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113-742: The county was first established in 528 CE as part of the Northern Wei Dynasty . In 606 CE, the county was renamed to Yueyang County ( 岳阳县 ). During the Ming Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty, the area belonged to the Pingyang Prefecture  [ zh ] . In 1971, Gu County split off from Anze County. The county's elevation ranges from 732 meters to 1,592 meters in height, with the county's highest point being Mount Antai ( 安太山 ). 45.44% of Anze County's land area

226-502: A Chinese-style capital at Ye, Tuoba Gui sought to break the autonomy of the tribes. He reorganised the people into eight artificial tribes forcibly settled around the capital, which served as military units. He also removed the traditional tribal leaders. These reforms helped to change tribal loyalties and strengthen their loyalty to the dynasty. These tribes served as the Emperor's personal professional military caste which helped to sustain

339-710: A Jin prince who had moved to the South, continued the dynasty as the Eastern Jin from Jiankang (modern day Nanjing ). The collapse of Jin authority in the North led other leaders to declare independence. In 315, Tuoba Yilu , a Xianbei chieftain, founded the Dai in modern-day Inner Mongolia . In 318, Zhang Shi , the ethnic Chinese governor of Liangzhou founded the Former Liang in modern-day Gansu . After Liu Cong's death,

452-581: A Southern Qi prince, to become emperor of the puppet state. A southern expedition was led by Prince Yuan Cheng of Wei and Chen Bozhi, a former Qi general. Until spring 505, Xinyang and Hanzhong were fallen to the Northern Wei. In 505, Emperor Wu began the Liang offensive. A strong army was quickly amassed under the general Wei Rui and caught the Wei by surprise, calling it the strongest army they have seen from

565-634: A Xiongnu chieftain, rebelled and founded the Xia in northern Shaanxi, and the Western Qin was revived in the southern Shaanxi. In 416, the Eastern Jin under General Liu Yu launched a northern expedition that captured Luoyang and Chang'an and extinguished the Later Qin. The Eastern Jin could not hold these cities as Liu Yu returned south to seize the Jin throne . The Xia kingdom quickly seized Chang'an. In

678-571: A campaign and conquered the Northern Liang, hence unifying the north and bringing an end to the Sixteen Kingdoms period. War between Northern Wei and Han-ruled Liu Song dynasty broke out while the former had not yet unified northern China. Emperor Wu of Song while still a Jin dynasty general, had conquered both Southern Yan in 410 and Later Qin in 417, pushing Jin frontiers further north into Wei territories. He then usurped

791-686: A descendant of Goguryeo royalty who was adopted into the Murong court, is considered either the last emperor of the Later Yan or the founding emperor of the Northern Yan . In 409, he was killed by Feng Ba, a Han Chinese assimilated to Xianbei culture, who took control of the Northern Yan. During its century-long rule of southern China, the Eastern Jin dynasty, though beset by local rebellions and insurrections, made several attempts to recapture

904-506: A fief by thousands of members of the Han Chinese aristocratic Zhaojun Li clan under the leader of a cadet leader of the clan, Li Xianfu. Clan loyalties were extensively utilized by local magnates. Li Xianfu was appointed as zongzhu (宗主) (clan chief) by the clan collectively in spite of him not inheriting the officer and rank of his father which went to his elder brother. Local level order was controlled by Li Xiangu and other magnates and

1017-662: A fratricidal succession struggle and the kingdom was ended in 350 by General Ran Min , an ethnic Chinese who seized the throne and founded the Ran Wei . Ran Min favored Han Chinese and massacred thousands of Jie. He was defeated and killed in 352 by the Murong Xianbei from Liaodong . In 337, Murong Huang founded the Former Yan in Liaodong, which by 356 had expanded into much of Hebei , Henan and Shandong . For

1130-473: A household: the first was open land for crop cultivation (40 mu ) for each adult male in the household, and half those amounts for adult females which was returnable after the recipient reached a specific advanced age or died. The second was the land to support textile production (10 or 20 mu, with the same gender distribution principle as open land) in one of two forms, namely, "mulberry lands" in silk-producing areas, and "hemp lands" in regions where sericulture

1243-726: A long-lasting impact on later periods of Chinese history. The Jin dynasty had developed an alliance with the Tuoba against the Xiongnu state Han-Zhao . In 315, the Tuoba chief, Tuoba Yilu was granted the title of Prince of Dai . After his death, however, the Dai state stagnated, and with the Jin ejected from northern China, the Dai largely remained a partial ally and a partial tributary state to Later Zhao and Former Yan , finally falling to Former Qin in 376. After Former Qin's emperor Fu Jiān

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1356-571: A massive invasion. Although initially successful, the campaign turned into a disaster. The Wei lured the Liu Song to cross the Yellow River, and then flanked them, destroying the Eastern army. As the Liu Song armies retreated, Emperor Taiwu ordered his troop to move south. The provinces south of the Yellow River were devastated by the Wei army. Only Huatai, a fortified city, held out against

1469-592: A number of natural resources, particularly coal . 1,944 square kilometers of land within the county has been identified as having significant coal reserves, totaling an estimated 24 billion tons of coal. Iron ore deposits within the county total an area of approximately 1.4 square kilometers, containing an estimated 1 million tons of ore. Significant reserves of calcite , porcelain clay , and methane have also been discovered within Anze County. National Highway 309 and Shanxi Provincial Road 326 both run through

1582-671: A series of short-lived dynastic states . The majority of these states were founded by the " Five Barbarians ", non- Han peoples who had settled in northern and western China during the preceding centuries, and had launched a series of rebellions against the Western Jin dynasty in the early 4th century. However, several of the states were founded by the Han people, and all of the states—whether ruled by Xiongnu , Xianbei , Di , Jie , Qiang , Han, or others—took on Han-style dynastic names. The states frequently fought against both one another and

1695-665: A split into the Eastern Wei and the Western Wei dynasties under the rule of the same imperial house in 534–535, which were soon replaced by the Northern Qi and the Northern Zhou dynasties respectively. While the rule of Tuoba clan ended in the mid-6th century CE, its important policies, in particular the political recentralization reforms under Empress Dowager Feng and ethnic integration under Emperor Xiaowen, had

1808-647: A time, the Former Yan vied for supremacy in northern China with the Former Qin . The Former Qin was founded in 351 by Fu Jian (317–355) , a Di general, who had served under the Later Zhao and surrendered to the Jin before declaring independence in Shaanxi . After his death in 355, the kingdom was briefly handed to his son Fu Sheng , before his nephew Fu Jian (337–385) took control of the leadership. Under

1921-421: A village and headed by one village elder (lizhang). Finally, over five villages, there was one ward elder (dangzhang). The three elders, appointed by the government, were responsible for detecting and re-registering population outside of state accounts, requisitioning corvee labor and taxes, and taking care of the poor and orphaned under their jurisdiction. This policy significantly bolstered the state's control over

2034-534: Is considered by some historians to be the founder of the Northern Yan, was an ethnic Han who had prominent Xianbei friends, as well as a Xianbei nickname. Gao Yun , considered by other historians to be the Northern Yan founder, was a member of the Goguryeo royal family who had been adopted by Xianbei nobility. Due to fierce competition among the states and internal political instability, the kingdoms of this era were mostly short-lived. For seven years from 376 to 383,

2147-675: Is forested. The county experiences an average of 2246.1 hours of sunshine annually, 539.1 millimeters of precipitation annually, 172 frost-free days annually, and an average temperature of 9.4 °C. The county is divided into 4 towns and 3 townships . The county government is seated in Fucheng  [ zh ] . The county's 4 towns are Fucheng, Hechuan , Tangcheng  [ zh ] , and Jishi  [ zh ] . The county's 3 townships are Mabi Township  [ zh ] , Ducun Township  [ zh ] , and Liangma Township  [ zh ] . Anze County has

2260-841: The Eastern Jin dynasty , which succeeded the Western Jin in 317 and ruled southern China. The period ended with the unification of northern China in 439 by the Northern Wei , a dynasty established by the Xianbei Tuoba clan. This occurred 19 years after the Eastern Jin collapsed in 420, and was replaced by the Liu Song dynasty . Following the unification of the north by Northern Wei, the Northern and Southern dynasties era of Chinese history began. The term "Sixteen Kingdoms"

2373-582: The Former Qin briefly unified northern China, but this ended when the Eastern Jin inflicted a crippling defeat on it at the Battle of Fei River , after which the Former Qin splintered and northern China experienced even greater political fragmentation. The fall of the Western Jin dynasty amidst the rise of non-Han regimes in northern China during the Sixteen Kingdoms period resembles the fall of

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2486-788: The Hexi Corridor of western Gansu, the Later Liang splintered into the Northern Liang and Southern Liang in 397. The Southern Liang was founded by Tufa Wugu , a Xianbei, in Ledu , Qinghai. The Northern Liang was founded by an ethnic Chinese, Duan Ye in Zhangye , Gansu with the support of Juqu Mengxun , a Xiongnu, who then seized control of the kingdom in 401. In 400, Li Gao , the Chinese commander at Dunhuang broke away from

2599-725: The Hexi Corridor , led by the Juqu clan of Lushuihu ethnicity, submitted to Wei as a vassal after the Xia's demise. With the west pacified, Emperor Taiwu shifted his focus to the east by launching incessant attacks on the Chinese Northern Yan dynasty in Liaoning . After a large-scale invasion in 436, the Yan ruler, Feng Hong abandoned his territory to Wei as he fled to the neighbouring Goguryeo . Finally, in 439, Emperor Taiwu launched

2712-646: The Liu Song dynasty . In 423, he planned to launch an expedition against the Northern Wei, but died of illness. The Liu Song dynasty ruled southern China until 479. The ancestral home of the Tuoba Xianbei was the Greater Khingan range of Inner Mongolia. In 258, the clan migrated south to the Yin Mountains and spread into the Ordos Loop region. In 315, chief Tuoba Yilu was recognized as

2825-507: The Northern Liang and founded the short-lived Western Liang . The Western Liang was reabsorbed by the Northern Liang in 421. Li Gao's descendants would go on to found the Tang dynasty in the 7th century. The Southern Liang was conquered by the Western Qin in 414, and the Northern Liang lasted until 439, when it surrendered to the Northern Wei. The Later Yan conquered the Zhai Wei in 392 and

2938-651: The Ordos and Guanzhong regions in the west. By the following year, the Wei had taken the Xia capital, Tongwancheng and a substantial portion of their territory. The Xia could no longer pose a threat to Wei, though they still managed to annex Wei's ally, the Western Qin dynasty in the Longxi . In 431, the last Xia emperor, Helian Ding was captured and handed over to Wei by the Tuyuhun . The Northern Liang dynasty in

3051-452: The Rouran nomads to the north and began the conquest of Shaanxi, Ningxia, and Gansu. In 427, he captured the Xia capital, Tongwancheng in modern-day Jingbian County , Shaanxi. The Xia under Helian Ding moved to Pingliang , Gansu and conquered the Western Qin at Jincheng (modern day Lanzhou ) in 431. Helian Ding sought an alliance with the Liu Song dynasty but was driven further west by

3164-562: The Tiele tribes and held a large territory in the northern steppe. That same year, he declared himself Qiudoufa Khagan (丘豆伐可汗), and for the rest of Northern Wei's existence, the Rouran Khaganate was a recurring problem to the Wei on their northern borders. In 423, Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei ascended the throne with ambitions to reunify northern China. In 426, he began a war with the Xiongnu -led Hu Xia dynasty , which controlled

3277-582: The Western Yan in Shanxi . Wei continued hostilities even after Western Yan fell in 394, and in 395, the Later Yan emperor, Murong Chui , sent his Crown Prince, Murong Bao , with a massive army to lead a punitive expedition against Wei. However, at the Battle of Canhe Slope , Tuoba Gui inflicted the Later Yan army a heavy defeat. In 396, Murong Chui personally led another campaign against Wei, but though he

3390-577: The Western Yan in Shanxi. Yao Chang founded the Later Qin in eastern Gansu . Fu Jian was killed by Yao Chang, but the Former Qin survived by relocating from Shaanxi to Gansu and then Qinghai . In 385, Qifu Guoren , a Xianbei former vassal under Fu Jian, founded the Western Qin . In 386, Lü Guang , a Di general of the Former Qin, founded the Later Liang in western Gansu while Tuoba Gui revived

3503-587: The Xianbei Tuoba royal family in the 480s. More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han Chinese men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei. Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of

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3616-440: The "equal-field landholding system", and the "three-elder system". In the new "equal-filed system" ( juntian zhi ) unveiled in 485, the state redistributed abandoned or uncultivated land to commoner subjects attached with obligations of tax duty in the forms of grain, cloth, and labor service. In principle, each household was entitled to lands proportional to its labor power. Specifically, two types of land with tenure were assigned to

3729-615: The Buddha as wicked and as anti-stability and anti-family. Anti Buddhism was the position of Kou Qianzhi. There was no ban on the Celestial Masters despite the nonfullfilment of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi's agenda in their anti-Buddhist campaign. Cui Zhen's wife Han Farong was buried in a Datong located grave. To resist the threats posed by the Rourans , Northern Wei emperors started to embark on building its own Great Wall ,

3842-532: The Dai as the Northern Wei . In 388, Zhai Liao , an ethnic Dingling leader in Henan founded the Zhai Wei , which was wedged between the Later Yan, Western Yan and Eastern Jin. As many as seven kingdoms coexisted for nine years. The Later Qin, which ended the Former Qin in 394, the Western Qin in 400, and Later Liang in 403, extended its control over much of Shaanxi, Gansu, and Ningxia . But in 407, Helian Bobo ,

3955-472: The Eastern Jin as their suzerain. Jin princes and military governors often recruited non-Chinese tribes into their armies in their suppression of rebellions and wars with each other. Also in 304, Liu Yuan , a Xiongnu chieftain, who had been fighting in the Jin civil war on the side of Prince Sima Ying , returned home to Shanxi where he reorganized the five tribes of the Xiongnu and declared independence as

4068-569: The Former Qin in 354 and Luoyang from Qiang chieftain Yao Xiang in 356. In 369, he led a large force across the Yellow River into Hebei but was defeated by the Former Yan. In 383, the Eastern Jin reclaimed Henan south of the Yellow River after turning back the Former Qin in the Battle of Feishui in 383, but lost that territory once the northern kingdoms strengthened. Huan Wen had pretensions to seize power and deposed Emperor Fei in favor of Emperor Jianwen in 371. His son Huan Xuan briefly took

4181-603: The Former Qin kingdom collapsed after the Battle of Feishui in 383. Lü Guang founded the Later Liang and held Kumārajīva captive in western Gansu for 18 years. In 401, the Later Qin ruler, Yao Xing conquered the Former Liang and Kumārajīva was able to settle in Chang'an and become one of the most influential translators of Buddhist sutras into Chinese. The earliest grottoes in the Mogao Caves of Dunhuang were carved in

4294-467: The Great successfully invaded the kingdoms of Baekje , Silla , and Dongbuyeo . Riding its success, Goguryeo campaigned against the Later Yan , obtaining the Liao River region. King Murong Xi of Later Yan twice launched retaliatory attacks to reclaim the Liao River watershed territory, but was only partially successful. At Northern Yan's destruction by the Northern Wei , Yan king Feng Hong fled to Goguryeo to seek asylum. Although granted asylum, Hong

4407-445: The Han Chinese Jin prince Sima Chuzhi ( 司馬楚之 ) as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong ( 司馬金龍 ). Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian 's daughter married Sima Jinlong. The Northern Wei's Eight Noble Xianbei surnames ( 八大贵族 ) were the Buliugu (步六孤), Helai (賀賴), Dugu ( 獨孤 ), Helou (賀樓), Huniu (忽忸), Qiumu (丘穆), Gexi (紇奚), and Yuchi ( 尉遲 ). They adopted Chinese last names. Kongzi

4520-457: The Jin throne and created the Song dynasty. After hearing the death of the Song emperor Wu in 422, Wei's emperor Mingyuan broke off relations with Song and sent troops to invade its southern neighbor. His plan is to seize three major cities south of the Yellow River: Luoyang, Hulao, and Huatai. Sizhou (司州, central Henan) and Yanzhou (兗州, modern western Shandong) and most cities in Song's Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong) fell to

4633-434: The Liu Song emperor Emperor Ming, surrendered these territories to rival Northern Wei. Northern Wei forces quickly took up defense position against the attacking forces sent by Emperor Ming. With Liu Song forces unable to siege Pengcheng effectively, they were forced to withdraw in spring 467, making these populous provinces lost to the Northern Wei. In 479, Xiao Daocheng usurped the throne of Liu Song and became emperor of

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4746-420: The Mingyuan Emperor. Kongzi was honored extensively by Tuoba Hong, the Xiaowen Emperor. A fief of 100 households and the rank of (崇聖侯) Marquis who worships the sage was bestowed upon a Confucius descendant, Yan Hui 's lineage had 2 of its scions and Confucius's lineage had 4 of its scions who had ranks bestowed on them in Shandong in 495 and a fief of ten households and rank of (崇聖大夫) Grandee who venerates

4859-472: The North, and managed to make some inroads, but were ultimately unsuccessful. In 313, Sima Rui, the Yuan Emperor gave Zu Ti 1,000 men and 3,000 bolts of cloth for a northern expedition. Despite meager resources, Zu Ti managed to recapture a large swath of Henan south of the Yellow River and repeatedly defeated Shi Le's Later Zhao forces. Eastern Jin Emperors were wary of generals acquiring power and prestige from successful northern expeditions and threatening

4972-524: The Northern Wei (essentially the Tuoba Xianbei), held de facto rule over the entire Mongolian Plateau and the Liao River region. In the Western Regions (modern Xinjiang ) of the former Han Empire lay the kingdoms of Shanshan , Qiuzi , Yutian , Dongshi, and Shule . These kingdoms were often controlled or influenced by the various Liang kingdoms that existed during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Former Liang organized Gaochang Commandery (Chinese: 高昌郡 ) and Tiandi County ( Chinese : 闐地縣 ) in

5085-414: The Northern Wei Xianbei monarchs had to rely on them. The Northern Wei gave them title of governors officially in their fiefs. Sixteen Kingdoms The Sixteen Kingdoms ( simplified Chinese : 十六国 ; traditional Chinese : 十六國 ; pinyin : Shíliù Guó ), less commonly the Sixteen States , was a chaotic period in Chinese history from AD 304 to 439 when northern China fragmented into

5198-491: The Northern Wei general Yuan Faseng (元法僧) surrendered the key city of Pengcheng (彭城, in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu) to Liang. However, in summer 525, Emperor Wu's son Prince Xiao Zong (蕭綜), grew suspicions that he was actually the son of Southern Qi's emperor Xiao Baojuan (because his mother Consort Wu was formerly Xiao Baojuan's concubine and had given birth to him only seven months after she became Emperor Wu's concubine), surrendered Pengcheng to Northern Wei, ending Liang's advances in

5311-494: The Northern Wei state. Chinese influence accelerated during the capital's move to Luoyang in 494 and Emperor Xiaowen continued this by establishing a policy of systematic sinicization that was continued by his successors. Xianbei traditions were largely abandoned. The royal family took the sinicization a step further by changing their family name to Yuan. Marriages to Chinese families were encouraged. With this, Buddhist temples started appearing everywhere, displacing Taoism as

5424-415: The Northern Wei was internally unstable and allied with the stronger Xianbei-led Later Yan dynasty that ruled most of present-day Hebei and Liaoning . As Wei grew in power by subjugating neighbouring tribes such as the Tiefu and Rouran , their alliance came to an end in 391 when Tuoba Gui refused to send more tribute after Yan detained his brother at their capital, and the Wei re-aligned themselves with

5537-429: The Northern Wei's unification of northern China and marking the end of the Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Tuobas were eventually Sinicized , changing their name to Yuan, and held northern China through the 550s. Chinese history then entered the Northern and Southern Dynasties period as parallel series of dynasties in the North and South co-existed until the Sui dynasty united the country in 589. The Goguryeo kingdom

5650-418: The Northern Wei. From near Hohhot, Tuoba Gui expanded southward, capturing Shanxi and Hebei from the Former Yan and Henan from the Liu Song dynasty . In 398, he moved the capital to Pingcheng (modern day Datong ) and declared himself the Emperor Daowu. In 423, Tuoba Gui's grandson Tuoba Tao took the throne as Emperor Taiwu and began the quest to unify the North. Under his leadership, the Northern Wei subdued

5763-403: The Northern Wei. Helian Ding wanted to invade the Northern Liang but was captured in a raid by the Tuyuhun nomads and executed by the Northern Wei. In 436, the Tuoba Tao, as Emperor Taiwu, led an expedition against the Northern Yan. Feng Hong, the younger brother of Feng Ba, fled to Goguryeo , where he was killed. The last ruler of the Northern Liang, Juqu Mujian , surrendered in 439, completing

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5876-422: The Prince of Dai by the Jin Emperor. In 338, Tuoba Shiyiqian formally declared Dai's independence and built the capital at Shengle (modern day Horinger County , Hohhot ). In 376, the Former Qin attacked Shengle and drove the Tuoba into the northern steppes; Tuoba Shiyiqian was killed by his son. In 386, Tuoba Shiyiqian's grandson Tuoba Gui revived the kingdom, which he renamed Wei; it is known to historians as

5989-409: The Prince of Wei—intending to have him lay claim to the Northern Wei throne and, if successful, become a Liang vassal. He commissioned his general Chen Qingzhi (陳慶之) with an army to escort Yuan Hao back to Northern Wei. Despite the small size of Chen's army, he won battle after battle, and in spring 529, after Chen captured Suiyang (modern Shangqiu). Yuan Hao, with Emperor Wu's approve, proclaimed himself

6102-433: The Sixteen Kingdoms, the Eastern Jin dynasty to the south continued to insist on its status as supreme overlord and refused to treat any of the kingdoms as equals. For instance, when the Later Zhao sent a diplomatic mission to the south to establish equal relations, the Eastern Jin burnt the embassy's gifts and expelled the envoy. Some of the Sixteen Kingdoms such as Former Yan and Former Liang also agreed to nominally recognise

6215-419: The Southern dynasties in a hundred years. In spring 506, Wei Rui was able to capture Hefei . In fall 506, Wei Rui attacked the Northern Wei army stationed at Luokou for nearly a year without advancing. However, when Wei army gathered, Xiao Hong Prince of Linchuan, the Liang commander and younger brother of Emperor Wu, escaped in fear, causing his army to collapse without a battle. Northern Wei forces next attacked

6328-504: The Taihe period (477–499), Empress Dowager Feng and Emperor Xiaowen instituted sweeping reforms that deepened the dynasty's control over the local population in the Han hinterland. Emperor Xiaowen also introduced changes that eventually led to the dynasty moving its capital from Datong to Luoyang , in 494. The Tuoba adopted the surname Yuan (元) as a part of systematic sinicization . Many antiques and art works, both Taoist art and Buddhist art , from this period have survived. It

6441-496: The Wei army. The Liu Song general Tan Daoji commanded an army to try to save those cities and were able to hold Dongyang (東陽, in modern Qingzhou, Shandong), the capital of Qingzhou province. Northern Wei troops were eventually forced to withdraw after food supplies ran out. Wei forces also stalled in their siege of Hulao, defended by the capable Liu Song general Mao Dezu (毛德祖), but were meanwhile able to capture Luoyang and Xuchang (許昌, in modern Xuchang, Henan) in spring 423, cutting off

6554-507: The Wei. Wei troops retreated in January 451, however, the economic damage to the Song was immense. Emperor Wen made another attempt to conquer Northern Wei in 452, but failed again. On returning to the capital, he was assassinated by the heir apparent, Liu Shao. In 466, Liu Zixun waged an unsuccessful civil war against the Emperor Ming of Liu Song. The governors of Xu Province (徐州) and Yan Province (兗州, modern western Shandong), who earlier pleaded allegiance to Liu Zixun, in fear of reprisal from

6667-406: The Western Roman Empire amidst invasions by the Huns and Germanic tribes in Europe, which also occurred in the 4th to 5th centuries. From the late Eastern Han dynasty to the early Western Jin dynasty , large numbers of non- Han peoples living along China's northern periphery settled in northern China. Some of these migrants such as the Xiongnu and Xianbei had been pastoralist nomads from

6780-485: The Western Yan in 394, but lost a series of engagements to the Northern Wei. In 397, the Northern Wei captured Hebei and splitting the Later Yan into two. Murong Bao moved the Later Yan capital north to Liaoning but Murong De refused to move north and founded the Southern Yan in Henan and Shandong. The Southern Yan was extinguished by the Eastern Jin in 410. The Later Yan lasted until 407 when General Feng Ba , killed Emperor Murong Xi and installed Gao Yun . Gao Yun,

6893-472: The Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to Han Chinese elites, the Liu Song royal Liu Hui 劉輝), married Princess Lanling (蘭陵公主) of the Northern Wei, Princess Huayang (華陽公主) to Sima Fei (司馬朏), a descendant of Jin dynasty (266–420) royalty, Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei 's sisters, the Shouyang Princess, was wedded to the Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang 's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜 . One of Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei 's sisters

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7006-560: The Xianbei emperor. The Xianbei emperor also turned their own Xianbei nomad warriors into a hereditary military caste and extinguish their tribal loyalties. To the consternation of the Xianbei nobles, Han Chinese aristocrats started to be appointed to government positions by the Northern Wei emperors when the Central Plains population regrew in the middle of the 5th century. Han Chinese commoners started pledging their allegiance as buqu (部曲) (armed retainers) to elite Han Chinese aristocratic magnates in their wubao (塢堡) (fortified settlements) when

7119-525: The Xiongnu confederation in the Han–Xiongnu War by Han General Dou Xian led to the Han dynasty deporting the Southern Xiongnu along with their Chanyu into northern China. In 167 AD, Duan Jiong conducted an anti-Qiang campaign and massacred Qiang populations as well as settled them outside the frontier in northern China. Cao Cao had a policy of settling Xiongnu nomads away from the frontier near Taiyuan in modern Shanxi province, where they would be less likely to rebel. The Xiongnu abandoned nomadism and

7232-599: The Yellow River. The two walls of Northern Wei formed the basis of the double-layered Xuanfu – Datong wall system that protected Beijing a thousand years later during the Ming dynasty. Local society in northern China was not governed by civil bureaucrats but by military clientage during the reign of the Northern Wei Xianbei emperors, with the local Han Chinese aristocratic families jointly ruling and controlling power with them. The Han Chinese aristocrat families ruled over their private fiefs (home jurisdictions) with large military authority and civil authority as entrusted to them by

7345-451: The active roles played by non-Han ethnicities during this period. Even among the states founded by ethnic Han ( Former Liang , Western Liang , Ran Wei and Northern Yan ), several founders had close relations with ethnic minorities. For example, the father of Ran Min , who founded Ran Wei, was adopted by the ethnically Jie Later Zhao ruling family, though Ran Min ordered a genocidal massacre of Jie people after he seized power. Feng Ba , who

7458-404: The borders, against both Eastern Wei and Western Wei, for several years. Early in Northern Wei history, the state inherited a number of traditions from its initial history as a Xianbei tribe, and some of the more unusual ones, from a traditional Chinese standpoint, were: As Sinicization of the Northern Wei state progressed, these customs and traditions were gradually abandoned. After building

7571-410: The chaotic Sixteen Kingdoms period, and strengthening imperial control over the rural landscape via reforms in 485. This was also a period of introduced foreign ideas, such as Buddhism , which became firmly established. The Northern Wei was referred to as "Plaited Barbarians" (索虜; suǒlǔ ) by writers of the Southern dynasties , who considered themselves the true upholders of Chinese culture. During

7684-414: The common people. The reforms of Empress Dowager Feng boosted agricultural production and tax receipts on a long-term basis, and broke the economic power of local aristocrats who sheltered residents under their control living in fortified villages that dotted the rural landscape of the North from taxation. The Northern Wei dynasty had doubled the registered population to more than 5 million households since

7797-463: The country. The numerous tribal groups in the north and northwest who had been heavily drafted into the military then exploited the chaos to seize power. In Sichuan region, Li Xiong , a Di chieftain, led a successful rebellion and founded Cheng-Han kingdom in 304. Thus began the creation of independent kingdoms in China as Jin authority crumbled. Most of these kingdoms were founded by non-Chinese tribal leaders who took on Chinese reign names. During

7910-466: The county. Northern Wei 34°16′00″N 108°54′00″E  /  34.2667°N 108.9000°E  / 34.2667; 108.9000 Wei ( / w eɪ / ), known in historiography as the Northern Wei ( Chinese : 北魏 ; pinyin : Běi Wèi ), Tuoba Wei ( Chinese : 拓跋魏 ; pinyin : Tuòbá Wèi ), Yuan Wei ( Chinese : 元魏 ; pinyin : Yuán Wèi ) and Later Wei ( Chinese : 後魏 ; pinyin : Hòu Wèi ),

8023-403: The courts in Datong played a great part in this process. He introduced Han Chinese administrative methods and penal codes in the Northern Wei state, as well as creating a Taoist theocracy that lasted until 450. The attraction of Han Chinese products, the royal court's taste for luxury, the prestige of Chinese culture at the time, and Taoism were all factors in the growing Chinese influence in

8136-473: The dynasty against any threats. After securing Xianbei hegemony in the hinterland of China, the North Wei regime, under the rule of Empress Dowager Feng (438-490; also known as Empress Dowager Wenming) implemented a package of reforms in 485-486 AD, greatly solidifying its fiscal foundations and strengthening state penetration to the local society. This reform introduced two far-reaching policies, namely,

8249-597: The elite were educated in Chinese-Confucian literate culture, but they retained their distinct identity and resented the discrimination they received. The War of the Eight Princes (291–306) during the reign of the second Jin ruler Emperor Hui severely divided and weakened imperial authority. Hundreds of thousands were killed and millions were uprooted by the internecine fighting. Popular rebellions against heavy taxation and repression erupted throughout

8362-522: The emperor of Northern Wei. In summer 529, troops under Erzhu unable to stand up to Chen Qingzhi, forcing Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei to flee the capital Luoyang. After capturing Luoyang, Yuan Hao secretly wanted to rebel against Liang: when Chen Qingzhi requested Emperor Wu to send reinforcements, Yuan Hao sent Emperor Wu a submission advising against it, and Emperor Wu, believing Yuan Hao, did not send additional troops. Soon, Erzhu and Emperor Xiaozhuang counterattacked, and Luoyang fell. Yuan Hao fled and

8475-416: The emperor's unwillingness to advance past this line caused the destruction of the empire's ally, Xia , by the Wei. The emperor was to repeat this mistake as several northern states such as Northern Yan who had offered to ally with Liu Song against Wei were declined, eventually leading to Wei's unification of the North in 439. In 450, Emperor Wen attempted to destroy the Northern Wei by himself and launched

8588-481: The first since the Han dynasty. In 423, a defence line over 2,000 li (1,080 kilometres (670 mi)) long was built; its path roughly followed the old Zhao wall from Chicheng County in Hebei Province to Wuyuan County, Inner Mongolia . In 446, 100,000 men were put to work building an inner wall from Yanqing , passing south of the Wei capital Pingcheng , and ending up near Pingguan on the eastern bank of

8701-502: The fortress of Zhongli (鍾離, in modern Bengbu ), However, they were defeated by a Liang army commanded by Wei Rui and Cao Jingzong , effectively ending the war. After the Battle of Zhongli , there would continue to be border battles from time to time, but no large-scale war for years. In 524, while Northern Wei is plagued by agrarian rebellions to the north and west, Emperor Wu launched a number of attacks on Wei's southern territory. Liang forces largely met little resistance. In spring 525,

8814-556: The idea. In 383, after Wang Meng's death, Fu Jian launched a massive invasion of southern China, but was he was routed in a devastating defeat at the Battle of Feishui , in which Eastern Jin troops vanquished a much larger Former Qin force. After the Battle of Feishui, the power of the Former Qin quickly unraveled as various regimes in the North broke loose. In 384, Murong Chui founded the Later Yan in Hebei. Other Murong royals founded

8927-578: The imperial family finally forced the Later Yan to evacuate to Liaoning, while a branch in the south founded the Southern Yan in 398 before escaping to Shandong . With a strong foothold on the Central Plains and the Yan state split into two, Northern Wei became a regional power in northeastern China, competing with the Qiang -led Later Qin dynasty to the west and the Eastern Jin dynasty to

9040-625: The kingdom was split between Liu Yao and General Shi Le . Shi Le was an ethnic Jie who had worked as an indentured farm laborer before joining Liu Yuan 's rebellion and becoming a powerful general in Hebei . In 319, he founded a rival Zhao Kingdom, known as the Later Zhao and in 328 conquered Liu Yao's Han-Zhao. Shi Le instituted a dual-system of government that imposed separate rules for Chinese and non-Chinese, and managed to control much of northern China. After his death, his sons were locked in

9153-589: The local communities relied on the magnates to direct their defense after the 311 sack of Luoyang . Oaths were pledged in alliances between paramount commanders who joined their fortress villages together in leagues. The magnates retained the services and fealty of their thrall retainers after the fighting was over. Subject to the emperor was overtaken by the concept of village membership. Magnates had both unrelated bondsmen, private clients and fellow clan kinsmen in their armies. 50 to 60 square leagues of farmland in Hebei's southwest Taihang mountain foothills were taken as

9266-436: The new Southern Qi dynasty. Upon hearing the news, the Northern Wei emperor prepared to invade under the pretext of installing Liu Chang, son of Emperor Wen of Song who had been in exile in Wei since 465 AD. Wei troops began to attack Shouyang but could not take the city. The Southern Qi began to fortify their capital, Jiankang in order to prevent further Wei raids. Multiple sieges and skirmishes were fought until 481 but

9379-512: The northeast, although in summer 526, Shouyang fell to Liang troops after Emperor Wu successfully reemployed the damming strategy. For the next several years, Liang continued to make minor gains on the borders with Northern Wei. In 528, after a coup in Northern Wei, with the warlord Erzhu Rong overthrowing Empress Dowager Hu, a number of Northern Wei officials, including Yuan Yue, Yuan Yu, and Yuan Hao fled and surrendered territories they controlled to Liang. In winter 528, Emperor Wu created Yuan Hao

9492-466: The northern steppes. Others such as the Di and Qiang were farmers and herders from the mountains of western Sichuan of southwest China . As migrants, they lived among ethnic Han and were sinified to varying degrees. Many worked as farm laborers. Some attained official positions in the court and military. They also faced discrimination and retained clan and tribal affiliations. The Han dynasty's defeat of

9605-404: The path of any Liu Song relief force for Hulao. In summer 423, Hulao fell. The campaign then ceased, with Northern Wei now in control of much of modern Henan and western Shandong. Emperor Wen of Song continued the northern campaigns of his father. In 430, under the able general Dao Yanzhi, Liu Song recovered the four cities of Luoyang, Hulao, Huatai and Qiao'ao south of the Yellow River. However,

9718-538: The reforms. These institutional infrastructures erected by the Northern Wei state survived the fall of the dynasty and paved the way for China's eventual unification in 589 AD under the Sui dynasty. The Northern Wei used the previous dynasties' Nine-rank system as a way of assigning official positions to wealthy and prestigious Han Chinese families, according to hereditary rank. Officials were also given considerable autonomy, such as appointing subordinate officials. During

9831-422: The reign of Emperor Daowu (386–409), the total number of deported people from the regions east of Taihangshan (the former Later Yan territory) to Datong was estimated to be around 460,000. Deportations typically took place once a new piece of territory had been conquered. As the Northern Wei state grew, the emperors' desire for Han Chinese institutions and advisors grew. Cui Hao (381–450), an advisor at

9944-467: The sage was bestowed on Kong Sheng (孔乘) who was Confucius's scion in the 28th generation in 472 by Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei. An anti-Buddhist plan was concocted by the Celestial Masters under Kou Qianzhi along with Cui Hao under the Taiwu Emperor. The Celestial Masters of the north urged the persecution of Buddhists under the Taiwu Emperor in the Northern Wei, attacking Buddhism and

10057-495: The south for a time. In 398, Tuoba Gui relocated the capital to Pingcheng , and in 399, he elevated his title to Emperor of Wei. After Tuoba Gui was assassinated in 409, his son, Tuoba Si (Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei) took the throne and continued his father's efforts to consolidate their state. Earlier, among the tribes that the Wei had subjugated were the Rouran . In 394, a branch of them, led by Yujiulü Shelun rebelled and fled westward. By 402, Shelun had conquered many of

10170-425: The state religion. The temples were often created to appear extremely lavish and extravagant on the outside of the temples. Also from 460 onwards the emperors started erecting huge statues of the Buddha carved near their capital Pingcheng which declared the emperors as the representatives of the Buddha and the legitimate rulers of China. The Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of

10283-582: The successor to the Han dynasty . His regime, later renamed Zhao, is designated by historians as the Han-Zhao . After Liu Yuan died in 310, his son Liu Cong killed older brother Liu He and claimed the throne. Liu Cong captured the Jin capital Luoyang and Emperor Huai in 311. In 316, Liu Cong's cousin Liu Yao seized Chang'an (modern day Xi'an ) and Emperor Min , ending the Western Jin dynasty. Sima Rui ,

10396-582: The throne from Emperor An in a palace coup in 403, but was defeated by general Liu Yu . Liu Yu also used northern expeditions to build up his power. In 409–10, he led Jin forces in the Battle of Linqu , defeating and destroying the Southern Yan in Shandong. In 416, he took advantage of the death of the Later Qin ruler, invaded Henan and captured Luoyang, and then turned toward Shaanxi and seized Chang'an. The last Later Qin ruler Yao Hong surrendered and

10509-488: The throne. The Yuan Emperor did not entrust Zu Ti with the command of much larger expeditionary force in 321. A disappointed Zu Ti died of illness. The expeditionary force was called back to Jiankang to quell an insurrection, and Shi Le retook Henan. In 347, Jin general Huan Wen invaded Sichuan and ended the Cheng-Han kingdom. He then launched successive expeditions against northern kingdoms, briefly retaking Chang'an from

10622-666: The time including the Ran Wei , Zhai Wei , Chouchi , Duan Qi , Qiao Shu , Huan Chu , Tuyuhun and Western Yan . Nor did he include the Northern Wei and its predecessor Dai , because the Northern Wei is considered to be the first of the Northern Dynasties in the period that followed the Sixteen Kingdoms. Classical Chinese historians called the period the " Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians " ( simplified Chinese : 五胡十六国 ; traditional Chinese : 五胡十六國 ; pinyin : Wǔhú Shíliù Guó ) because of

10735-651: The war was without any major campaign. A peace treaty was signed in 490 with the Emperor Wu . In 502, the Southern Qi general Xiao Yan toppled the emperor Xiao Baojuan after waging a three-year civil war against him. Xiao Yan enthroned in Jiankang to become Emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty . As early as 503 AD, the Northern Wei was hoping to restore the Southern Qi throne. Their plan was to install Xiao Baoyin ,

10848-603: The west, both under the administration of the Gaochang Governor. Day-to-day administration was run out of several forts: Western Regions Chief Clerk, Wu and Ji Colonel, and Jade Gate Commissioner of the Army. Other Liangzhou states generally followed this administrative system. In 382, the Former Qin ruler Fu Jian sent General Lü Guang on a military expedition to the Dayuan kingdom and promoted him to Protector General of

10961-457: The western border regions. After Qin collapsed and Lü Guang founded the Later Liang, the western border forts and the Shanshan kingdom all became parts of or vassals to the Later Liang. Several rulers of the northern kingdoms patronized Buddhism which spread across northern China during the Sixteen Kingdoms and flourished during the subsequent Northern Dynasties. The Former Qin ruler Fu Jian

11074-603: The younger Fu Jian, who was guided by Wang Meng , an ethnic Chinese advisor, the Former Qin strengthened rapidly. From 370 to 76, the Former Qin extinguished the Former Yan, Dai and Former Liang to unite all of northern China. Fu Jian also captured Sichuan from the Eastern Jin and wanted to conquer the rest of southern China. Wang Meng opposed this move, citing the need for the Former Qin to consolidate control over various ethnicities in northern China, while Qiang chieftain Yao Chang and Xianbei general Murong Chui both supported

11187-580: Was a powerful and influential state in northern Korea and parts of northeastern China at the beginning of the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Goguryeo was attacked by the Murong Xianbei numerous times, and in 342 Prince Murong Huang of Former Yan captured the Goguryeo capital Hwando (Wandu in Chinese). Under the powerful and dynamic leadership of feudal kings, Goguryeo during the reign of Gwanggaeto

11300-577: Was a strong patron of Buddhist scholarship. After capturing Xiangyang in 379, he invited the monk Dao An to Chang'an to catalogue Buddhist scriptures. When the teachings of the famed Kuchean monk, Kumārajīva , reached Chang'an, Dao An advised Fu Jian to invite the Kumārajīva. In 382, Fu Jian sent general Lü Guang to conquer the Western Regions ( Tarim Basin ) and bring Kumārajīva to Chang'an. Lü Guang captured Kucha and seized Kumārajīva, but

11413-479: Was an imperial dynasty of China ruled by the Tuoba (Tabgach) clan of the Xianbei . The first of the Northern dynasties , it ruled northern China from 386 to 535 during the period of the Northern and Southern dynasties . Described as "part of an era of political turbulence and intense social and cultural change", the Northern Wei dynasty is particularly noted for unifying northern China in 439, bringing an end to

11526-481: Was defeated by Jin forces at the Battle of Fei River in his failed bid to unify China, the Former Qin state began to break apart. By 386, Tuoba Gui (Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei), the son (or grandson) of Tuoba Shiyiqian (the last Prince of Dai), reasserted Tuoba independence initially as the Prince of Dai. Later he changed his title to the Prince of Wei, and his state was therefore known as Northern Wei. At first,

11639-481: Was first used by the 6th-century historian Cui Hong in the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms and refers to the five Liangs ( Former , Later , Northern , Southern and Western ), four Yans ( Former , Later , Northern , and Southern ), three Qins ( Former , Later and Western ), two Zhaos ( Han/Former and Later ), Cheng-Han and Xia . Cui Hong did not count several other kingdoms that appeared at

11752-711: Was honoured in sacrifices as was Earth and Heaven by the northern dynasties of non-Han origin. Kongzi was honored by the Murong Wei Former Yan Xianbei leader. Kongzi was honored by the Di ruler Fu Jian (337–385) . Kongzi was honored in sacrifices by the Northern Wei Xianbei dynasty. Kongzi was honored by Yuoba Si, the Mingyuan emperor. Han dynasty emperors, Shang dynasty ruler Bigan, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun were honored by Yuoba Si,

11865-909: Was in turn overthrown by Erzhu Rong's nephew Erzhu Zhao and cousin Erzhu Shilong. However, Yuan Yue realized that the Erzhus then became firmly in control of Luoyang and that he would be unable to defeat them, and so returned to Liang in winter 530. In 532, with Northern Wei again in civil war after the general Gao Huan rose against the Erzhus, Emperor Wu against sent an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei, and subsequently, Gao Huan welcomed Yuan Yue, but then decided against making Yuan Yue emperor. Subsequently, Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei, whom Gao made emperor, had Yuan Yue executed. With Northern Wei divided into Eastern Wei and Western Wei in light of Emperor Xiaowu's flight, Emperor Wu initially continued to send his forces to make minor territorial gains on

11978-407: Was infeasible. Importantly, mulberry land was inheritable because of the long-term investment and care mulberry orchards required. Households possessing slaves and plow oxen were entitled to substantially larger allocations. The open land allocations would be doubled or tripled in areas where the land was less fertile or the population sparse. Sale of these land grants was forbidden, although subleasing

12091-493: Was initially successful, the Yan troops withdrew after he became deathly ill, and he soon died on his way back. Shortly after Murong Bao ascended the throne, Tuoba Gui began an invasion on Later Yan. During the invasion, Murong Bao decided to concentrate his forces in his capital and major cities, allowing the Wei forces to quickly overrun the Central Plains . A disastrous defeat at the Battle of Baisi and infighting among

12204-497: Was killed in flight, and Chen's own army was destroyed, although Chen himself was able to flee back to Liang. In 530, Emperor Wu made another attempt to establish a vassal regime in Northern Wei by creating Yuan Yue the Prince of Wei, and commissioning Yuan Yue's uncle Fan Zun (范遵) with an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei. Yuan Yue made some advances, particularly in light of the disturbance precipitated soon thereafter when Emperor Xiaozhuang ambushed and killed Erzhu Rong and

12317-602: Was married to Zhang Huan, a Han Chinese, according to the Book of Zhou (Zhoushu). His name is given as Zhang Xin in the Book of Northern Qi (Bei Qishu) and History of the Northern Dynasties (Beishi) which mention his marriage to a Xianbei princess of Wei. His personal name was changed due to a naming taboo on the emperor's name. He was the son of Zhang Qiong. When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received

12430-539: Was permitted under some circumstances. Land allocations would be adjusted annually to account for changes in the composition of the household and its number of oxen. Another policy was the establishment of the three-elders system (sanzhang-zhi) in 486, which was designed to compile accurate population registers and to integrate village society into the state administration. In this system, five households were to make up one neighborhood (li), headed by one neighborhood elder (linzhang) while five neighborhoods were grouped into

12543-614: Was said to have acted as if he was still king, issuing orders and demanding respect, and was executed by King Jangsu of Goguryeo . The Yuwen Xianbei group Kumo Xi , who lived north of Youzhou , and the Khitan began increasing in strength. In 414, the Kumo Xi tribes sent a trade caravan to Northern Yan , then joined with the Khitan in declaring allegiance to Northern Yan, and then to Northern Wei after its destruction of Northern Yan. Thus,

12656-463: Was sent to Jiankang and executed. With the Later Qin destroyed, several smaller states in the northwest, Western Qin, Northern Liang and Western Liang, nominally submitted to Eastern Jin authority. But Liu Yu retreated back to Jiankang to plan his takeover of the Jin throne, and Chang'an was taken by the Xia forces. In 420, Liu Yu forced the Emperor Gong to abdicate and declared himself emperor of

12769-545: Was the time of the construction of the Yungang Grottoes near Datong during the mid-to-late fifth century, and towards the latter part of the dynasty, the Longmen Grottoes outside the later capital city of Luoyang, in which more than 30,000 Buddhist images from the time of this dynasty have been found. Towards the end of the Northern Wei dynasty there was significant internal dissension, resulting in

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