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55-577: The Four Garrisons of Anxi in Kucha , Khotan , Kashgar , and Karashahr were installed between 648 and 658 as garrisons under the western protectorate. In 659, Sogdia , Ferghana , Tashkent , Bukhara , Samarkand , Balkh , Herat , Kashmir , the Pamirs , Tokharistan , and Kabul all submitted to the protectorate under Emperor Gaozong of Tang . After the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763)

110-749: A Western Turkic Qaghan serving under the Chinese Assistant Grand Protector General Tang Jiahui defeated the attack. Al-Yashkuri, the Arab commander and his army fled to Tashkent after they were defeated. In 719 the Turgesh captured Suiye. In 720 the Tibetan Empire seized the Stone City. In the same year Tang bestowed titles upon the kings of Khuttal , Chitral , and Oddiyana In 722 Tang restored

165-787: A large population of Han Chinese, Balhae, Jurchen, Mongols, Khitan, in addition to the Xiao consort clan and the Yelü royal family In the 12th century, the Qara Khitai defeated the Kara-Khanid Khanate and conquered their territory in Central Asia. The Khitan rulers, called "the Chinese" by Muslims, governed using Chinese as their official language as well as the Chinese style of imperial government. The effect of their administration

220-478: A major defeat. According to Huangfu, the Stone City was one of the most heavily defended bastions of the Tibetan Empire: Shih-pao is strongly defended. The whole Tibetan nation is guarding it. Now if we array our troops below it, we cannot capture it without several tens of thousands of [our] men being killed. I am afraid that what would be gained is not comparable to what would be lost. In 747

275-540: A thousand monks, most of whom were of a realist Hinayana school. Remains of two Buddhist sites near Kashgar still exist. The first, the Cave of Three Immortals, dating from the second century, is hewn from the cliffs of the Quiakmakh River. It now stands thirty feet high above the river bed. It has two chambers; traces of wall paintings survive in the left chamber. The second site, the ancient village of Hanoi, had been

330-687: A threat to regions west of the Yellow River [i.e., present-day Gansu and Qinghai provinces]. Moreover, if they get in touch with the Turks in the north, our soldiers will be unable to crush them by crossing the Moheyan Desert [the desert northwest of Dunhuang] that extends over 2,000 li, where neither water nor grass can be found. The tribes [loyal to China] in Yizhou, Xiyzhou, Beiting [Beshbalik], and Anxi protectorates will all be eliminated. In 694

385-596: A thriving Buddhist settlement in Tang times. Xuanzang is believed to have visited the Mauri-tim stupa there. Xuanzang visited Khotan in 644 and stayed there for eight months. This country he describes as being above 4,000 Ii in circuit, more than half of it being sand-dunes; the cultivated land, which was very limited, yielded cereals and fruits of various kinds; the country produced rugs, fine felt, and silk of artistic texture, it also yielded white and black jade. The climate

440-563: Is located on the borders of Tibet, and fighting never ceases there between the Chinese and the Tibetans. Of the four garrisons that made up the defunct Anxi Protectorate, all eventually ended up freeing themselves or coming under the dominion of other powers by the mid-9th century. Karasahr and Kucha were occupied by the Kingdom of Qocho in 843. Kashgar came under the dominion of the Kara-Khanid Khanate . The earliest approximate date of around

495-427: Is their custom to relish grape wine, and also to love music. It is some ten li north of a body of water, and has an abundance of fish, salt, and rushes. In the fourth year of the period Pao-ting, its king sent an envoy to present its renowned horses. ( Zhoushu , published 636 CE; translation by Roy Andrew Miller.) Xuanzang visited Kashgar around 644. His first impression of the approach to China's westernmost oasis

550-740: The Tang dynasty in the Tarim Basin between 648 and 658. They were stationed at the Indo-European city-states of Qiuci ( Kucha ), Yutian ( Hotan ), Shule ( Kashgar ) and Yanqi ( Karashahr ) in modern Xinjiang . The Protectorate General to Pacify the West was headquartered in Qiuci. The Anxi Protectorate was created in Xi Prefecture ( Gaochang ) after the Tang dynasty successfully annexed

605-728: The Tibetan Empire attacked the Stone City ( Charklik ). In 702 Wu Zetian set up the Beiting Protectorate in Ting Prefecture ( Jimsar County ) and granted it governorship over Yi Prefecture ( Hami ) and Xi Prefecture. In 708 the Turgesh attacked Qiuci. In 710 the Tibetan Empire conquered Lesser Bolü. Arab sources claim Qutayba ibn Muslim briefly took Kashgar from China and withdrew after an agreement but modern historians entirely dismiss this claim. In 715

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660-477: The Tuyuhun kingdom of Qinghai , which was a tributary state and important ally to the Tang dynasty. To help Tuyuhun restore the regime, Emperor Gaozong of Tang launched the campaign against Tibet. The Tang general, Xue Rengui , commanded an army of 400,000 men against around 50 thousand men of the Tibetan Empire. He left his slower-moving baggage train and 20,000 soldiers under Guo Daifeng behind and advanced with

715-634: The sancai "three color" glaze left a long lasting impression in Central Asia and Western Eurasia. In the Persian epic Shahnameh the Chin refers to China or Chinese Turkestan which was under Tang control. The Khan of Turkestan was referred to as the Khan of Chin. Aladdin , an Arabic Islamic story which is set in China, may have been referring to Central Asia under Tang influence. Steppe empires often utilized

770-423: The 630s and described it in the following manner: The soil is suitable for rice and grain...it produces grapes, pomegranates and numerous species of plums, pears, peaches, and almonds...The ground is rich in minerals-gold, copper, iron, and lead and tin. The air is soft, and the manners of the people honest. The style of writing is Indian, with some differences. They excel other countries in their skill in playing on

825-517: The Anxi Protectorate but were unable to gain a foothold until the An Lushan Rebellion occurred in 755. The Tang dynasty recalled the majority of their garrison troops from the frontier to deal with the rebellion and thus allowed the Tibetans an opportunity to invade the Tang borderlands with impunity. In 763 a large Tibetan army managed to occupy the Tang capital of Chang'an for a brief period of time before they were forced to retreat. In

880-467: The Anxi Protectorate on 11 October. Qiao Shiwang became the first protector general of the Anxi and served from 640 to 642. Guo Xiaoke received the next post and served from 640 to 648. By 644 Karasahr was also conquered, and was known to the Chinese as Yanqi. Aksu (Gumo) was garrisoned by Tang troops. In 648, the Tang conquered Kucha , known to the Chinese as Qiuci, and made it the new seat of Anxi under

935-459: The Arab occupation force at Namangan and reinstalled Ikhshid on the throne. General Tang Jiahui led the Chinese to defeat the following Arab-Tibetan attack in the Battle of Aksu (717) . The attack on Aksu was joined by Turgesh Khan Suluk . Both Uch Turfan and Aksu were attacked by the Turgesh, Arab, and Tibetan force on 15 August 717. Qarluqs serving under Chinese command, under Arsila Xian,

990-453: The Chinese. All the deceased are cremated and then buried. They wear mourning for seven full days, after which they put it off. The adult men all trim their hair to make a head decoration. Their written characters are the same as those of India. It is their custom to serve "Heavenly God(s)" but they also show reverence and trust in the law of the Buddha. They especially celebrate these days:

1045-553: The Chu valley in Central Asia, Tang era Chinese coins continued to be copied and minted after the Chinese left the area. Coins with both Chinese and Karoshthi inscriptions have been found in the southern Tarim Basin. The military dominance of the Tang in Central Asia has been used as an explanation for the Turkic word for China, "Tamghaj", possibly derived from the "House of Tang" (Tangjia) instead of Tabgatch. Chinese arts and crafts such as

1100-606: The Four Garrisons, and with them a formal Tang military protectorate over the Tarim Basin, is therefore dated to 658 after Ashina Helu's defeat. Following the decline of Turkic hegemony over the region, the Tibetan Empire became the primary contender for power with the Tang dynasty. The Tibetan Empire repeatedly invaded the Tarim Basin and neighboring kingdoms. The Western Regions were highly contested, and ownership of areas switched repeatedly between Tibetan Empire and

1155-588: The Tang dynasty withdrew 200,000 soldiers from the Western Regions to protect the capital. In 763 the Tibetan Empire conquered Yanqi. In the same year the Tang capital was briefly taken by the Tibetans before they were forced to retreat. In 764 the Tibetan Empire invaded the Hexi Corridor and conquered Liang Prefecture , cutting off the Anxi and Beiting protectorates from the Tang dynasty. However Anxi and Beiting were left relatively unmolested under

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1210-463: The Tang dynasty. During this period the protectorate headquarter was moved to Suiye, also known as Suyab, The Tang achieved relative stability after 692 and moved the protectorate back to Qiuci where it remained until the protectorate's demise in the 790s. In 702 Wu Zetian created the Beiting Protectorate and granted it control of Ting Prefecture ( Jimsar County ), Yi Prefecture ( Hami ) and Xi Prefecture. The Tibetan Empire continued to attack

1265-464: The Tang era were known as Qixi (磧西). Qi refers to the Gobi Desert while Xi refers to the west. In 632 the oasis kingdoms of Khotan (Yutian) and Shule (Kashgar) submitted to the Tang dynasty as vassals. In 635 Yarkand (Shache) submitted to the Tang dynasty. On 19 September 640 Hou Junji of Tang conquered Gaochang and set up Xi Prefecture (西州) in its place. Xi Prefecture became the seat of

1320-490: The Tang general Gao Xianzhi captured Lesser Bolü. In 748 the Tang recaptured Suiye and destroyed it. In 749 Tang recovered the Stone City. In 750 the Tang intervened in a dispute between their vassal Fergana and the neighboring kingdom of Chach, located in modern Tashkent . The kingdom of Chach was sacked and their king was taken back to Chang'an, where he was executed. In the same year Tang also defeated Qieshi in Chitral and

1375-566: The Tang. Some Karluks converted to Islam, but the vast majority did not until the mid 10th century under Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan of the Kara-Khanid Khanate . The long-term strategic importance of Talas was overshadowed later on by the An Lushan Rebellion, which devastated the Tang homeland. It is now understood as the primary cause for the Tang retreat from Central Asia. My relative Huan followed Go Seonji [Tang general of Goguryeo (Korean) descent; Gao Xianzhi in Chinese, died 755],

1430-502: The Tibetan Empire attacked Fergana , a Tang vassal. In 717 the Tibetan Empire attacked Gumo and the Stone City. The Arab Umayyad Caliphate in 715 AD deposed Ikhshid , the king the Fergana Valley , and installed a new king Alutar on the throne. The deposed king fled to Kucha (seat of Anxi Protectorate ) and sought Chinese intervention. The Chinese sent 10,000 troops under Zhang Xiaosong to Ferghana . He defeated Alutar and

1485-475: The Tibetan Empire routed a Tang army at the Battle of Dafei River and attacked Gumo as well as captured Qiuci. The protectorate's seat was moved to Suyab , known as Suiye to the Chinese, in modern Kyrgyzstan . In 673 the Tang consolidated control over the Wuduolu Turks living in the area that came to be known as Dzungaria . The Tang also captured Qiuci and established control over the Western Regions in

1540-568: The Turgesh. In 751 Tang forces suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Talas against Abbasid and Karluk forces. Although the Battle of Talas saw the limit of Tang expansion to the west, the importance of the defeat at the Battle of Talas has sometimes been exaggerated. Although the Tang army was defeated, the Arabs did not extend their influence into Xinjiang, and the Karluks remained amiable to

1595-417: The court argued for the decrease of military expenditures. In 687 the Tibetan Empire established control over the Western Regions. In 690 the Tibetan Empire defeated a Tang army at Issyk-Kul . In 692 Tang troops under Wang Xiaojie pacified the Western Regions and established the Anxi Protectorate at Qiuci, where it would remain until the protectorate's demise around 790. The importance of the Western Regions

1650-441: The eighth day of the second month, and the eighth day of the fourth month. All the country abstains and does penance according to the teachings of Śākya , and follows His Way. The climate is cold, and the land good and fertile. For cereals, hey have rice, millet, pulse, wheat, and barley. For animals, they have camels, horses, cows, and sheep. They raise silk-worms but do not make silk, merely using [the silk fiber] for padding. It

1705-473: The famous bazaar at Kashgar. "One gets from this country felt and cloth of excellent quality as well as fine woolen materials. Moreover, the inhabitants are clever at weaving various kinds of fine, fleecy carpets." Xuanzang also remarks that the people have green eyes, suggesting the Sogdian or East Iranian origin of some of the population. In Kashgar, there were hundreds of Buddhist monasteries with more than

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1760-403: The following manner: There is no disputing the matter of numbers. But many small birds are the food of a single hawk, and many small fish are the food of a single otter. A pine tree has been growing for a hundred years, but a single axe is its enemy. Although a river runs ceaselessly, it can be crossed in a moment by a boat six feet long. Although barley and rice grow over a whole plain, it is all

1815-565: The governance of Chai Zhewei from 649 to 651. By 650 the entire Western Region had submitted to Tang authority. In 651 the seat was moved back to Xi Prefecture where it remained under the governance of Qu Zhizhan from 651 to 658. In 656 the Tibetan Empire attacked Lesser Bolü in Gilgit southwest of the protectorate. In 658 the seat was moved back to Qiuci after Su Dingfang defeated the Western Turkic Khaganate . Its title

1870-453: The grist of a single mill. Although the sky is filled with stars, in the light of a single sun they are nothing. In 663 the Tibetan Empire conquered Tuyuhun southeast of the protectorate. They also attacked Yutian but were repelled. In 665 the Tibetan Empire and Turkic allies attacked Yutian. The conflict between the Tang and Tibetans was the primary context under which the story of a Khotanese princess striving to rescue Khotan from destruction

1925-483: The king of Lesser Bolü to his throne. In 725 the king of Khotan (Yutian) rebelled but was immediately replaced with a Tang puppet by protectorate forces. In 726 the Turgesh attempted to engage in horse trade at Qiuci without prior authorization. The Turgesh Khagan Suluk used his marital relation with Princess Jiaohe to issue a decree ordering the Protector-General to engage in trade. However Princess Jiaohe

1980-429: The land of China, between the latter and Sogdiana there is a journey of two months. The way, however, is via a forbidding desert of unbroken sand dunes in which there are no water sources and no river valleys, with no habitation nearby. That is what prevents the people of Khurasan from launching an assault on China. Turning to the part of China lying in the direction of the setting sun, namely the place known as Bamdhu, this

2035-570: The late 8th or early 9th century is disputed, but it was likely before 980. Khotan regained its independence in 851. By 1006 it was also conquered by the Kara-Khanid Khanate. List of grand and assistant protector generals of the Protectorate General to Pacify the West (Anxi): Protectorate: Grand Protectorate: Protectorate: Grand Protectorate: Protectorate: Grand Protectorate: Protectorate: In Xinjiang and

2090-431: The leadership of Guo Xin and Li Yuanzhong. In 780 Guo Xin and Li Yuanzhong were officially made protectorate generals after sending secret messages to Emperor Dezong of Tang . In 787 the Tibetan Empire conquered Qiuci. In 789 the monk Wukong passed through Shule, Yutian, Gumo, Qiuci, Yanqi, and Ting Prefecture and found that they all had Chinese commanders and were free from Tibetan or Uyghur control. This contradicts

2145-524: The lute and pipe. They clothe themselves with ornamental garments of silk and embroidery.... There are about one hundred convents in this country, with five thousand and more disciples. These belong to the Little Vehicle of the school of the Sarvastivadas .Their doctrine and their rules of discipline are like those of India, and those who read them use the same originals....About 40 li to

2200-530: The military commissioner of Zhenxi (modern Xinjiang), to go on a western expedition. In the tenth year of Tianbao (751) he reached the Western Sea . At the beginning of the Baoying reign (761) he boarded a merchant ship and returned [to China] through Guangzhou, and wrote his Travel Record . In 754 Tang forces defeated Baltistan (Greater Bolü) and Tibetan forces. In 755 the An Lushan Rebellion occurred and

2255-453: The north of this desert city there are two convents close together on the slope of a mountain...Outside the western gate of the chief city, on the right and left side of the road, there are erect figures of Buddha, about 90 feet high. According to the Book of Zhou , compiled around 636, Karasahr was a small and poor country composed of several walled towns: Wedlock is about the same as among

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2310-523: The oasis kingdom in 640 . The protectorate was moved to Qiuci in 648 after the Tang dynasty defeated Kucha . However, due to local unrest with support from the Western Turkic Khaganate the Tang protector general was assassinated, and the protectorate was moved back to Xi Prefecture in 651. When the Tang dynasty defeated the Western Turkic Khaganate in 658, the protectorate headquarter was moved back to Qiuci. The full establishment of

2365-561: The prestige of the Tang by connecting themselves to the defunct dynasty. The Qara Khitan khans used the title of "Chinese emperor" while the Khara-Khanid khans called themselves Tabgach . Tabgach Khan, or "Khan of China" was a common appellation among Khara-Khanid rulers. Persian, Arab and other western Asian writers came to call China by the name "Tamghaj". In 1124 the westward migration of the Khitans under Yelü Dashi also consisted of

2420-463: The previous conquests of Yanqi and Qiuci by the Tibetan Empire in 763 and 787, assertions made by Yuri Bregel in his An Historical Atlas of Central Asia . In 792 the Tibetan Empire conquered Yutian. It is unclear what happened to Shule ( Kashgar ), Shache ( Yarkand ), or Gumo ( Aksu ). According to O. Pritsak, Kashgar came under Karluk domination around this time, but this is disputed by Christopher I. Beckwith. Regarding Khurasan and its proximity to

2475-618: The same year the Tibetan Empire occupied Yanqi. The neighboring Hexi Corridor and Beiting Protectorate were also invaded. Under the Hexi Jiedushi, the Tang lost Liang Prefecture in 764, Gan and Su prefectures in 766, Gua Prefecture in 776, and Sha Prefecture in 787. The Beiting Protectorate lost Yi Prefecture in 781, Ting Prefecture in 790, and Xi Prefecture in 792. The Anxi Protectorate lost its seat in Qiuci in 787 and Yutian in 792. It's unclear what happened to Shule. The Buddhist monk Xuanzang visited Kucha in

2530-430: The same year. In 677 the Tibetan Empire captured Qiuci. In the same year Ashina Duzhi, previously a Tang general tasked with controlling the Wuduolu Turks, rebelled and declared himself Onoq Khagan, ruler of all Turks. In 679 the Tang general, Pei Xingjian, defeated Ashina Duzhi as well as the Tibetans and established control over the Western Regions. In 686 Tang troops withdrew from the Four Garrisons after elements within

2585-439: The structure had been slightly altered by a sort of successive changes; the spoken language differed from that of other countries. Battle of Dafei River The Battle of Dafei River ( Chinese : 大非川之戰 ) was fought in mid-670 between the forces of the Tang dynasty and the Tibetan Empire , for control over the Tarim Basin (the " Anxi Protectorate " in Chinese parlance). In 669, the Tibetan Empire invaded and conquered

2640-422: Was actually the daughter of Ashina Huaidao , and the Protector-General retorted: "How can an Ashina woman proclaim a decree to me, a military commissioner?!" In response Suluk attacked Qiuci. In 727 and 728 the Tibetan Empire attacked Qiuci. In 737 the Tibetan Empire conquered Lesser Bolü. In 741 the Tibetan Empire sacked the Stone City. In 745 the Tang general Huangfu Weiming attacked the Stone City but suffered

2695-464: Was changed to "Grand Protectorate" and granted governorship of former Western Turkic territories, which were further separated into the Mengchi and Kunling protectorates. In 660 the Tibetan Empire and their Turkic allies attacked Shule. The Tibetan Empire also attacked Wakhan to the protectorate's southwest. When the Tang general boasted of the size of his army, Gar Tongtsen Yulsung 's son responded in

2750-422: Was formulated. One passage of the story in prayer form reads: When the red-faced ones and the Chinese battle each other, may Khotan not be destroyed. When monks come from other countries to Khotan, may they not be treated dishonourably. May those who flee here from other countries find a place to stay here and help to rebuild the great stupas and monastic gardens that have been burned by the red-faced ones. In 670

2805-405: Was genial, but there were whirlwinds and flying dust. The people were of gentle disposition, fond of the practical arts; they were in easy circumstances, and had settled occupations. The nation esteemed music and the people were fond of dance and song; a few clothed themselves in woollens and furs, the majority wearing silk and calico .. . . The system of writing had been taken from that of India, but

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2860-469: Was of many sand heaps and little fertile soil. Commenting on the oasis itself, he said that "it yielded good crops and a luxuriance of fruit and flowers." How inviting the orchards, the city walls, the winding lanes, and the mudbrick walls of houses must have been! After the bleak and thinly populated Pamirs, how heart-warming the sight of streams of people coming and going, ponies and donkeys laden with goods, heralding an important trade center. Xuanzang went to

2915-699: Was seen with respect and esteem due in part to China's status in Central Asia at the time. The Chinese characteristics appealed to the Muslim Central Asians and helped validate Qara Khitai rule. Han Chinese population among them was comparatively small so it is unlikely that the Chinese characteristics were kept to appease them. Later the Mongols moved more Chinese into Beshbalik, Almaliq and Samarqand in Central Asia to work as artisans and farmers. Four Garrisons of Anxi The Four Garrisons of Anxi were Chinese military garrisons installed by

2970-563: Was suppressed, the office of Protector General was given to Guo Xin, who defended the area and the four garrisons even after communication had been cut off from Chang'an by the Tibetan Empire . The last five years of the protectorate are regarded as an uncertain period in its history, but most sources agree that the last vestiges of the protectorate and its garrisons were defeated by Tibetan forces by 790, ending nearly 150 years of Tang influence in Central Asia . The Western Regions during

3025-596: Was well understood by the Tang court at this point. Its strategic significance is summarized by Cui Rong, an Imperial Diarist of the court: If we cannot defend these garrisons, barbarians will surely come to destabilize the Western Regions. And various tribes south of the Nanshan Mountain [i.e., the Qilian and the Kunlun Mountains] would feel threatened. If they link up with one another, they would pose

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