albany in
13802-501: The second element kwédač , he suggests a relation to kouetakiou , kȣetat-chiȣin , and goéṭètjg – names used by neighboring Algonquian tribes to refer to the Iroquois, Huron, and Laurentian peoples. The Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America attests the origin of Iroquois to Iroqu , Algonquian for "rattlesnake". The French encountered the Algonquian-speaking tribes first, and would have learned
13936-507: The settlers, including Fort Andross . Andros spent the winter in Maine and returned to Boston in March upon hearing rumors of revolution in England and discontent in Boston. On 18 April 1689, soon after news reached Boston of the overthrow of James II of England , the colonists of Boston rose against his rule . A well-organized "mob" descended on the city, arresting dominion officials and Anglicans. Andros had his quarters in Fort Mary,
14070-739: The situation. He befriended the Lenape sachems (chiefs), convincing them to act as mediators between the English and other tribes. Peace appeared to be imminent when Bacon's Rebellion broke out in Virginia, resulting in an attack on the Susquehannock fort on the Potomac. The surviving Susquehannocks sneaked out of the fort one night, some making their way east toward Delaware Bay. In June 1676, Andros offered, in exchange for their moving into his jurisdiction, to protect them from their enemies among
14204-434: The summer of 1677 is considered one of the foundations of the set of alliances and treaties called the Covenant Chain . Although Andros could not prevent Baltimore from granting some land on the Delaware, he successfully blunted the Maryland leader's attempt to control an even greater portion of land. The duke eventually deeded those lands to William Penn, and they became part of the state of Delaware . The governance of
14338-399: The summer of 1688, Andros traveled first to New York and then to the Jerseys to establish his commission. Dominion governance of the Jerseys was complicated because the proprietors, whose charters had been revoked, had retained their property and petitioned Andros for what were traditional manorial rights . The dominion period in the Jerseys was relatively uneventful due to their distance from
14472-692: The territory's Dutch inhabitants to maintain their Protestant religion. Andros was also involved in boundary disputes with the neighboring Connecticut Colony . Dutch claims had initially extended as far east as the Connecticut River , but these claims had been ceded in the 1650 Treaty of Hartford and reduced to a boundary line 20 miles (32 km) east of the Hudson in 1664. York's territorial claim did not acknowledge these, and Andros announced to Connecticut authorities his intentions to reclaim that territory (which included Connecticut's capital, Hartford ) in early 1675. Connecticut leaders pointed out
14606-460: The time. However, the boat sent from the Rose was intercepted by militia, and Andros was forced back into Fort Mary. Negotiations ensued, and Andros agreed to leave the fort to meet with the rebel council. Promised safe conduct, he was marched under guard to the townhouse where the council had assembled. He was told that "they must & would have the Government in their own hands" and that he
14740-518: The troops, who jailed him in New York. A jury acquitted Carteret on all charges in a trial over which Andros presided. Carteret returned to New Jersey, but injuries he sustained in the arrest affected his health, and he died in 1682. In the aftermath of the incident, the Duke of York surrendered his claims to East Jersey to the Carterets. Andros acquired in 1683, from the widow of Carteret, for £200,
14874-744: The two men Deganawidah and Hiawatha , while the woman Jigonsaseh , who plays a prominent role in the female tradition, remains largely unknown. The founders of League are traditionally held to be Dekanawida the Great Peacemaker, Hiawatha, and Jigonhsasee the Mother of Nations, whose home acted as a sort of United Nations. They brought the Peacemaker's Great Law of Peace to the squabbling Iroquoian nations who were fighting, raiding, and feuding with each other and with other tribes, both Algonkian and Iroquoian . Five nations originally joined in
15008-659: The weakened tribe. According to one theory of early Iroquois history, after becoming united in the League, the Iroquois invaded the Ohio River Valley in the territories that would become the eastern Ohio Country down as far as present-day Kentucky to seek additional hunting grounds. They displaced about 1,200 Siouan -speaking tribepeople of the Ohio River valley, such as the Quapaw (Akansea), Ofo ( Mosopelea ), and Tutelo and other closely related tribes out of
15142-555: The year, raiding several Indian settlements. He also raided the trading outpost and home of Jean-Vincent d'Abbadie de Saint-Castin on Penobscot Bay . His careful preservation of the Catholic Castin's chapel would be a source of later accusations of " popery " against Andros. When Andros took over the administration of New York in August 1688, he met with the Iroquois at Albany to renew the covenant. In this meeting, he annoyed
15276-520: Was "strange" that they would do so, considering their previous behavior, and refused to help. In July 1676, Andros established a haven for the Mahicans and other Indian war refugees at Schaghticoke . Although the conflict came to an end in southern New England in 1676, there continued to be friction between the Abenakis of northern New England and New England settlers. These prompted Andros to send
15410-472: Was advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, elaborating upon Charles Arnaud from 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué , meaning "terrible man", via the reduced form irokue . Day proposed a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač , meaning "a man, an Iroquois", as the origin of this term. For the first element irno , Day cites cognates from other attested Montagnais dialects: irinou , iriniȣ , and ilnu ; and for
15544-574: Was an English colonial administrator in British America . He was the governor of the Dominion of New England during most of its three-year existence. At other times, Andros served as governor of the provinces of New York , East and West Jersey , Virginia , and Maryland . Before serving in North America, he served as Bailiff of Guernsey . His tenure in New England was authoritarian and turbulent, as his views were decidedly pro- Anglican ,
15678-508: Was an important figure of his generation in recounting versions of Iroquois history in epics on the Peacemaker . Notable women historians among the Iroquois emerged in the following decades, including Laura "Minnie" Kellogg (Oneida, 1880–1949) and Alice Lee Jemison (Seneca, 1901–1964). The Iroquois League was established prior to European contact , with the banding together of five of the many Iroquoian peoples who had emerged south of
15812-406: Was appointed lieutenant governor of the island and served in this position for four years. Andros died in 1714. Andros was born in London on 6 December 1637. Amice Andros, his father, was Bailiff of Guernsey and a staunch supporter of Charles I . His mother was Elizabeth Stone, whose sister was a courtier to the king's sister, Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia . Although it has been claimed that Andros
15946-467: Was cognate with the Mohawk ierokwa "they who smoke", or Cayuga iakwai "a bear". In 1888, J. N. B. Hewitt expressed doubts that either of those words exist in the respective languages. He preferred the etymology from Montagnais irin "true, real" and ako "snake", plus the French -ois suffix. Later he revised this to Algonquin Iriⁿakhoiw as the origin. A more modern etymology
16080-409: Was considered imperious by his opponents among the colonists, and he made numerous enemies during his tenure as governor. In 1686 he was appointed governor of the Dominion of New England . He arrived in Boston on 20 December 1686, and immediately assumed power. His commission called for governance by himself, with a council. The initial composition of the council included representatives from each of
16214-457: Was controlled by the Mohawk as a hunting ground. The fate of the Iroquoian people that Cartier encountered remains a mystery, and all that can be stated for certain is when Champlain arrived, they were gone. On the Gaspé peninsula, Champlain encountered Algonquian-speaking groups. The precise identity of any of these groups is still debated. On July 29, 1609, Champlain assisted his allies in defeating
16348-558: Was disputed, in part, because James believed that the second patent granted to him in 1674 overrode the earlier grants he had made to Berkeley and Carteret. This resulted in conflict when Andros attempted to extend his government over East Jersey , the territory governed on behalf of Carteret by the latter's cousin Philip . Possibly based on orders given to him during his visit to England, Andros began to assert New York authority over East Jersey after George Carteret's death in 1680. Despite
16482-400: Was dubious. Some landowners went through the confirmation process, but many refused since they did not want to face the possibility of losing their land, and they viewed the process as a thinly veiled land grab. The Puritans of Plymouth and Massachusetts, some of whom had extensive landholdings, were among the latter. Since all of the existing land titles in Massachusetts had been granted under
16616-493: Was governor of New York. New York Governor Thomas Dongan appealed for help, and King James ordered Andros to render assistance. James also entered into negotiations with Louis XIV of France , easing tensions on the northwestern frontier. On New England's northeastern frontier, however, the Abenaki harbored grievances against New England settlers and began an offensive in early 1688. Andros made an expedition into Maine early in
16750-464: Was in captivity, the New York government of Lieutenant Governor Francis Nicholson was simultaneously deposed by a military faction led by Jacob Leisler , Leisler's Rebellion . Leisler would govern New York until 1691 when he was captured and executed by a force led by newly appointed provincial governor Henry Sloughter . Andros was eventually allowed to depart for England; by that point, the Dominion of New England had effectively ceased to exist, with
16884-608: Was not to draw the Iroquois into the conflict but instead to draw the Mahicans into the conflict to attack Albany. An offer by Andros to send New York troops into Massachusetts to attack Philip was rebuffed based on the idea that it was a covert ploy to assert authority over the Connecticut River again. Instead, Mohawks from the Albany area did battle with Philip, driving him eastward. When Connecticut authorities later appealed to Andros for assistance, Andros replied that it
17018-509: Was offered the position as the titular chair of the League's Council, representing the unity of all nations of the League. This is said to have occurred at Onondaga Lake near present-day Syracuse, New York . The title Tadodaho is still used for the League's chair, the fiftieth chief who sits with the Onondaga in council. The Iroquois subsequently created a highly egalitarian society. One British colonial administrator declared in 1749 that
17152-486: Was permanently resolved in 1680 when York renounced in favor of Penn his remaining claims to West Jersey. The political opponents of Andros in the colony brought several charges against him to the Duke of York. Among them were accusations of favoritism toward Dutch business owners and engaging in business for private gain rather than that of the duke. Statements were also made to the duke that claimed that his revenues were lower than they should have been; this, in addition to
17286-524: Was present at the surrender in 1651 of Guernsey's Castle Cornet , the last royalist stronghold to surrender in the English Civil War , there is no firm evidence to support this. It is possible that he fled Guernsey with his mother in 1645. In 1656, he was apprenticed to his uncle, Sir Robert Stone, captain of a cavalry company. Andros then served in two winter campaigns in Denmark , including
17420-590: Was quickly recaptured and thereafter kept in virtual solitary confinement. He and others were held for ten months before being sent to England for trial. The Massachusetts agents in London refused to sign the charges made against him, so the court summarily dismissed them and freed him. When Andros was questioned about the various accusations that had been leveled against him, he pointed out that all of his actions had been taken to bring colonial laws into conformance with English law, or they were specifically taken in pursuit of his commission and instructions. While Andros
17554-500: Was said to have been hidden in a nearby oak tree (referred to afterward as the Charter Oak ) so that a search of nearby buildings would not locate the document. Whatever the truth of the account, Connecticut records show that its government formally surrendered its seals and ceased operation that day. Andros then traveled throughout the colony, making judicial and other appointments, before returning to Boston. On 29 December 1687,
17688-518: Was that Andros sought to restrict town meetings since these were where that protest had begun. He, therefore, introduced a law that limited meetings to a single annual meeting solely for electing officials and explicitly banned meetings at other times for any reason. This loss of local power was widely hated. Many protests were made that the town meeting and tax laws were violations of the Magna Carta , which guaranteed taxation by representatives of
17822-410: Was under arrest. Daniel Fisher grabbed him by the collar and took him to the home of dominion official John Usher and held under close watch. After Fort Mary fell into rebel hands on the 19th, Andros was moved there from Usher's house. He was confined there with Joseph Dudley and other dominion officials until 7 June, when he was transferred to Castle Island . During this period of captivity, he
17956-520: Was well received and agreed to continue the Dutch practice of supplying firearms to the Iroquois. This action successfully blunted French diplomatic successes with the Iroquois. It also led to charges in New England that Andros provided arms to Indians allied to King Philip (as the Wampanoag leader Metacom was known to the English); in fact, Andros provided gunpowder to Rhode Island that was used in
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