Misplaced Pages

#304695

116-558: In the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms , the campaign is memorable for at least two famous incidents: one is Guan Yu 's slaying of Hua Xiong ; the other is the three-on-one duel between the three sworn brothers ( Liu Bei , Guan Yu, Zhang Fei ) and Lü Bu . The two scenes are often reenacted in Chinese opera along with other famous scenes from the novel. Both incidents however, are fictional; Hua Xiong

232-530: A brain tumour in Luoyang. His son and successor, Cao Pi , forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne to him and established the state of Cao Wei to replace the Han dynasty. About a year later, Liu Bei declared himself emperor and founded the state of Shu Han as a continuation of the Han dynasty. While Liu Bei was planning to avenge Guan Yu, Zhang Fei was assassinated in his sleep by his subordinates. As Liu Bei led

348-588: A calamitous defeat on Liu Bei at the Battle of Yiling . Lu Xun initially pursued Liu Bei during his retreat, but gave up after getting trapped inside and barely escaping from Zhuge Liang's Stone Sentinel Maze . Liu Bei died in Baidicheng from illness a few months later. On his deathbed, Liu Bei granted Zhuge Liang permission to take the throne if his son and successor, Liu Shan , proved to be an inept ruler. Zhuge Liang firmly refused and swore to remain faithful to

464-728: A capable and charismatic ruler. With assistance from Zhou Yu , Zhang Zhao and others, Sun Quan found hidden talents such as Lu Su to serve him, built up his military forces, and maintained stability in Jiangdong. Liu Bei and his oath brothers Guan Yu and Zhang Fei swore allegiance to the Han Empire in the Oath of the Peach Garden and pledged to do their best for the people. However, their ambitions were not realised as they did not receive due recognition for helping to suppress

580-473: A coalition and launched a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo . After Dong Zhuo lost the battles of Sishui Pass and Hulao Pass , he forced the citizens of Luoyang to relocate to Chang'an with him and burnt down Luoyang. The coalition ultimately broke up due to indecisive leadership and conflicting interests among its members. Meanwhile, in Chang'an, Dong Zhuo was betrayed and murdered by his foster son Lü Bu in

696-447: A diplomatic mission to Jiangdong to meet Sun Quan and discuss forming a Sun–Liu alliance to counter Cao Cao. Although Sun Quan was initially hesitant due to many of his followers advising him to surrender to Cao Cao, he ultimately made up his mind to ally with Liu Bei, placing Zhou Yu in command of his forces to prepare for the upcoming war. Zhuge Liang temporarily remained in Jiangdong to assist Zhou Yu, who sensed that Zhuge Liang posed

812-524: A dispute over the maiden Diaochan as part of a plot orchestrated by the minister Wang Yun . In the meantime, the Han Empire was already disintegrating into civil war as warlords fought for territories and power. Sun Jian found the Imperial Seal in the ruins of Luoyang and secretly kept it for himself. When Yuan Shao confronted him, he refused to hand over the Imperial Seal and left, but

928-468: A fortified pass guarding Luoyang to the south, 90 li away from Luoyang. Dong Zhuo personally fought in the battle at the Later Han tombs, but was defeated and fled to Mianchi and Shan (陝), west of Luoyang. Sun Jian then continued to march into Luoyang, where he met and routed the forces of Lü Bu. Settling in, Sun ordered his men to reseal the tombs of former emperors that were excavated by Dong Zhuo. It

1044-497: A future threat to his lord. Zhou Yu attempted to outwit and kill Zhuge Liang, but failed and had no choice but to cooperate with the latter. The Sun–Liu forces scored a decisive victory over Cao Cao at the Battle of Red Cliffs . Sun Quan and Liu Bei started vying for control of southern Jing Province after their victory, but Liu Bei won and took over the territories from Cao Cao's general Cao Ren . Sun Quan, unhappy over having gained nothing, sent messengers to ask Liu Bei to "return"

1160-491: A group of influential court eunuchs, feared that He Jin was growing too powerful, so they lured him into the palace and assassinated him. In revenge, He Jin's followers broke into the palace and indiscriminately slaughtered any person who looked like a eunuch. In the ensuing chaos, Emperor Shao and his younger half-brother, the Prince of Chenliu , disappeared from the palace. The missing emperor and prince were found by soldiers of

1276-455: A large army to avenge Guan Yu and retake Jing Province, Sun Quan attempted to appease him by offering to return him the territories in southern Jing Province. Liu Bei's subjects urged him to accept Sun Quan's offer but Liu Bei insisted on avenging his oath brother. After initial victories against Sun Quan's forces, a series of strategic mistakes resulted in Sun Quan's general Lu Xun inflicting

SECTION 10

#1732776863305

1392-496: A rebellion by former Yellow Turbans, and consolidating power in the central government, Cao Cao turned his attention north to Yuan Shao, who had recently eliminated Gongsun Zan and now controlled most of northern China. Yuan Shao amassed a large army and camped along the northern bank of the Yellow River. In the summer of 200, after months of preparations, Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed at the Battle of Guandu . Although Cao Cao

1508-674: A rich tapestry of personalities. Luo Guanzhong's version in 24 volumes, known as the Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi , is now held in the Shanghai Library in China, Tenri Central Library in Japan, and several other major libraries. Various 10-volume, 12-volume and 20-volume recensions of Luo's text, made between 1522 and 1690, are also held at libraries around the world. However, the standard text familiar to general readers

1624-450: A slight offensive remark would be killed immediately. He installed all members of his clan and relatives by marriage in high-ranking official posts. Even his infant sons were conferred titles of marquises and played with gold seals and purple tassels. Court officials Wang Yun , Huang Wan (黃琬), Shisun Rui (士孫瑞) and Yang Zan (楊瓚) plotted to assassinate Dong Zhuo. They persuaded Lü Bu to join their cause because Lü's relationship with Dong

1740-465: A small city, and Guan Yu temporarily served under Cao Cao and helped him slay two of Yuan Shao's generals in battle. The three oath brothers were eventually reunited and managed to establish a new base in Runan , but they were defeated by Cao Cao's forces again so they retreated south to Jing Province , where they took shelter under the governor Liu Biao . After pacifying the nearby provinces, suppressing

1856-694: A southern campaign against the Nanman, defeated them seven times, and won the allegiance of the Nanman king Meng Huo . After pacifying the south, Zhuge Liang led the Shu army on five military expeditions to attack Wei as part of his mission to restore the Han dynasty. Each time, as Zhuge Liang was on the verge of success, he was recalled due to various unfortunate circumstances, such as Liu Shan listening to rumours spread by eunuchs. Moreover, his days were numbered because he had been suffering from chronic illness and his condition worsened under stress. He died of illness at

1972-438: A southern campaign to eliminate Liu Bei and Sun Quan. By then, Liu Biao had died and his younger son Liu Cong decided to surrender control of Jing Province to Cao Cao. In 208, although Liu Bei managed to repel two attacks by Cao Cao at Xinye, he was eventually forced to flee due to the overwhelming strength of the enemy forces. Cao Cao and his cavalry caught up with Liu Bei and his forces at Changban and defeated them. During

2088-486: A struggle for power, which spread throughout the nation progressively. In the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms , the author Luo Guanzhong employed artistic license rather freely as he changed some details of this campaign to better portray the main characters. For example, there is historical evidence that Liu Bei , Guan Yu , and Zhang Fei participated in the campaign but no specific feats, yet their achievements eclipse those of Sun Jian in

2204-426: Is "the nature of human ambition", to which Moody adds the relationship between politics and morality, specifically the conflict between the idealism of Confucian political thought and the harsh realism of Legalism , as a related theme. Other dominant themes of the novel include: the rise and fall of the ideal liege (Liu Bei); finding the ideal minister (Zhuge Liang); the conflict between the ideal liege (Liu Bei) and

2320-513: Is a recension by Mao Lun and his son Mao Zonggang . In the 1660s, during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor in the Qing dynasty , Mao Lun and Mao Zonggang significantly edited the text, fitting it into 120 chapters, and abbreviating the title to Sanguozhi Yanyi . The text was reduced from 900,000 to 750,000 characters; significant editing was done for narrative flow; use of third-party poems

2436-465: Is also adopted by many Chinese operas and video games. In chapter 5 of Romance of the Three Kingdoms , Cao Cao attempted to assassinate Dong Zhuo but failed and escaped to his hometown in Chenliu. Subsequently, Cao sent secret imperial decrees, in the name of the emperor, to various regional warlords and officials, ordering them to rise up against Dong Zhuo and remove him from power. Many responded to

SECTION 20

#1732776863305

2552-625: Is arguably the most widely read historical novel in late imperial and modern China. Herbert Giles stated that among the Chinese themselves, this is regarded as the greatest of all their novels. Stories about the heroes of the Three Kingdoms were the basis of entertainment dating back to the Sui and Tang dynasty (6th–10th centuries). By the Song dynasty (10th–13th centuries), there were several records of professional oral storytellers who specialized in

2668-429: The Battle of Jieqiao subsequently. By then, the coalition had failed and collapsed, existing only in name. For the following year, the warlords ceased to take any action against Dong Zhuo. Dong occasionally sent an army to attack the warlord Zhu Jun and plundered his territory. Dong Zhuo returned to his tyrant status in the imperial court, but he had become less tolerant towards dissent, as any official who uttered

2784-820: The Battle of Wuzhang Plains while leading a stalemate battle against the Wei general Sima Yi . The long years of battle between Shu and Wei saw many changes in the ruling Cao family in Wei. The influence of the Caos weakened after Cao Rui 's death and state power eventually fell into the hands of the regent Sima Yi and subsequently to his sons, Sima Shi and Sima Zhao . In Shu, Jiang Wei inherited Zhuge Liang's legacy and continued to lead another nine campaigns against Wei for three decades, but ultimately failed to achieve any significant success. The Shu emperor Liu Shan also turned out to be an incompetent ruler who trusted corrupt officials. Shu gradually declined under Liu Shan's rule and

2900-430: The Battle of Xingyang , and Cao Cao himself was injured in battle. Cao Hong offered his steed to him and he followed Cao Cao on foot, and they managed to escape from the battlefield. Xu withdrew his troops after the battle. When Cao Cao returned to Suanzao, he suggested that the coalition pursue Dong Zhuo's retreating forces to threaten Dong by showing him that the coalition was still on the move. However, Zhang Miao and

3016-589: The Campaign against Dong Zhuo led by Yuan Shao. He was joined by Sun Jian, whom he appointed to Inspector of Yu Province . Sun Jian succeeded in defeating and killing Dong's general Hua Xiong (191), but Yuan Shu grew wary that Sun would become too successful and no longer submit to his command, and temporarily secretly cut off Sun's food supplies, thereby hindering his advance. By the time Sun Jian reached Luoyang, it had been largely destroyed by fires set by Dong Zhuo, whose forces fled westwards to Chang'an, abducting

3132-584: The Hanzhong Campaign and capturing Hanzhong Commandery. At the same time, Emperor Xian awarded Cao Cao the title of a vassal king – King of Wei – while Sun Quan was known as the Duke of Wu. In eastern China, Sun Quan and Cao Cao's forces fought in various battles along the Yangtze River , including the battles of Hefei and Ruxu , but neither side managed to gain a significant advantage over

3248-517: The Imperial Seal , which was given to him by the late Sun Jian . This audacious action made him a target of the other warlords. His extravagant lifestyle and arrogance caused many of his followers to desert him. Most devastating of the departures and defections – both to Yuan Shu personally and to the strength of his forces – was that by Sun Ce , who had conquered most of the Jiangdong territories under Yuan Shu's banner. Following crushing defeats by

3364-493: The Prince of Chenliu , were brought out of the palace by the surviving eunuchs during the chaos. The emperor lost the Imperial Seal during his escape. They were eventually discovered by a search party and escorted back to the palace safely by Dong Zhuo and his men. Subsequently, the warlord Ding Yuan was killed by his subordinate Lü Bu for opposing Dong Zhuo's decision to depose Emperor Shao. Lü then defected to Dong's side. In 190, Dong Zhuo deposed Emperor Shao and installed

3480-473: The Romance that could be dated with certainty in any language. Yuan Shu Yuan Shu ( pronunciation ) (died July or August 199 ), courtesy name Gonglu , was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty . He rose to prominence following the collapse of the Han central government in 189. He declared himself Emperor of China in 197 under

3596-509: The Romance of the Three Kingdoms has been retold in numerous forms including television series, manga and video games. The Jurchen chieftain Nurhaci was an avid reader of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin , learning all he knew about Chinese military and political strategies from them. Thus, when his descendants founded the Qing dynasty and became the rulers of China,

Campaign against Dong Zhuo - Misplaced Pages Continue

3712-496: The Yellow Turban Rebellion and participating in the campaign against Dong Zhuo . After Liu Bei succeeded Tao Qian as the governor of Xu Province , he offered shelter to Lü Bu , who had just been defeated by Cao Cao. However, Lü Bu betrayed his host, seized control of the province and attacked Liu Bei. After combining forces with Cao Cao to defeat Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi , Liu Bei followed Cao Cao back to

3828-615: The end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history , starting in 184 AD and ending with the reunification of the land in 280 by the Western Jin . The novel is based primarily on the Records of the Three Kingdoms , written by Chen Shou in the 3rd century. The story – part historical and part fictional – romanticises and dramatises the lives of feudal lords and their retainers, who tried to supplant

3944-434: The "breakdown of order" at the end of the Han dynasty to "the improper exercise of imperial authority, the destabilisation influence of special-interest groups (eunuchs, imperial clansmen), the problem of factional and individual idealism carried to the point of civil strife-all of which eventually surface in the body of the narrative." He goes on to say, the "overlapping claims to legitimacy and multiple spheres of power," give

4060-493: The 3rd century. The Records of the Three Kingdoms covered events ranging from the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 to the unification of the Three Kingdoms under the Jin dynasty in 280. The novel also includes material from Tang dynasty poetic works, Yuan dynasty operas and his own personal interpretation of elements such as virtue and legitimacy. The author combined this historical knowledge with his own storytelling skills to create

4176-561: The Governor of Ji Province (冀州). At the same time, the Grand Administrator of Dong Commandery , Qiao Mao , forged letters of accusation against Dong Zhuo, denouncing him as a traitor with the intention of usurping the throne, calling for a punitive expedition against Dong. These letters were distributed all around the nation in the name of officials from the capital. Regional officials and warlords all around China received

4292-785: The Household Rapid as a Tiger ( 虎賁中郎將 ). After the death of General-in-Chief He Jin (22 September 189), Yuan Shu, as the Imperial Corps Commander of the Imperial Tiger Guards, led his men to kill the eunuch faction . When Dong Zhuo seized control of the Han central government, he wanted to appoint Yuan Shu as General of the Rear, but, fearing Dong Zhuo, Yuan Shu fled to Nanyang Commandery , which he took control over after Sun Jian killed its grand administrator, Zhang Zi. Yuan Shu participated in

4408-432: The Imperial Seal", causing Sun to be stunned. After rounds of accusations and denials, Yuan Shao and Sun Jian's men drew swords in preparation for a fight, but the conflict was defused by the rest of the coalition members. Sun Jian then quickly fled from Luoyang with his men. In anger, Yuan Shao sent a letter to Liu Biao of Jing Province, asking Liu Biao to intercept Sun on the way and take him into custody. This gave rise to

4524-688: The Jin dynasty . The fall of Wu marked the end of the near century-long era of civil strife historically known as the Three Kingdoms period. The novel draws from Chen Shou 's Records of the Three Kingdoms as the main historical source. Other major influences include Liu Yiqing's A New Account of the Tales of the World ( Shishuo Xinyu ), published in 430, and the Sanguozhi Pinghua , a chronological collection of eighty fictional sketches starting with

4640-673: The Maos in their substantially revised edition of 1679. None of the earlier editions contained this phrase. In addition, Mao also added Yang Shen 's The Immortals by the River as the famous introductory poem (which began with "The gushing waters of the Yangzi River pour and disappear into the East", 滾滾長江東逝水 ) to the novel. The earlier editions, moreover, spend less time on the process of division, which they found painful, and far more time on

4756-479: The Prince of Chenliu on the throne. The prince became historically known as Emperor Xian. Dong appointed himself as Chancellor of State , an official post abolished almost 200 years before. On March 26 in the same year, Dong had Liu Bian (the former Emperor Shao) and Empress Dowager He killed. Since then, Dong Zhuo had established a strong influence in the imperial court. He was authoritarian and showed no regard for

Campaign against Dong Zhuo - Misplaced Pages Continue

4872-548: The Three Kingdoms is acclaimed as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature ; it has a total of 800,000 words and nearly a thousand dramatic characters (mostly historical) in 120 chapters. The novel is among the most beloved works of literature in East Asia , and its literary influence in the region has been compared to that of the works of Shakespeare on English literature . It

4988-421: The Three Kingdoms hero cycles. The earliest written work to combine these stories was a pinghua named Sanguozhi Pinghua published sometime between 1321 and 1323. Romance of the Three Kingdoms is traditionally attributed to Luo Guanzhong , a playwright who lived sometime between 1315 and 1400 (late Yuan to early Ming period) known for compiling historical plays in styles which were prevalent during

5104-482: The Three Kingdoms period, creating "believable" situations and characters, even if they are not historically accurate. Romance of the Three Kingdoms , like the dramas and folk stories of its day, features Liu Bei and his associates as the protagonists; hence the depiction of the people in Shu Han was glorified. The antagonists, Cao Cao, Sun Quan and their followers, on the other hand, were often denigrated. This suited

5220-482: The Yuan period. It was first printed in 1522 as Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi ( 三國志通俗演義 ; 三国志通俗演义 ) in an edition which bore a preface dated 1494. The text may well have circulated before either date in handwritten manuscripts. Regardless of when it was written or whether Luo was the writer, the author made use of several available historical records, primarily the Records of the Three Kingdoms compiled by Chen Shou in

5336-418: The absolute monarchy as he made the final decisions on policies without consulting or seeking approval from the emperor. He eliminated several of his opponents in the imperial court to further strengthen his grip over the apparatus of state. Yuan Shao fled from Luoyang after openly disagreeing with Dong Zhuo's decision to depose Emperor Shao. Dong Zhuo feared that Yuan Shao might rise in revolt against him as Yuan

5452-495: The alliance and retreated north. Seeing everyone had dispersed, Yuan Shao dismantled the camps and led his army back to his base. Romance of the Three Kingdoms Romance of the Three Kingdoms ( traditional Chinese : 三國演義 ; simplified Chinese : 三国演义 ; pinyin : Sānguó Yǎnyì ) is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong . It is set in the turbulent years towards

5568-501: The armies of Cao Cao, Liu Bei , and Lü Bu , Yuan Shu attempted to flee north to join Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao sent his eldest son, Yuan Tan , to try to aid Yuan Shu; however, an alliance between the Yuan brothers who had long hated each other would not arise, as Yuan Tan arrived too late, and Yuan Shu's forces were blocked and forced to retreat back to Shouchun by Liu Bei. He died shortly thereafter of starvation, being unable to swallow

5684-514: The battle, Liu Bei's generals Zhao Yun and Zhang Fei displayed heroics: the former fought his way through enemy lines to rescue Liu Bei's infant son Liu Shan and deliver him safely back to his father; the latter single-handedly held off enemy forces at a bridge by intimidating and staring them down. Liu Bei and his forces managed to rendezvous with Guan Yu , who had left earlier to seek help from Liu Biao's elder son Liu Qi , and they retreated to Xiakou . In 208, Liu Bei dispatched Zhuge Liang on

5800-524: The book was one of the first Chinese books to be translated into their Manchu language along with military manuals. Indeed, it is one of only two Chinese novels that had a Manchu translation put into print during the Qing dynasty (the other being Jin Ping Mei ). A Manchu translation of the Romance , known in Manchu as Ilan gurun-i bithe ( ᡳᠯᠠᠨ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ᡳ ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ ), was first attempted in 1631 by

5916-526: The call and they formed the Anti-Dong Zhuo Coalition (反董卓聯合軍). The novel has a slightly different list of participants in the coalition: With eighteen warlords participating in the novel, the campaign is thus popularly known as "The eighteen warlords' campaign against Dong Zhuo" (十八路諸侯討董卓). In this campaign, Liu Bei, with his sworn brothers Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, offered their service to Gongsun Zan, Liu's friend and former classmate. After

SECTION 50

#1732776863305

6032-409: The campaign under the banners of Yuan Shu and Zhang Miao respectively. The participants of the campaign included: The coalition forces encamped in several locations east of the capital city of Luoyang, effectively surrounding it. The locations of the coalition members in relation to Luoyang are as follows: The blockade had the effect of cutting supplies from the eastern part of the Han empire from

6148-533: The capital city of Luoyang . Dong was ordered to lead his troops into the capital city to aid He in eliminating the eunuch faction, the Ten Attendants , from the imperial court. However, before Dong Zhuo's arrival, He Jin's plan was revealed and he was assassinated by the eunuchs on 22 September 189. He Jin's associates led by Yuan Shao stormed the palace after the assassination and started massacring eunuchs . The young Emperor Shao and his younger brother,

6264-443: The capital of Luoyang be evacuated immediately and the imperial court be shifted to Chang'an in the west. All civilians were to evacuate Luoyang as well and move to Chang'an, with only Dong and his military staying behind to defend Luoyang from the coalition forces. Dong Zhuo's proposal was met with strong criticisms from other court officials but Dong silenced them by deposing anyone who opposed him. On 9 April 190, Dong's proposal

6380-555: The capital, which drastically reduced the government's tax revenue. In response, Dong Zhuo melted nine of the Twelve Metal Colossi and other treasures to gather bronze that he could use to mint more coinage. These new coins flooded the market and caused rampant inflation throughout the empire. Despite the impressive showing of force, most of the coalition's armies were hurriedly rallied family retainers and opportunists for loot with little battle experience. The leader of

6496-590: The coalition Yuan Shao himself had not seen action in much of the 180s since he had been in six years mourning for first his mother and then his adoptive father, during which he could not participate in military matters. This is contrasted with Dong Zhuo's battle-hardened frontiersmen, who had previously fought in the Liang Province Rebellion . Dong Zhuo was alarmed by the formation of the Guandong Coalition against him. He proposed that

6612-608: The combined armies of Cao Cao and Yuan Shao. He fled to Shouchun in Jiujiang (present day Shou County , Anhui ) on the southern bank of the Huai River . From his new headquarters, he built up a powerful warlord state. He deposed Inspector Chen Wen of Yang Province and took the title for himself, also claiming to be Lord of Xu Province . From 194 to early 197, Sun Jian's son Sun Ce and brother-in-law Wu Jing conquered many territories in Jiangdong on Yuan Shu's behalf. He

6728-481: The common people for his personal gain. During this time, there were two attempts on his life: the first was by a military officer Wu Fu ( 伍孚 ), who failed and died a gruesome death; the second was by Cao Cao , who was also unsuccessful but managed to escape. Cao Cao fled from Luoyang, returned to his home commandery , and sent out a fake imperial edict to various warlords, calling them to rise up against Dong Zhuo. Under Yuan Shao 's leadership, eighteen warlords formed

6844-489: The conflict between Sun Jian and Liu Biao, which eventually culminated in the death of Sun at the Battle of Xiangyang . The next day, Cao Cao returned to the main camp from his defeat in Xingyang. He lamented at the lack of motivation within the coalition and left as well. Gongsun Zan told Liu Bei, "Yuan Shao is an incapable leader, and together there will be strife, we should leave", and so they also pulled their forces from

6960-403: The consummate villain (Cao Cao); and the cruelties and injustice of feudal or dynastic government. The opening lines of the novel, "The empire, long divided, must unite; long united, must divide. Thus it has ever been", added by Mao Lun and Mao Zonggang in their recension, epitomise the tragic theme of the novel. One recent critic notes that the novel takes political and moral stands and lets

7076-484: The counties to block any attack from the east of the mountains. After these arrangements, Dong Zhuo led his own troops away to Chang'an. Having repaired the imperial tombs, Sun Jian led his army back to Luyang as the ruined Luoyang was vulnerable to possible counterattacks by Dong Zhuo. The former capital of Luoyang was now abandoned by both contending forces. Despite Sun Jian's successes, the coalition did not build upon them due to poor communication and coordination among

SECTION 60

#1732776863305

7192-433: The dwindling Han dynasty or restore it. While the novel follows hundreds of characters, the focus is mainly on the three power blocs that emerged from the remnants of the Han dynasty, and would eventually form the three states of Cao Wei , Shu Han , and Eastern Wu . The novel deals with the plots, personal and military battles, intrigues, and struggles of these states to achieve dominance for almost 100 years. Romance of

7308-459: The emergence of written vernacular during the Ming period, as part of the so-called "Four Masterworks" ( si da qishu ). Romance of the Three Kingdoms recorded stories of a Buddhist monk called Pujing (普净), who was a friend of Guan Yu . Pujing made his first appearance during Guan's arduous journey of crossing five passes and slaying six generals, in which he warned Guan of an assassination plot. As

7424-399: The eminent scholar Dahai ( 達海 ; 1595–1632), but he died the following year before it could be finished. A complete translation based on the 1522 edition of the novel was done in 1647 and published in 1650 by a team of high-ranking officials including Kicungge ( 祁充格 ; d. 1651) and Fan Wencheng (1597–1666), commissioned by the prince-regent Dorgon . This is the first translation of

7540-560: The emperor. However, his soldiers found the Imperial Seal , which Sun Jian passed to his superior Yuan Shu. Yuan Shu's rule in Nanyang was despotic. After the dissension of the alliance against Dong Zhuo in 191, he vied with Yuan Shao over control of northern China, each establishing opposing alliances. Yuan Shu allied with Yuan Shao's northern rival Gongsun Zan , and Yuan Shao in turn allied with Yuan Shu's southern rival Liu Biao . Yuan Shu sent Sun Jian to attack Liu Biao, but his general

7656-801: The end of 207, after a victorious campaign beyond the frontier against the Wuhuan , Cao Cao achieved complete dominance of northern China. The territories in central and northern China which came under Cao Cao's control became the foundation of the state of Cao Wei , which would later be established by Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi . In the meantime, Liu Biao had put Liu Bei in charge of Xinye . During this time, Liu Bei visited Zhuge Liang thrice and recruited him. Acting on Zhuge Liang's advice, Liu Bei built up his forces in preparation for war against Cao Cao. Following his unification of central and northern China under his control, Cao Cao, having been appointed Imperial Chancellor by Emperor Xian, led his forces on

7772-407: The evacuation, Luoyang was set on fire and razed to the ground. According to Chen Shou 's Records of Three Kingdoms "the numbers of the innocent dead were beyond measurement." In Suanzao (酸棗), Cao Cao led his men westward to attack Dong Zhuo's forces. He was followed by a contingent from Zhang Miao 's army led by Wei Zi (衛茲). Cao Cao's army was defeated by Dong's forces, led by Xu Rong , in

7888-463: The exceptions." Dong's loyalists were outraged by Wang's remarks and waged war. However, they were defeated by Lü Bu and the imperial forces. Eventually, Dong Zhuo's remnant forces managed to outwit Lü Bu by distracting him and they seized control of Chang'an. Wang Yun was killed. The power of the Eastern Han dynasty fell into the hands of Dong Zhuo's remnants after that and gradually evolved into

8004-550: The food supply to be delivered. Fearing Sun Jian, Dong Zhuo sent his subordinate Li Jue as an emissary to seek peace and cement an alliance. Li Jue also promised Sun Jian appointments in the government service for his sons. To this, Sun replied, "Dong Zhuo opposes Heaven and defies the law. Until I have killed you and all your clan, and shown your heads to the Four Seas , I shall not be able to die in peace. How can I ally with you?" Sun Jian then led his forces to Dagu Pass (大谷關),

8120-460: The hundred odd li from Yangren to Luyang in the night to see Yuan, whereupon he said to the latter, "I put myself in danger during battle, with a primary purpose to eliminate a traitor (Dong Zhuo) for the country and second to avenge the deaths of your kinsmen (Yuan Shu's uncle was killed by Dong Zhuo). I have no personal grudge against Dong Zhuo. Yet you believed slanderous talks and suspect me!" The words put Yuan to shame and he immediately ordered

8236-495: The imperial capital, Xu, where Emperor Xian honoured him as his "Imperial Uncle" upon learning that he was also a descendant of the imperial clan. When Cao Cao showed signs that he wanted to usurp the throne, Emperor Xian wrote a secret decree in blood to his father-in-law, Dong Cheng , and ordered him to get rid of Cao Cao. Dong Cheng secretly contacted Liu Bei, Ma Teng and others, and they planned to assassinate Cao Cao. However, their plans were leaked, and Cao Cao had Dong Cheng and

8352-483: The leaders. The warlords in the east were unaware that Emperor Xian was still alive as they were isolated by the passes separating Luoyang from the east. Yuan Shao and Han Fu proposed to enthrone Liu Yu , the Inspector of You Province (幽州) and a member of the imperial clan, as the new emperor. Cao Cao and Yuan Shu disagreed with the proposal. When Yuan Shao and Han Fu sent a messenger to Liu Yu to inform him, Liu rebuked

8468-492: The letters and responded to the call to remove Dong Zhuo from power. In February 190, the Guandong Coalition (關東聯軍, literally: Coalition East of the Pass) was formed after several regional officials and warlords gathered east of Hangu Pass with their armies in response to the call for a punitive war against Dong Zhuo. Yuan Shao was elected to be the leader of the coalition. The forces of Sun Jian and Cao Cao also participated in

8584-421: The meantime, the common people suffered, and the Yellow Turban Rebellion (led by Zhang Jiao and his brothers) eventually broke out during the reign of Emperor Ling . The rebellion was barely suppressed by imperial forces commanded by the general He Jin . Shortly after Emperor Ling's death, He Jin installed the young Emperor Shao on the throne and took control of the central government. The Ten Attendants ,

8700-465: The messenger sternly and refused the offer flatly. Liu expressed his loyalty to the current Emperor Xian and threatened to head north into Xiongnu territory if Yuan Shao insisted that he become the new emperor. After repeated failed attempts, Yuan Shao decided to give up. In addition, the warlords turned their attention from Dong Zhuo back to themselves and started to pursue their individual interests again instead of uniting against Dong Zhuo. Han Fu, who

8816-619: The negotiators detained and killed except for Han Rong. Seeing peace was impossible, Dong Zhuo rapidly surrounded Wang Kuang's encampment in Heyang Ford (河陽津) north of Luoyang and dealt a defeat so severe that Wang Kuang abandoned the coalition and fled back to his home in Taishan Commandery (泰山郡). In Luyang to the south, Sun Jian, who had joined Yuan Shu with 20,000 - 30,000 men, was given the rank General Who Quells Rebels (破虜將軍) and Governor of Yu Province by Yuan. Yuan made Sun

8932-460: The new imperial capital in Xu , and became the new head of the central government. He also defeated rival warlords such as Lü Bu , Yuan Shu and Zhang Xiu in a series of wars and gained control over much of central China. Meanwhile, Sun Jian was killed in an ambush by Liu Biao's forces. His eldest son, Sun Ce , delivered the Imperial Seal as a tribute to the warlord Yuan Shu , a rising pretender to

9048-408: The novel a "sense of epic greatness" with its "combination of grandeur and futility." Besides the famous Peach Garden Oath, many Chinese proverbs in use today are derived from the novel: It means that wives and children, like clothing, are replaceable if lost but the same does not hold true for one's brothers (or friends). The writing style adopted by Romance of the Three Kingdoms was part of

9164-505: The novel was written in the Ming dynasty , more than 1,000 years after the era, these stories showed that Buddhism had long been a significant ingredient of the mainstream culture and may not be historically accurate. Luo Guanzhong preserved these descriptions from earlier versions of the novel to support his portrait of Guan as a faithful man of virtue. Guan has since then been respectfully addressed as "Lord Guan" or Guan Gong . The story of

9280-486: The novel. Luo Guanzhong also simplified some of the historical events, invented fictional battles, and changed the sequence of events. However, due to the popularity of the novel, many people hold the events detailed in the novel to be true, not knowing the true history as presented in definitive sources such as the Book of the Later Han , Records of the Three Kingdoms , or Zizhi Tongjian . This fictional account of history

9396-488: The other. Meanwhile, Sun Quan plotted to take Jing Province after growing tired of Liu Bei's repeated refusals to hand over the territories. He secretly made peace and allied with Cao Cao against Liu Bei. While Guan Yu, who guarded Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province, was away attacking Cao Ren at the Battle of Fancheng , Sun Quan sent his general Lü Meng to launch a stealth invasion on Jing Province . Guan Yu

9512-442: The others arrested and executed along with their families . Liu Bei had already left the imperial capital when the plot was exposed, and he moved on to seize control of Xu Province from Che Zhou , the new governor appointed by Cao Cao. In retaliation, Cao Cao attacked Xu Province and defeated Liu Bei, causing him to be separated from his oath brothers. While Liu Bei briefly joined Yuan Shao after his defeat, Zhang Fei took control of

9628-681: The others present dismissed his suggestion. Cao Cao then led his men to join Yuan Shao in Henei together with Xiahou Dun . After Cao's departure, the coalition forces stationed in Suanzao ran out of supplies and dispersed. Liu Dai seized the opportunity to kill Qiao Mao , whom he held a grudge against. At the same time, Dong Zhuo sent reputable men such as Han Rong (韓融), Yin Xiu (陰修), Humu Ban (胡毋班), Wu Xiu (吳修), and Wang Gui (王瑰) to see Yuan Shao and negotiate for an armistice . However, Yuan had all

9744-472: The peach garden oath and ending with Zhuge Liang's death. Some 50 or 60 Yuan and early Ming plays about the Three Kingdoms are known to have existed, and their material is almost entirely fictional, based on thin threads of actual history. The novel is thus a return to greater emphasis on history, compared to these dramas. The novel also shifted towards better acknowledgement of southern China's historical importance, while still portraying some prejudice against

9860-421: The point of war. Following Zhuge Liang's Longzhong Plan , Liu Bei led his forces westward into Yi Province and seized control of the territories from the governor Liu Zhang . By then, Liu Bei ruled over a vast stretch of land from Yi Province to southern Jing Province; these territories served as the foundation of the state of Shu Han later. Liu Bei declared himself King of Hanzhong after defeating Cao Cao in

9976-466: The political climate in the Ming dynasty, unlike in the Jin dynasty when Cao Wei was considered the legitimate successor to the Han dynasty. Some non-historical scenes in the novel have become well-known and subsequently became a part of traditional Chinese culture. In the introduction to the 1959 reprint of the Brewitt-Taylor translation, Roy Andrew Miller argues that the novel's chief theme

10092-633: The process of reunification and the struggles of the heroes who sacrificed for it. The following is a summary of the central plot and some well-known highlights in the novel. In the late second century, towards the end of the Han dynasty in China, corruption was rampant on all levels throughout the government, with treacherous eunuchs and villainous officials deceiving the emperor and persecuting those who stood up to them. The Han Empire gradually deteriorated and became increasingly fragmented, with many regional officials being warlords with their own armies. In

10208-431: The reader know which of the characters are heroes and which villains, yet the heroes are forced to make a tragic choice between equal values, not merely between good and evil. The heroes know that the end of the empire is ordained by this cosmic cycle of division and unity, yet their choices are moral, based on loyalty, not political. Plaks states the novel deals with the "cyclical theories of dynastic decline," and relates

10324-434: The short-lived Zhong dynasty, two years before his death in 199. Yuan Shu was from Ruyang County ( 汝陽縣 ), Runan Commandery , which is in present-day Shangshui County , Henan . His family had for over four generations been a prominent force in the Han civil service, having produced numerous members in high positions since the first century CE. Descended from Yuan An , who served during the reign of Emperor Zhang , Yuan Shu

10440-407: The south. The Qing dynasty historian Zhang Xuecheng famously wrote that the novel was "seven-parts fact and three-parts fiction." The fictional parts are culled from different sources, including unofficial histories, folk stories, the Sanguozhi Pinghua , and also the author's own imagination. Nonetheless, the description of the social conditions and the logic that the characters use is accurate to

10556-472: The state of Cao Wei. In Wu, there had been internal conflict among the nobles since Sun Quan's death. The regents Zhuge Ke and Sun Chen consecutively attempted to usurp the throne but were eventually ousted from power and eliminated in coups. Although stability was temporarily restored in Wu, the last Wu emperor, Sun Hao , turned out to be a tyrant. Wu, the last of the Three Kingdoms, was eventually conquered by

10672-485: The streets of Chang'an. The officer guarding the corpse lit a wick on the navel and it burned for days on the fats of the corpse. After Dong Zhuo's death, several of his loyalists, such as Fan Chou , Guo Si and Li Jue , escaped as they believed that their loyalty towards Dong Zhuo would be considered as treason. Wang Yun, who had taken control of the government after Dong Zhuo's death, heard their appeal for amnesty and said, "Of all those who should be pardoned, they are

10788-584: The territories to him, but Liu Bei dismissed the messenger each time with a different excuse. Sun Quan was unwilling to give up, so he followed Zhou Yu's plan to trick Liu Bei to come to Jiangdong to marry his sister Lady Sun and then hold Liu Bei hostage in exchange for Jing Province. However, Zhuge Liang foiled Zhou Yu's plot, and the newlywed couple returned to Jing Province safely. Zhou Yu later died in frustration after Zhuge Liang repeatedly thwarted his moves to take Jing Province. Relations between Liu Bei and Sun Quan deteriorated after Zhou Yu's death, but not to

10904-472: The throne, in exchange for troops and horses. Sun Ce then secured himself a power base in the rich riverlands of Jiangdong ( Wu ), on which the state of Eastern Wu was founded later. Tragically, Sun Ce also died at the pinnacle of his career from illness under stress of his terrifying encounter with the ghost of Yu Ji , a venerable magician whom he had falsely accused of heresy and executed in jealousy. Sun Quan , his younger brother and successor, proved to be

11020-492: The trust Liu Bei had placed in him. After Liu Bei's death, Cao Pi induced several forces, including Sun Quan, a turncoat Shu general Meng Da , the Nanman and Qiang tribes, to attack Shu, in coordination with a Wei army. However, Zhuge Liang managed to make the five armies retreat without any bloodshed. He also sent Deng Zhi to make peace with Sun Quan and restore the alliance between Shu and Wu. Zhuge Liang then personally led

11136-535: The vanguard, and Sun started to train his men in Luyang. In the winter of 190, Dong Zhuo sent a force of some ten thousands to attack Luyang. At the time, Sun Jian's men were having a drinking party, but Sun did not stir upon hearing the news; instead, he calmly continued to pass his wine around while his troops gathered into formation. Seeing such discipline, Dong Zhuo's men turned around and retreated. In March 191, Sun Jian moved his camp north to Liangdong (梁東), but he

11252-415: The warlord Dong Zhuo , who escorted them back to the palace and used the opportunity to seize control of the imperial capital, Luoyang , under the pretext of protecting the emperor. Dong Zhuo later deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with the Prince of Chenliu ( Emperor Xian ), who was merely a figurehead under his control. Dong Zhuo monopolised state power, persecuted his political opponents, and oppressed

11368-413: The warlords pledged allegiance to the coalition, they insisted to have Yuan Shao as the commander-in-chief, a role which Yuan reluctantly accepted. Yuan Shao then put Yuan Shu in charge of provisions, and appointed Sun Jian as the vanguard to attack Sishui Pass. While restoring order in Luoyang, Sun Jian was alerted by his men that there is light faintly emitting from a well. He ordered to retrieve whatever

11484-472: Was a son of the Minister of Works Yuan Feng ( 袁逢 ) and his principal wife. Yuan Shu is sometimes described to be a younger cousin of the warlord Yuan Shao , but was actually Yuan Shao's younger half-brother. As a young man he gained a reputation for gallantry and liked to go hunting with dogs and falcons. Nominated as Filial and Incorrupt , he later became Intendant of Henan ( 河南尹 ) and then General of

11600-473: Was also an influential figure in politics as well. Dong heeded his advisor's suggestions and proposed to the emperor to appoint Yuan as Grand Administrator of Bohai as an act of appeasement. While in Bohai, Yuan Shao was not appeased by Dong Zhuo's proposal to appoint him as Grand Administrator. He planned to start a coup d'etat to remove Dong from power by rising in revolt but he was kept in check by Han Fu ,

11716-457: Was attacked by Liu Biao (acting on Yuan Shao's instruction) on the way back to his base. At the same time, Yuan Shao waged war against Gongsun Zan to consolidate his power in northern China. Other warlords such as Cao Cao and Liu Bei , who initially had no titles or land, were also gradually forming their own armies and taking control of territories. During those times of upheaval, Cao Cao saved Emperor Xian from Dong Zhuo's followers, established

11832-399: Was becoming increasingly strained after Dong threw a hand-axe at him and due to his affair with one of Dong's chambermaids. On 22 May 192, Dong Zhuo was on the way to an assembly in his chariot when Li Su advanced towards him and stabbed him. Dong shouted for Lü Bu to protect him, but Lü killed him instead. Dong's relatives were executed after his death while his corpse was left exposed on

11948-403: Was captured and executed by Sun Jian after a brief battle. Liu, Guan and Zhang did participate in the campaign although their actions are not further described, with no mention that they dueled with Lü Bu, who, historically, was defeated by Sun Jian in battle. Following the death of Emperor Ling in 189, General-in-Chief He Jin summoned the frontier general Dong Zhuo from the northwest into

12064-425: Was eventually conquered by Wei forces . Jiang Wei attempted to restore Shu with the help of Zhong Hui , a disgruntled Wei general, but their plan failed and Zhong Hui was killed by Wei troops while Jiang Wei died by suicide. Shortly after the fall of Shu, Sima Zhao died and his son, Sima Yan , forced the last Wei emperor, Cao Huan , to abdicate the throne to him. Sima Yan then established the Jin dynasty to replace

12180-484: Was heavily outnumbered by Yuan Shao, he secured a decisive victory over his rival after launching a surprise raid on Yuan Shao's supply train and throwing the enemy into disarray. Yuan Shao retreated north after his defeat, fell ill and died about two years later. Cao Cao took advantage of Yuan Shao's death, which had resulted in internal conflict among his sons who were fighting over their father's territories, and advanced north to attack and seize all of Yuan Shao's lands. By

12296-494: Was implemented. He ordered his soldiers to massacre and loot the rich households of Luoyang and drive Luoyang's civilian population towards Chang'an. Emperor Xian, nobles, aristocrats and officials followed the civilians and Dong's troops as they made their long journey towards Chang'an. Anyone who refused to obey orders to evacuate to Chang'an was killed on the spot. Dong Zhuo also ordered Lü Bu to lead men to raid ancient tombs and burial mounts for their valuables and treasure. After

12412-438: Was in charge of cavalry, was not in good terms with Hu Zhen and quarreled with him. Sun Jian seized the opportunity to attack them, and Dong Zhuo's forces were defeated in a rout. Hua Xiong was captured by Sun and promptly executed. At this time, someone told Yuan Shu that if Sun Jian defeated Dong Zhuo and took over the capital, he would not be controllable anymore. The doubtful Yuan then ceased providing supplies to Sun. Sun rode

12528-481: Was in charge of provisions, gradually stopped supplying the coalition army. His subordinate Qu Yi rebelled against him and defeated him before defecting over to Yuan Shao. The incident alerted Yuan of his need to secure his sources of supply and he plotted to seize Han's lands. Yuan collaborated with Gongsun Zan secretly to attack Han Fu's Ji Province (冀州) and eventually Han surrendered Ji Province to Yuan. Yuan Shao sent Zhou Yu (Renming) (周喁) to attack Sun Jian, who

12644-564: Was in the well, and they found a dead woman with the Imperial Seal in a silk bag around her neck. As advised by Cheng Pu , Sun Jian kept the Seal for himself and warned his men not to reveal anything about the discovery. Unfortunately for Sun Jian, one of his soldiers went and told Yuan Shao about it, and was heavily rewarded. During a meeting on the following day, Sun Jian cited health problems as an excuse to return to Changsha, to which Yuan Shao remarked sarcastically, "I know you're ill because of

12760-409: Was killed in the Battle of Xiangyang (191) . Sun Jian's nephew Sun Ben succeeded him as Yuan Shu's general and Inspector of Yu Province. After this defeat and his unpopularity due to his extravagant regime in Nanyang, Yuan Shu moved his residence to Chenliu , and extended his influence into Yang Province in 192. In early 193, Yuan Shu suffered repeated defeats, such as the Battle of Fengqiu , by

12876-526: Was less successful in expanding his rule in Xu Province, where he fought against Liu Bei and Lü Bu ; the latter briefly allied himself to Yuan Shu in 196, but betrayed him again and drove him back to Shouchun. Yuan Shu declared himself emperor under the short-lived Zhongshi ( 仲氏 ) dynasty in early 197, citing superstition as his justification, including the Chinese characters for his given name Shu and courtesy name Gonglu , and his possession of

12992-772: Was outnumbered by Xu Rong there. With several dozen men, he broke through the encirclement. Seeing that his red scarf could easily identify him, Sun Jian gave it to a close aide Zu Mao (祖茂), whom Xu Rong's soldiers chased while Sun escaped. Zu Mao later hung the scarf onto a half-burnt pillar, and hid himself in the tall grasses nearby. The enemies surrounded the pillar and approached cautiously till they realized they had been fooled, whereupon they retreated. Gathering his scattered armies, Sun Jian went forward to camp in Yangren (陽人; believed to be near present-day Wenquan, Ruzhou , Henan ). This time, Dong Zhuo sent Hua Xiong , Hu Zhen , and Lü Bu with 5,000 men to attack Sun. However, Lü Bu, who

13108-520: Was reduced and shifted from conventional verse to finer pieces; and most passages praising Cao Cao 's advisers and generals were removed. Scholars have long debated whether the Maos' viewpoint was anti-Qing (identifying Southern Ming remnants with Shu-Han ) or pro-Qing. The famous opening lines of the novel, " The empire , long divided, must unite; long united, must divide. Thus it has ever been" ( 話說天下大勢．分久必合，合久必分 ), long understood to be Luo's introduction and cyclical philosophy, were actually added by

13224-463: Was returning from Luoyang to join Yuan Shu. In the Battle of Yangcheng , Zhou made a surprise attack on Sun's camp at Yangcheng and captured it. Yuan Shu sent Gongsun Yue (公孫越) to assist Sun Jian in fighting Zhou Yu. Gongsun Yue was killed in the battle even though it was a victory for Sun Jian. Gongsun Zan held Yuan Shao responsible for Gongsun Yue's death and declared war on Yuan Shao, which led to

13340-477: Was said in Wei Zhao 's Book of Wu (吳書) that Sun Jian found the lost Imperial Seal in a well south of Luoyang and kept it for himself. Sun Jian then sent part of his force forward to Xin'an and Mianchi to threaten Dong Zhuo's defense positions. Dong now sent Dong Yue (董越) to camp at Mianchi, Duan Wei ( 段煨 ) to camp at Huayin , and Niu Fu to camp at Anyi (安邑). His other commanders were spread out among

13456-513: Was unable to capture Fancheng so he retreated, but was caught off guard by Lü Meng and had already lost Jing Province before he knew it. With his army's morale falling and the troops gradually deserting, Guan Yu and his remaining men withdrew to Maicheng, where they were surrounded by Sun Quan's forces. In desperation, Guan Yu attempted to break out of the siege but failed and was captured in an ambush. Sun Quan had him executed after he refused to surrender. Shortly after Guan Yu's death, Cao Cao died of

#304695