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78-464: According to the AMTSO web site, the organization's charter lists the following objectives: Until 2012 AMTSO was administered by an elected and unpaid Board of Directors , with strategic and other input from an Advisory Board, and six committees to handle specific operations such as membership, fees, PR and so on. Subsequently, a major infrastructural change took place, introducing an executive team with

156-441: A quorum must be present before any business may be conducted. Usually, a meeting which is held without notice having been given is still valid if all of the directors attend, but it has been held that a failure to give notice may negate resolutions passed at a meeting, because the persuasive oratory of a minority of directors might have persuaded the majority to change their minds and vote otherwise. In most common law countries,

234-493: A CEO, CTO, CFO and VPs of Marketing and Strategy in addition to the already existing Board. As of 2023 the Board of Directors constitutes 50% vendor, 50% tester membership and comprises the following: Source: While it grew out of discussions between security vendors and security product testing organizations, membership of AMTSO is also open to academics, reviewers, publications, and does include some individual members. However,

312-442: A board is not a career unto itself. For major corporations, the board members are usually professionals or leaders in their field. In the case of outside directors, they are often senior leaders of other organizations. Nevertheless, board members often receive remunerations amounting to hundreds of thousands of dollars per year since they often sit on the boards of several companies. Inside directors are usually not paid for sitting on

390-515: A board, but the duty is instead considered part of their larger job description. Outside directors are usually paid for their services. These remunerations vary between corporations, but usually consist of a yearly or monthly salary, additional compensation for each meeting attended, stock options, and various other benefits. such as travel, hotel and meal expenses for the board meetings. Tiffany & Co. , for example, pays directors an annual retainer of $ 46,500, an additional annual retainer of $ 2,500 if

468-480: A board, sometimes called the board process , includes the selection of board members, the setting of clear board objectives, the dissemination of documents or board package to the board members, the collaborative creation of an agenda for the meeting, the creation and follow-up of assigned action items , and the assessment of the board process through standardized assessments of board members, owners, and CEOs. The science of this process has been slow to develop due to

546-432: A certain cause, a board of directors may have the responsibility of running the organization in between meetings of the membership, especially if the membership meets infrequently, such as only at an annual general meeting . The amount of powers and authority delegated to the board depend on the bylaws and rules of the particular organization. Some organizations place matters exclusively in the board's control while in others,

624-480: A domestic market only, the presence of CEOs from global multinational corporations as outside directors can help to provide insights on export and import opportunities and international trade options. One of the arguments for having outside directors is that they can keep a watchful eye on the inside directors and on the way the organization is run. Outside directors are unlikely to tolerate "insider dealing" between inside directors, as outside directors do not benefit from

702-400: A faux malicious file to a desktop or Android device. This is a simple test to ensure that basic anti-malware standards are implemented on the test device. It also organizes workshops three times a year: discussion and generation of guidelines documents are a major by-product of these sessions. Board of Directors A board of directors is an executive committee that supervises

780-536: A generous " golden parachute " which also acts as a deterrent to removal. A 2010 study examined how corporate shareholders voted in director elections in the United States. It found that directors received fewer votes from shareholders when their companies performed poorly, had excess CEO compensation, or had poor shareholder protection. Also, directors received fewer votes when they did not regularly attend board meetings or received negative recommendations from

858-518: A position on the board. Shareholder nominations can only occur at the general meeting itself or through the prohibitively expensive process of mailing out ballots separately; in May 2009 the SEC proposed a new rule allowing shareholders meeting certain criteria to add nominees to the proxy statement. In practice for publicly traded companies, the managers ( inside directors ) who are purportedly accountable to

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936-526: A position that does not carry any executive authority and represents recognition of the person's corporate governorship and performance. An inside director is a director who is also an employee, officer, chief executive, major shareholder , or someone similarly connected to the organization. Inside directors represent the interests of the entity's stakeholders, and often have special knowledge of its inner workings, its financial or market position, and so on. Typical inside directors are: An inside director who

1014-416: A proxy advisory firm. The study also shows that companies often improve their corporate governance by removing poison pills or classified boards and by reducing excessive CEO pay after their directors receive low shareholder support. Board accountability to shareholders is a recurring issue. In September 2010, The New York Times noted that several directors who had overseen companies which had failed in

1092-589: A public market (a private, limited or closely held company), owned by family members (a family business), or exempt from income taxes (a non-profit, not for profit, or tax-exempt entity). There are numerous types of business entities available throughout the world such as a corporation, limited liability company, cooperative, business trust, partnership, private limited company, and public limited company. Much of what has been written about boards of directors relates to boards of directors of business entities actively traded on public markets. More recently, however, material

1170-438: A resolution of the remaining directors (in some countries they may only do so "with cause"; in others the power is unrestricted). Some jurisdictions also permit the board of directors to appoint directors, either to fill a vacancy which arises on resignation or death, or as an addition to the existing directors. In practice, it can be quite difficult to remove a director by a resolution in general meeting. In many legal systems,

1248-570: A self-perpetuating body that retains the core powers of the university and selects the members of the other governing board, the board of trustees. The following institutions have boards known as a "board of visitors". These include the United States Military Academy , United States Air Force Academy , United States Naval Academy , The Citadel, The Military College of SC , and some universities in Virginia such as

1326-443: A set fraction of the board's members. The board of directors appoints the chief executive officer of the corporation and sets out the overall strategic direction. In corporations with dispersed ownership, the identification and nomination of directors (that shareholders vote for or against) are often done by the board itself, leading to a high degree of self-perpetuation. In a non-stock corporation with no general voting membership,

1404-415: A single-tier board, while the chairman of the management board is reckoned as the company's CEO or managing director . These two roles are always held by different people. This ensures a distinction between management by the executive board and governance by the supervisory board and allows for clear lines of authority. The aim is to prevent a conflict of interest and too much power being concentrated in

1482-414: Is dividend and how much it is, stock options distributed to employees, and the hiring/firing and compensation of upper management . Theoretically, the control of a company is divided between two bodies: the board of directors, and the shareholders in general meeting . In practice, the amount of power exercised by the board varies with the type of company. In small private companies, the directors and

1560-710: Is a New Jersey nonprofit corporation ). These board members (trustees, regents, etc.) are fiduciaries for the corporation. In some cases, the institution might not have separate legal personhood; the trustees transact in their own name with other parties, such as students, faculty, or donors. However, the trustees often utilize a common, enduring title, which enables the trust to operate continuously even as individual trustees change. In some private institutions of higher learning, non-governing boards may also be appointed. These boards' members' duties often include, but are not limited to, major gift cultivation and fundraising. Governing boards of universities are of varying sizes across

1638-488: Is accepted by Microsoft as an "industry standard organization" for the purposes of independent certification. Some members of the wider security community and even testers have raised issue with the organization's membership, which includes a preponderance of security vendors. This has led to some tester members leaving and then sometimes rejoining the organization. Tester member NSS Labs sued AMTSO, as well as CrowdStrike , ESET and Symantec , in an anti-trust case that

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1716-406: Is also an additional statutory body for audit purposes. The OECD Principles are intended to be sufficiently general to apply to whatever board structure is charged with the functions of governing the enterprise and monitoring management. The development of a separate board of directors to manage/govern/oversee a company has occurred incrementally and indefinitely over legal history. Until the end of

1794-408: Is associated with rigorous monitoring and improved corporate governance. In some European and Asian countries, there are two separate boards, an executive board (or management board) for day-to-day business and a supervisory board (elected by the shareholders and employees) for supervising the executive board. In these countries, the chairman of the supervisory board is equivalent to the chairman of

1872-416: Is becoming available for boards of private and closely held businesses including family businesses. A board-only organization is one whose board is self-appointed, rather than being accountable to a base of members through elections; or in which the powers of the membership are extremely limited. In membership organizations , such as a society made up of members of a certain profession or one advocating

1950-531: Is complete. Details on how they can be removed are usually provided in the bylaws. If the bylaws do not contain such details, the section on disciplinary procedures in Robert's Rules of Order may be used. In a publicly held company , directors are elected to represent and are legally obligated as fiduciaries to represent owners of the company—the shareholders /stockholders. In this capacity they establish policies and make decisions on issues such as whether there

2028-413: Is considered to be comparatively weak due to the limited time they can dedicate to this task. Overconfident directors are found to pay higher premiums in corporate acquisitions and make worse takeover choices. Locally rooted directors tend to be overrepresented and lack international experience, which can lead to lower valuations, especially in internationally oriented firms. Directors' military experience

2106-457: Is employed as a manager or executive of the organization is sometimes referred to as an executive director (not to be confused with the title executive director sometimes used for the CEO position in some organizations). Executive directors often have a specified area of responsibility in the organization, such as finance, marketing, human resources, or production. An outside director is a member of

2184-408: Is that in large public companies it is upper management and not boards that wield practical power, because boards delegate nearly all of their power to the top executive employees, adopting their recommendations almost without fail. As a practical matter, executives even choose the directors, with shareholders normally following management recommendations and voting for them. In most cases, serving on

2262-715: Is that of curators, used by the Board of Curators of the University of Missouri and Lincoln University . The Harvard Board of Overseers (more formally The Honorable and Reverend Board of Overseers) is one of Harvard University's two governing boards, with the other being the President and Fellows of Harvard College (also known as the Harvard Corporation). The Fellows of the University of Notre Dame are

2340-459: Is that the board tends to have more de facto power. Most shareholders do not attend shareholder meetings, but rather cast proxy votes via mail, phone, or internet, thus allowing the board to vote for them. However, proxy votes are not a total delegation of the voting power, as the board must vote the proxy shares as directed by their owner even when it contradicts the board's views. In addition, many shareholders vote to accept all recommendations of

2418-610: Is the most commonly used name for governing bodies of universities in the United States. All schools within the Ohio Higher Education System are governed by individual boards of trustees, including Miami University and Ohio State University . The governing body at Duke University is known as the board of trustees, while each college and the graduate school maintains its own board of visitors. The University of South Carolina Michigan State University , Indiana University , University of Notre Dame , and

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2496-783: Is vested in a board of directors. Governance of the six public institutions of higher education in the state of South Dakota is constitutionally granted to the South Dakota Board of Regents . The board of regents also governs the South Dakota School for the Deaf and the South Dakota School for the Blind and Visually Impaired . The three tribal colleges, Oglala Lakota College , Sinte Gleska University , and Sisseton Wahpeton College are each governed independently by boards. All public technical colleges are governed by

2574-400: The 2007–2008 financial crisis had found new positions as directors. The SEC sometimes imposes a ban (a "D&O bar") on serving on a board as part of its fraud cases, and one of these was upheld in 2013. The exercise by the board of directors of its powers usually occurs in board meetings. Most legal systems require sufficient notice to be given to all directors of these meetings, and that

2652-792: The Regents Examinations . High school graduates may receive Regents Scholarships to defray expenses at SUNY universities. The boards of the University System of Georgia , University of Hawaii , University of Michigan , University of Minnesota , University of Texas , Texas Tech University , University of Wisconsin System , Texas A&M , University System of Maryland , University of Colorado , University of New Mexico , University of Houston System , University of North Texas , St. Olaf College , University of Washington , and Washington State University are known as

2730-459: The University of Connecticut are also governed by boards of trustees. Thirty-nine states have boards of regents to govern their public university systems. The Regents of the University of California govern the University of California system, with one exception: the original endowment that allowed for the creation of UC's Hastings College of the Law stipulated that it could not be governed by

2808-502: The University of Guam is the governing board for the institution. In the State of Louisiana , the governing board of each of the four public university systems is known as the board of supervisors. The governing board of the University of Missouri System and each individual campus in that system is known as the Board of Curators . This terminology is also used by another Missouri public institution, Lincoln University . However,

2886-472: The University of Virginia , University of Mary Washington , George Mason University , Virginia State University , Virginia Commonwealth University , Longwood University , Washington and Lee University , the College of William and Mary , Old Dominion University , Christopher Newport University , James Madison University , and Virginia Tech . The Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama governs

2964-505: The shareholders , the law imposes strict duties on directors in relation to the exercise of their duties. The duties imposed on directors are fiduciary duties, similar to those that the law imposes on those in similar positions of trust: agents and trustees . Board of Regents In the United States, a board often governs institutions of higher education , including private universities , state universities , and community colleges . In each US state, such boards may govern either

3042-568: The state university system , individual colleges and universities, or both. In general, they operate as a board of directors , and they vary by formal name, size, powers, and membership. In some states, members are appointed by the governor . From a legal standpoint, many higher education institutions are corporations ; they have separate legal personhood . The corporation is the legal owner of its endowment and other property. The corporation's name might consist of its governing board members' title (for example, The Trustees of Princeton University

3120-511: The 19th century, it seems to have been generally assumed that the general meeting (of all shareholders) was the supreme organ of a company, and that the board of directors merely acted as an agent of the company subject to the control of the shareholders in general meeting. However, by 1906, the English Court of Appeal had made it clear in the decision of Automatic Self-Cleansing Filter Syndicate Co Ltd v Cuninghame [1906] 2 Ch 34 that

3198-564: The CEO and their direct reports (other C-level officers, division/subsidiary heads). Board structures and procedures vary both within and among OECD countries. Some countries have two-tier boards that separate the supervisory function and the management function into different bodies. Such systems typically have a "supervisory board" composed of nonexecutive board members and a "management board" composed entirely of executives. Other countries have "unitary" boards, which bring together executive and non-executive board members. In some countries there

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3276-881: The South Dakota Board of Technical Education under the South Dakota Department of Education . Boards governing public institutions of higher education in the state of Virginia are known as the board of visitors. This includes the College of William & Mary , University of Virginia , Virginia Tech , James Madison University , Radford University , University of Mary Washington , Longwood University , Virginia Military Institute , Virginia Commonwealth University , and George Mason University . Terminology for private institutions can vary. Regent University once used "board of visitors", but now uses "board of trustees". The University of

3354-547: The U.S., the directors which are available to vote on are largely selected by either the board as a whole or a nominating committee . Although in 2002 the New York Stock Exchange and the NASDAQ required that nominating committees consist of independent directors as a condition of listing, nomination committees have historically received input from management in their selections even when the CEO does not have

3432-434: The United States. Smaller boards may have about ten members, while larger boards can have over 50 members. In 2016, the average public university board had 12 members, while the average private university board had 29 members. Some university governing boards are composed entirely of alumni of that university. Other boards contain various elected officials, often the state governor , as ex officio members. Members of

3510-466: The activities of a business , a nonprofit organization , or a government agency . The powers, duties, and responsibilities of a board of directors are determined by government regulations (including the jurisdiction's corporate law ) and the organization's own constitution and by-laws . These authorities may specify the number of members of the board, how they are to be chosen, and how often they are to meet. In an organization with voting members,

3588-404: The board is accountable to, and may be subordinate to, the organization's full membership, which usually elect the members of the board. In a stock corporation , non-executive directors are elected by the shareholders , and the board has ultimate responsibility for the management of the corporation. In nations with codetermination (such as Germany and Sweden), the workers of a corporation elect

3666-454: The board is the supreme governing body of the institution, and its members are sometimes chosen by the board itself. Other names include board of directors and advisors , board of governors , board of managers , board of regents , board of trustees , and board of visitors . It may also be called the executive board . Typical duties of boards of directors include: The legal responsibilities of boards and board members vary with

3744-492: The board of directors have historically played a major role in selecting and nominating the directors who are voted on by the shareholders, in which case more "gray outsider directors" (independent directors with conflicts of interest ) are nominated and elected. In countries with co-determination , a fixed fraction of the board is elected by the corporation's workers. Directors may also leave office by resignation or death. In some legal systems, directors may also be removed by

3822-1006: The board of regents. The governing bodies of the University of North Carolina and the Colorado State University system are known as their "board of governors". Public institutions in Rhode Island are also governed by a board of governors. There are five public institutions in Missouri that are not part of the UM System, such as the Missouri State University and the University of Central Missouri, that are overseen by boards of governors. The two largest universities in West Virginia ( West Virginia University and Marshall University ) also maintain boards of governors. A rare term

3900-454: The board rather than try to get involved in management, since each shareholder's power, as well as interest and information is so small. Larger institutional investors also grant the board proxies. The large number of shareholders also makes it hard for them to organize. However, there have been moves recently to try to increase shareholder activism among both institutional investors and individuals with small shareholdings. A contrasting view

3978-440: The board to conduct its business by conference call or other electronic means. They may also specify how a quorum is to be determined. The responsibilities of a board of directors vary depending on the nature and type of business entity and the laws applying to the entity (see types of business entity ). For example, the nature of the business entity may be one that is traded on a public market (public company), not traded on

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4056-417: The board who is not otherwise employed by or engaged with the organization, and does not represent any of its stakeholders. A typical example is a director who is president of a firm in a different industry. Outside directors are not employees of the company or affiliated with it in any other way. Outside directors bring outside experience and perspectives to the board. For example, for a company that serves

4134-410: The company or organization. Outside directors are often useful in handling disputes between inside directors, or between shareholders and the board. They are thought to be advantageous because they can be objective and present little risk of conflict of interest. On the other hand, they might lack familiarity with the specific issues connected to the organization's governance, and they might not know about

4212-436: The director has a right to receive special notice of any resolution to remove them; the company must often supply a copy of the proposal to the director, who is usually entitled to be heard by the meeting. The director may require the company to circulate any representations that they wish to make. Furthermore, the director's contract of service will usually entitle them to compensation if they are removed, and may often include

4290-487: The director is also a chairperson of a committee, a per-meeting-attended fee of $ 2,000 for meetings attended in person, a $ 500 fee for each meeting attended via telephone, in addition to stock options and retirement benefits. Academic research has identified different types of board directors. Their characteristics and experiences shape their role and performance. For instance, directors with multiple mandates are often referred to as busy directors. Their monitoring performance

4368-478: The division of powers between the board and the shareholders in general meaning depended on the construction of the articles of association and that, where the powers of management were vested in the board, the general meeting could not interfere with their lawful exercise. The articles were held to constitute a contract by which the members had agreed that "the directors and the directors alone shall manage." The new approach did not secure immediate approval, but it

4446-412: The general body of shareholders can control the exercise of powers by the articles in the directors is by altering the articles, or, if opportunity arises under the articles, by refusing to re-elect the directors of whose actions they disapprove. They cannot themselves usurp the powers which by the articles are vested in the directors any more than the directors can usurp the powers vested by the articles in

4524-483: The general body of shareholders. It has been remarked that this development in the law was somewhat surprising at the time, as the relevant provisions in Table A (as it was then) seemed to contradict this approach rather than to endorse it. In most legal systems, the appointment and removal of directors is voted upon by the shareholders in general meeting or through a proxy statement . For publicly traded companies in

4602-411: The general membership retains full power and the board can only make recommendations. The setup of a board of directors vary widely across organizations and may include provisions that are applicable to corporations, in which the "shareholders" are the members of the organization. A difference may be that the membership elects the officers of the organization, such as the president and the secretary, and

4680-409: The governing board can be selected in a variety of ways. Members of public university boards are most often selected by the state governor . Four states ( Colorado , Michigan , Nebraska , and Nevada ) elect members of some university boards by popular vote. Boards of private universities can be selected either by an alumni vote or by the existing members of the board. The term "Board of Trustees"

4758-426: The hands of one person. There is a strong parallel here with the structure of government, which tends to separate the political cabinet from the management civil service . In the United States, the board of directors (elected by the shareholders) is often equivalent to the supervisory board, while the executive board may often be known as the executive committee (operating committee or executive council), composed of

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4836-477: The high cost of full membership generally discourages individual members and small organizations from joining, and in early 2011, the organization offered a much cheaper subscription rate that didn't, however, offer full voting rights. AMTSO currently offers a two-tier membership model: entity members get full benefits of membership, while individual members get the same benefits apart from the right to vote. Security tester members have included: * Each of these labs

4914-446: The industry or sector in which the organization is operating. Individual directors often serve on more than one board. This practice results in an interlocking directorate , where a relatively small number of individuals have significant influence over many important entities. This situation can have important corporate, social, economic, and legal consequences, and has been the subject of significant research. The process for running

4992-424: The institution's resources in trust and is responsible for their efficient and effective use." The Board of Regents of the University System of Georgia is the oversight authority for twenty-six universities and colleges in the state of Georgia (including the University of Georgia and Georgia Institute of Technology ) along with the state archives and the state public library system. The Board of Regents of

5070-432: The members elect the president of the organization and the president becomes the board chair, unless the by-laws say otherwise. The directors of an organization are the persons who are members of its board. Several specific terms categorize directors by the presence or absence of their other relationships to the organization. Corporations often appoint a former senior executive and ex-board member as honorary president ,

5148-463: The nature of the organization, and between jurisdictions. For companies with shares publicly listed for negotiation , these responsibilities are typically much more rigorous and complex than for those of other types. Typically, the board chooses one of its members to be the chairman (often now called the "chair" or "chairperson"), who holds whatever title is specified in the by-laws or articles of association . However, in membership organizations,

5226-430: The officers become members of the board in addition to the directors and retain those duties on the board. The directors may also be classified as officers in this situation. There may also be ex-officio members of the board, or persons who are members due to another position that they hold. These ex-officio members have all the same rights as the other board members. Members of the board may be removed before their term

5304-457: The powers of the board are vested in the board as a whole, and not in the individual directors. However, in instances an individual director may still bind the company by their acts by virtue of their ostensible authority (see also: the rule in Turquand's Case ). Because directors exercise control and management over the organization, but organizations are (in theory) run for the benefit of

5382-797: The regents. However, Hastings diplomas are issued on the recommendation of the Hastings faculty in the name of the UC regents and are signed by the UC president. The Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York oversees all public education, including the State University of New York (SUNY), affiliated community colleges , and the K–12 public school system (run by the New York State Education Department ) via

5460-528: The secretive nature of the way most companies run their boards, however some standardization is beginning to develop. Some who are pushing for this standardization in the US are the National Association of Corporate Directors , McKinsey and The Board Group. A board of directors conducts its meetings according to the rules and procedures contained in its governing documents. These procedures may allow

5538-468: The shareholders are normally the same people, and thus there is no real division of power. In large public companies , the board tends to exercise more of a supervisory role, and individual responsibility and management tends to be delegated downward to individual professional executives (such as a finance director or a marketing director) who deal with particular areas of the company's affairs. Another feature of boards of directors in large public companies

5616-480: The state of Florida . Each institution has its own Board of Trustees which "is the public body corporate of the university. It sets policy for the institution and serves as the institution's legal owner and governing board. The Board of Trustees is responsible for high quality education programs within the laws of the State of Florida and Regulations of the Florida Board of Governors. The Board of Trustees holds

5694-487: The state's other public institutions use different terms. Five use Board of Governors (as noted above), and three use board of regents. Institutions in North Carolina use several different names for their boards. The University of North Carolina —which includes all 16 four-year public institutions in the state, plus a residential high school —is overseen by a board of governors. Some individual campuses within

5772-578: The system, such as East Carolina University , North Carolina State University , and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , have boards of visitors. Oregon's public universities—the University of Oregon , Oregon State University , Portland State University , the Oregon Institute of Technology , Western Oregon University , Eastern Oregon University , and Southern Oregon University —are all governed by boards of trustees. The governing power of Oregon Health & Science University

5850-616: The three universities that are part of the University of Alabama System . Auburn University is governed by the Auburn University Board of Trustees. The board of regents has 11 members and governs the institutions in the University of Alaska System. The Florida Board of Governors is a 17-member governing board that establishes the regulations for all institutions in the State University System of Florida , which includes all public universities in

5928-561: Was endorsed by the House of Lords in Quin & Axtens v Salmon [1909] AC 442 and has since received general acceptance. Under English law, successive versions of Table A have reinforced the norm that, unless the directors are acting contrary to the law or the provisions of the Articles, the powers of conducting the management and affairs of the company are vested in them. The modern doctrine

6006-518: Was expressed in John Shaw & Sons (Salford) Ltd v Shaw [1935] 2 KB 113 by Greer LJ as follows: A company is an entity distinct alike from its shareholders and its directors. Some of its powers may, according to its articles, be exercised by directors, certain other powers may be reserved for the shareholders in general meeting. If powers of management are vested in the directors, they and they alone can exercise these powers. The only way in which

6084-504: Was later dismissed. Shortly thereafter NSS Labs ceased operation. The organization has created some potentially useful resources for testers, including a page that flags relevant papers and other resources outside AMTSO, and a repository of guidelines documents for the benefit of aspiring testers on a wide range of topics. Another popular freely available resource is the Security Features Check, which attempts to download

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