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146-602: Anagni still maintains the appearance of a small medieval hill town (424 m above sea level), with small twisting streets and steep lanes. It is built inside Roman boundary walls. The first human settlements date back to more than 700,000 years, according to the dating of some Palaeolithic hand-made fragments recently recovered. Several objects made of bone and flint stone and also two human molars and incisors belonging to fossil Homo erectus have been found in Fontana Ranuccio. The first people known by name who lived in

292-534: A Becket reliquary chasse (one of around four dozen still around) and what is claimed to be a Becket miter. The western wall has a contemporary statue of Pope Boniface VIII looking out over the Piazza Innocenzo III. To the south of the town is the imperial Villa of Villa Magna built by Antoninus Pius , still called Villamagna, where a consortium comprising the University of Pennsylvania ,

438-538: A Central Italian dialect, within the Central-Northern Latian area. The definite articles (the) are Ju -masculine singular (pronounced like the English word you ), La -feminine singular, Ji -masculine plural (pronounced Yee ), and Le -feminine plural (pronounced like the English word Lay ). The indefinite articles (a, an) are nu -for masculine words and na for feminine words. The final vowel

584-450: A capo d'Angiò or "chief of Anjou", containing yellow fleurs-de-lys on a blue field, with a red heraldic "label" , while Ghibellines had a capo dell'impero or "chief of the empire", with a form of the black German imperial eagle on a golden background . Families also distinguished their factional allegiance by the architecture of their palaces, towers, and fortresses. Ghibelline structures had "swallow-tailed" crenellations, while those of

730-593: A 16-hour waking period, whereas other apes are generally awake from only sunup to sundown—and these additional hours were probably used for socializing. Because of this, fire usage is probably also linked to the origin of language . Artificial lighting may have also made sleeping on the ground instead of the trees possible by keeping terrestrial predators at bay. Migration into the frigid climate of Ice Age Europe may have only been possible because of fire, but evidence of fire usage in Europe until about 400–300,000 years ago

876-421: A 500,000-year timespan, and the sudden appearance of the typical human body plan. Cooking makes protein more easily digestible, speeds up nutrient absorption, and destroys food-borne pathogens, which would have increased the environment's natural carrying capacity, allowing group size to expand, causing selective pressure for sociality, requiring greater brain function. However, the fossil record does not associate

1022-479: A brain volume of 310 cc (19 cu in) could have been safely delivered, which is 34–36% the mean adult size, compared to 40% in chimps and 28% in modern humans. This more aligns with the conclusions drawn from the Mojokerto child. A faster development rate could indicate a lower expected lifespan. Based on an average mass of 63 kg (139 lb) for males and 52.3 kg (115 lb) for females,

1168-729: A brief resurgence during the Italian campaigns of Emperors Henry VII (1310) and Louis IV (1327). Since the Pope granted Sicily (Southern Italy) to the French prince Charles I of Anjou , the Guelphs took a pro-French stance. As late as the 16th century, Ghibellines like the Colonna or Gonzaga still fought for Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , while Guelphs like the Orsini and Este still fought for

1314-406: A consequence of a dietary shift to low-calcium meat. Kennedy could not explain why the calcium metabolism of H. erectus never adjusted. In 1985, American paleoanthropologist Mary Doria Russell and colleagues argued the supraorbital torus is a response to withstanding major bending moment which localizes in that region when significant force is applied through the front teeth, such as while using

1460-423: A controversial claim. H. erectus males and females may have been roughly the same size as each other (i.e. exhibited reduced sexual dimorphism ), which could indicate monogamy in line with general trends exhibited in primates. Size, nonetheless, ranged widely from 146–185 cm (4 ft 9 in – 6 ft 1 in) in height and 40–68 kg (88–150 lb) in weight. It is unclear if H. erectus

1606-417: A distinct genus of extinct ape. Homo erectus featured a flat face compared to earlier hominins; pronounced brow ridge; and a low, flat skull. The presence of sagittal , frontal , and coronal keels, which are small crests that run along these suture lines, has been proposed to be evidence of significant thickening of the skull, specifically the cranial vault . CT scan analyses reveal this to not be

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1752-524: A famous passage of his Divine Comedy (Purgatory, XX, vv. 85-93), the new Pilate has imprisoned the Vicar of Christ . The people of Anagni rose against the invaders and released Boniface. The pope pardoned those captured. He returned to Rome in 1303. The old pontiff, already infirm, developed a violent fever and died in Rome on 11 October 1303. After the death of Boniface VIII, both the splendor of Anagni and

1898-569: A group of at least 20 individuals. One of these trackways, based on the size of the footprints, may have been an entirely male group, which could indicate they were some specialised task group, such as a hunting or foraging party, or a border patrol. If correct, this would also indicate sexual division of labour, which distinguishes human societies from those of other great apes and social mammalian carnivores. In modern hunter gatherer societies who target large prey items, typically male parties are dispatched to bring down these high-risk animals, and, due to

2044-1085: A half a million years. Alternatively, a group of H. habilis may have been reproductively isolated , and only this group developed into H. erectus ( cladogenesis ). Because the earliest remains of H. erectus are found in both Africa and East Asia (in China as early as 2.1 Mya, in South Africa 2.04 Mya ), it is debated where H. erectus evolved. A 2011 study suggested that it was H. habilis who reached West Asia from Africa, that early H. erectus developed there, and that early H. erectus would then have dispersed from West Asia to East Asia ( Peking Man ), Southeast Asia ( Java Man ), back to Africa ( Homo ergaster ), and to Europe ( Tautavel Man ), eventually evolving into modern humans in Africa. Others have suggested that H. erectus / H. ergaster developed in Africa, where it eventually evolved into modern humans. H. erectus had reached Sangiran , Java, by 1.5 Mya, and

2190-436: A highly varied diet). Such versatility may have permitted H. erectus to inhabit a range of different environments and migrate beyond Africa. In 1999, British anthropologist Richard Wrangham proposed the "cooking hypothesis" which states that H. erectus speciated from the ancestral H. habilis because of fire usage and cooking 2 million years ago to explain the rapid doubling of brain size between these two species in only

2336-408: A humanlike curvature of the spine ( lordosis ) and the same number of respective vertebrae. It is largely unclear when human ancestors lost most of their body hair. Genetic analysis suggests that high activity in the melanocortin 1 receptor , which would produce dark skin, dates back to 1.2 Mya. This could indicate the evolution of hairlessness around this time, as a lack of body hair would have left

2482-622: A means of preserving its independence, rather than out of loyalty to the temporal power, as Forlì was nominally in the Papal States. Over the centuries, the papacy tried several times to regain control of Forlì, sometimes by violence or by allurements. The division between Guelphs and Ghibellines was especially important in Florence . The two factions frequently fought each other over power in many other northern Italian cities. The two sides were now fighting either against German influence (in

2628-620: A peace, but failed. Frederick defeated the League at Cortenuova and refused all peace offers from them. He besieged Brescia but was repulsed. In 1239, Frederick was again excommunicated by Pope Gregory. In response, he expelled Franciscan and the Dominican friars from Lombardy and made his son Enzo Imperial vicar in Italy. He also annexed Romagna , Marche , the Duchy of Spoleto , and part of

2774-410: A second and distinct wave of H. erectus had colonized Zhoukoudian , China, about 780 kya (thousand years ago) . Early teeth from Sangiran are bigger and more similar to those of basal (ancestral) Western H. erectus and H. habilis than to those of the derived Zhoukoudian H. erectus . However, later Sangiran teeth seem to reduce in size, which could indicate a secondary colonization event of Java by

2920-440: A shift in female behavior which made it difficult for males to maintain a harem, and vice versa. Increasing brain size is often directly associated with a meatier diet and resultant higher caloric intake. Human entomophagy and therefore an increase in protein consumption through insects has also been proposed as a possible cause. However, it is also possible that the energy-expensive guts decreased in size in H. erectus , because

3066-462: A similar activity level have a DEE of 2,450 calories, of which 33% derives from fat, and 49% of the fat from animals. The cortical bone (the outer layer of the bone) is extraordinarily thickened, particularly in East Asian populations. The skullcaps have oftentimes been confused with fossil turtle carapaces , and the medullary canal in the long bones (where the bone marrow is stored, in

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3212-414: A similar reason for the unusual thickening of the modern Australian Aboriginal skull, a result of a ritual popular in central and southeast Australian tribes where adversaries would wack each other with waddies (sticks) until knockout . The only fossil evidence regarding H. erectus group composition comes from four sites outside of Ileret , Kenya, where 97 footprints made 1.5 Mya were likely left by

3358-570: A skullcap in 1891 and a femur in 1892 ( Java Man ) dating to the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene at the Trinil site along the Solo River , which he named Pithecanthropus erectus ("upright apeman") in 1893. He attempted unsuccessfully to convince the European scientific community that he had found an upright-walking ape-man. Given few fossils of ancient humans had even been discovered at

3504-403: Is 84% higher than that for Australopithecus females, possibly due to an increased body size and a decreased growth rate. A 2011 study, assuming high energy or dietary fat requirements based on the abundance of large game animals at H. erectus sites, calculated a DEE of 2,700–3,400 kcal of which 27–44% derived from fat, and 44–62% of the fat from animal sources. In comparison, modern humans with

3650-504: Is Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa, about 1.6 Mya, but evidence of cave use globally is sporadic until about 600 kya. Guelphs and Ghibellines The Guelphs and Ghibellines ( / ˈ ɡ w ɛ l f s  ...   ˈ ɡ ɪ b ɪ l aɪ n z / GWELFS ... GHIB -il-ynze , US also /- l iː n z , - l ɪ n z / -⁠eenz, -⁠inz ; Italian : guelfi e ghibellini [ˈɡwɛlfi e ɡibelˈliːni, -fj e -] ) were factions supporting respectively

3796-532: Is always pronounced in the plural form and usually in the singular form (this is in comparison with Southern Laziale and Neapolitan where the final vowel of a word is usually slurred, unaccented). For those who know Italian, the Anagnino dialect preserves the u's found in Latin; for example instead of the Italian con (with), the people of Anagni use cu from the Latin cum . There are many other differences between

3942-556: Is an extinct species of archaic human from the Pleistocene , with its earliest occurrence about 2 million years ago. Its specimens are among the first recognizable members of the genus Homo . Several human species, such as H. heidelbergensis and H. antecessor , appear to have evolved from H. erectus , and Neanderthals , Denisovans , and modern humans are in turn generally considered to have evolved from H. heidelbergensis . H. erectus

4088-717: Is credited as the first human ancestor to have used fire, though the timing of this invention is debated mainly because campfires very rarely and very poorly preserve over long periods of time, especially thousands or millions of years. The earliest claimed fire sites are in Kenya, FxJj20 at Koobi Fora and GnJi 1/6E in the Chemoigut Formation , as far back as 1.5 Mya, and in South Africa, Wonderwerk Cave , 1.7 Mya. The first firekeepers are thought to have simply transported to caves and maintained naturally occurring fires for extended periods of time or only sporadically when

4234-893: Is credited with inventing the Acheulean stone tool industry, succeeding the Oldowan industry, and were the first to make lithic flakes bigger than 10 cm (3.9 in), and hand axes (which includes bifacial tools with only 2 sides, such as picks, knives, and cleavers ). Though larger and heavier, these hand axes had sharper, chiseled edges. They were likely multi-purpose tools, used in variety of activities such as cutting meat, wood, or edible plants. In 1979, American paleontologist Thomas Wynn stated that Acheulean technology required operational intelligence (foresight and planning), being markedly more complex than Oldowan technology which included lithics of unstandardized shape, cross-sections, and symmetry. Based on this, he concluded that there

4380-585: Is credited with the elaboration and the most complete expression of the theocratic doctrine, the principle according to which absolute rule over every earthly power is ascribed to the Pope. He died in 1216, leaving the Church at the historical peak of its power. Innocent III's efforts were taken up by Gregory IX , who belonged to the powerful Family of Conti di Anagni. On September 29, 1227 in Anagni's Cathedral he excommunicated Emperor Frederick II , who had abandoned

4526-592: Is debated if the H. e. pekinensis inhabitants of Zhoukoudian , Northern China, were capable of controlling fires as early as 770 kya to stay warm in what may have been a relatively cold climate. In 1962, a 366 cm × 427 cm × 30 cm (12 ft × 14 ft × 1 ft) circle made with volcanic rocks was discovered in Olduvai Gorge . At 61–76 cm (2–2.5 ft) intervals, rocks were piled up to 15–23 cm (6–9 in) high. British palaeoanthropologist Mary Leakey suggested

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4672-486: Is generally hypothesised that they lived in a monogamous society, as reduced sexual dimorphism in primates is typically correlated with this mating system. However, it is unclear if H. erectus did in fact exhibit humanlike rates of sexual dimorphism. If they did, then it would mean only female height increased from the ancestor species, which could have been caused by a shift in female fertility or diet, and/or reduced pressure on males for large size. This in turn could imply

4818-433: Is genetic rather than environmental. It is unclear if the condition is caused by increased bone apposition (bone formation) or decreased bone resorption , but Garn noted the stenosis is quite similar to the congenital condition in modern humans induced by hyper-apposition. In 1985, biological anthropologist Gail Kennedy argued for resorption as a result of hyperparathyroidism caused by hypocalcemia ( calcium deficiency),

4964-777: Is greater than the range of variation seen in modern humans and chimps, though less than that of gorillas. In an article published in 2021 titled "Interpopulational variation in human brain size: Implications for hominin cognitive phylogeny," it was found that the brain size of Asian H. erectus over the last 600,000 years overlaps significantly with modern human populations. Significantly, some small brained modern populations showed greater affinity with H. erectus than they did with other large brained and large bodied modern populations. The paper points out methodological flaws in current understanding of brain size increase in human evolution, where species averages are compared with fossils, which overlooks interpopulational variation. It also overlooks

5110-534: Is no definite consensus as to whether they should be classified as subspecies of H. erectus or H. sapiens or as separate species. Meganthropus , based on fossils found in Java, dated to between 1.4 and 0.9 Mya, was tentatively grouped with H. erectus in contrast to earlier interpretations of it as a giant species of early human although older literature has placed the fossils outside of Homo altogether. However, Zanolli et al. (2019) judged Meganthropus to be

5256-712: Is not a significant disparity in intelligence between H. erectus and modern humans and that, for the last 300,000 years, increasing intelligence has not been a major influencer of cultural evolution. However, a 1 year old H. erectus specimen shows that this species lacked an extended childhood required for greater brain development, indicating lower cognitive capabilities. A few sites, likely due to occupation over several generations, features hand axes en masse, such as at Melka Kunture , Ethiopia; Olorgesailie , Kenya; Isimila , Tanzania; and Kalambo Falls , Zambia. The earliest record of Acheulean technology comes from West Turkana , Kenya 1.76 Mya. Oldowan lithics are also known from

5402-799: Is notably absent. If these early European H. erectus did not have fire, it is largely unclear how they stayed warm, avoided predators, and prepared animal fat and meat for consumption. There was also a lower likelihood of naturally occurring fires due to lightning being less common in areas further north. It is possible that they only knew how to maintain fires in certain settings in the landscapes and prepared food some distance away from home, meaning evidence of fire and evidence of hominin activity are spaced far apart. Alternatively, H. erectus may have only pushed farther north during warmer interglacial periods—thus not requiring fire, food storage, or clothing technology— and their dispersal patterns indicate they generally stayed in warmer lower-to-middle latitudes. It

5548-530: Is only demonstrated in modern humans. Like modern humans and unlike other great apes , there does not seem to have been a great size disparity between H. erectus males and females (size-specific sexual dimorphism ), though there is not much fossil data regarding this. Brain size in two adults from Koobi Fora measured 848 and 804 cc (51.7 and 49.1 cu in), and another significantly smaller adult measured 691 cc (42.2 cu in), which could possibly indicate sexual dimorphism, though sex

5694-495: Is possible that firestarting was invented and lost and reinvented multiple times and independently by different communities rather than being invented in one place and spreading throughout the world. The earliest evidence of hearths comes from Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel, over 700,000 years ago, where fire is recorded in multiple layers in an area close to water, both uncharacteristic of natural fires. Artificial lighting may have led to increased waking hours—modern humans have about

5840-447: Is possible that male–male bonding and male–female friendships were important societal aspects. Because H. erectus children had faster brain growth rates, H. erectus likely did not exhibit the same degree of maternal investment or child-rearing behaviours as modern humans. Because H. erectus males and females are thought to have been about the same size compared to other great apes (exhibit less size-specific sexual dimorphism), it

5986-466: Is possible that they were the first in the human line to do so, though the fragmentary fossil record for earlier species makes this unclear. If yes, then there was a substantial and sudden increase in female height. Certain features of sexual dimorphism are often identified in the possibility of determining sex such as lack of muscle marking. H. erectus had about the same limb configurations and proportions as modern humans, implying humanlike locomotion,

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6132-430: Is sometimes considered as a wide-ranging, polymorphous species. Due to such a wide range of variation, it has been suggested that the ancient H. rudolfensis and H. habilis should be considered early varieties of H. erectus . The primitive H. e. georgicus from Dmanisi , Georgia has the smallest brain capacity of any known Pleistocene hominin (about 600 cc), and its inclusion in the species would greatly expand

6278-573: Is sometimes not even regarded as H. erectus . It is debated whether the African H. e. ergaster is a separate species (and that H. erectus evolved in Asia, then migrated to Africa), or is the African form ( sensu lato ) of H. erectus ( sensu stricto ) . In the latter, H. ergaster has also been suggested to represent the immediate ancestor of H. erectus . It has also been suggested that H. ergaster instead of H. erectus , or some hybrid between

6424-482: Is the forerunner of the 16th century College of Saint Thomas at Santa Maria sopra Minerva , and the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum Anagni is connected to the events in the life of Boniface VIII , the fourth Pope to be born in the city, and a member of the powerful Caetani Family . He was elected after the abdication of Celestine V , but opposed by French Cardinals and by

6570-409: Is typically exacerbated in dark-skinned people living in higher latitudes due to vitamin D deficiency. Hairlessness is generally thought to have facilitated sweating, but reduction of parasite load and sexual selection have also been proposed. The 1.8 Ma Mojokerto child specimen from Java, who died at about 1 year of age, presented 72–84% of the average adult brain size, which is more similar to

6716-577: The Battle of Legnano in 1176. Frederick recognized the full autonomy of the cities of the Lombard league under his nominal suzerainty . The conflict between the two factions dominated the politics of medieval Italy, and persisted long after the confrontation between emperor and pope had ceased. Smaller cities tended to be Ghibelline if the larger city nearby was Guelph. For example, Guelph Republic of Florence and Ghibelline Republic of Siena faced off at

6862-492: The Battle of Montaperti , 1260. Pisa maintained a staunch Ghibelline stance against her fiercest rivals, the Guelph Republic of Genoa and Florence. Local or regional political reasons motivated political alignments. Within cities, party allegiances differed from guild to guild, rione to rione , and a city could easily change party after internal upheavals. The conflicts between Guelphs and Ghibellines ended in

7008-606: The British School at Rome and the Soprintendenza ai Beni Archeologici del Lazio initiated its first campaign of excavation in 2006. These excavations, which continued in 2007 and 2008, have begun to reveal a large and highly decorated building devoted to wine production as well as the remains of the monastery of S. Pietro in Villamagna. The language, or dialect, of Anagni (called Anagnino) can be categorized as

7154-609: The Concordat of Worms in 1122. Timeline The conflict between Guelphs and Ghibellines arose from the political divisions caused by the Investiture Controversy , about whether secular rulers or the pope had the authority to appoint bishops and abbots. Upon the death of Emperor Henry V , of the Salian dynasty , the dukes elected an opponent of his dynasty, Lothair III , as the new emperor. This displeased

7300-751: The Dutch East Indies . Because no directed expedition had ever discovered human fossils (the few known had all been discovered by accident), and the economy was strained by the Long Depression , the Dutch government refused to fund Dubois. In 1887, he enlisted in the Dutch East India Army as a medical officer, and was able to secure a post in 1887 in the Indies to search for his " missing link " in his spare time. On Java , he found

7446-750: The Hernici . The town was located on the acropolis (the north-east zone comprising the Cathedral, Tufoli gate, and Piazza Dante) and partially defended by walls in opus quasi-quadratum (almost squared work). Recent archaeological discoveries have revealed cultural and economic relationships between the Hernici and the Etruscans around the 7th century BC. In 307 BC, the Hernici, with the exception of Aletrium (Alatri), Verulae (Veroli), and Ferentinum (Ferentino) declared war on Rome. After suffering setbacks

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7592-802: The Papal States , and marched through Tuscany hoping to capture Rome . He was forced to retreat, sacking the city of Benevento . Soon the Ghibelline city of Ferrara fell and Frederick once more advanced, capturing Ravenna and Faenza . The Pope convened a council, but an Imperial-Pisan fleet defeated a Papal fleet carrying cardinals and prelates from Genoa in the Battle of Giglio . Frederick approached Rome. Meanwhile, Pope Gregory died. Frederick withdrew his forces and freed two cardinals he had jailed in Capua. However, Frederick marched again against Rome throughout 1242 and 1243. A new pope – Innocent IV –

7738-752: The Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor in the Italian city-states of Central Italy and Northern Italy during the Middle Ages . During the 12th and 13th centuries, rivalry between these two parties dominated political life across medieval Italy . The struggle for power between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire arose with the Investiture Controversy , which began in 1075 and ended with

7884-482: The Second Sino-Japanese War after an attempt to smuggle them out of China for safekeeping. Only casts remain. Similarities between Java Man and Peking Man led Ernst Mayr to rename both as Homo erectus in 1950. Throughout much of the 20th century, anthropologists debated the role of H. erectus in human evolution . Early in the century, due in part to the discoveries at Java and Zhoukoudian,

8030-601: The Sixth Crusade (1228–1229) while excommunicated. While Frederick was in the Crusader states , this division developed there, and his regent in Italy fought a war with the Pope. That war was ended and the excommunication was lifted in 1230, but the hostility continued. In 1237, Frederick entered Italy with a large army, intending to subdue the defiant cities of the Lombard League . Pope Gregory tried to broker

8176-401: The 10th century, was supported by the ecclesiastic power, which allowed the secular lords to exploit the land and to build fortified settlements for their peasants, favouring new economic and demographic growth. The boundary walls were subjected to rebuilding and restoration in the course of the first millennium AD; but the major re-arrangement took place in the 16th century. During the 10th and

8322-482: The 11th centuries, the city strengthened its link with the papal court: In fact, the popes began to consider the old capital city of the Hernici a safer and healthier spot compared to Rome, which was the place of frequent epidemic diseases. For this reason, even if the presence of factions inside the town could not be prevented, Anagni remained faithful to the Roman Church, becoming one of the favourite residences of

8468-423: The 13th century, in 1270, Ghibellines Oberto Spinola and Oberto Doria revolted against the Guelphs and established a separate government which lasted a couple of decades. Guelph families fled to their strongholds east (Fieschi) and west (Grimaldi). They were forced to cease their resistance after several military campaigns: they were again accepted in the city's political life, after paying war expenses. After

8614-516: The 14th century with the creation of a new situation, where the State and the laity began to withdraw from any ecclesiastical interference. At the beginning of the 13th century, Philip of Swabia , a Hohenstaufen, and Otto of Brunswick , a Welf, were rivals for the imperial throne . Philip was supported by the Ghibellines as a son of Frederick I, while Otto was supported by the Guelphs. Although

8760-562: The 15th century, the Guelphs supported Charles VIII of France during his invasion of Italy at the start of the Italian Wars , while the Ghibellines were supporters of the emperor Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor . Cities and families used the names until Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , consolidated the imperial power over Italy in 1529. In the course of the Italian Wars of 1494 to 1559, the political landscape changed radically and

8906-666: The 1970s, propelled most notably by Richard Leakey , more were being unearthed in East Africa predominantly at the Koobi Fora site, Kenya, and Olduvai Gorge , Tanzania. Archaic human fossils unearthed across Europe used to be assigned to H. erectus , but have since been separated as H. heidelbergensis as a result of British physical anthropologist Chris Stringer 's work. It has been proposed that H. erectus evolved from H. habilis about 2 Mya, though this has been called into question because they coexisted for at least

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9052-518: The Captain-General Andrea Claudio Galluzzo under the custody of Consul Luciano Artusi. The Mayor of Florence established the headquarters of the reborn Guelph Party in the historic Palazzo di Parte Guelfa in the city. Some individuals and families indicated their faction affiliation in their coats of arms by including an appropriate heraldic "chief" (a horizontal band at the top of the shield). Guelphs had

9198-670: The Civic Palace was assigned to the Ambassador of Brescia, Architect Jacopo da Iseo ); Adrian died here later the same year. In 1160, Alexander III excommunicated the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in the Cathedral; in 1176, after the Battle of Legnano , the same pope received the imperial legates, with whom he elaborated the Pactum Anagninum ("Anagni's Agreement"), premise to the peace, which

9344-655: The Crusade that the Emperor himself had proclaimed. The suggestive ceremony took place by the lights of the torches, firstly shaken, then thrown on the ground and finally blown out by the prelates. In September 1230, after the reconciliation, Gregory IX received Frederick II in Anagni, who in the meantime had been able to conquer, without bloodshed but by means of his great diplomatic ability, both Jerusalem and Nazareth . During his pontificate, Alexander IV (1254–1261), Gregory IX's relative and Anagni's third pope, had to face

9490-669: The Florentine Guelphs at the Battle of Montaperti (1260). After the Hohenstaufen dynasty lost the Empire when Charles I executed Conradin in 1268, the terms Guelph and Ghibelline became associated with individual families and cities, rather than with the conflict between empire and papacy. The stronghold of Italian Ghibellines was the city of Forlì , in Romagna . That city remained with the Ghibelline factions, partly as

9636-572: The French. During the French-dominated Avignon Papacy , Pope John XXII , who supported the French-allied King John of Bohemia , excommunicated John's rival Emperor Louis IV in 1324 and threatened heresy charges against the Ghibellines. The Ghibellines then supported Louis' invasion of Italy and coronation as King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor. In Milan , the Guelphs and Ghibellines cooperated in

9782-516: The Guelphs initially succeeded in getting Otto crowned as Emperor, Otto turned against the Papacy, was excommunicated, and was replaced with Philip's heir Emperor Frederick II . Frederick II was an enemy of both Otto and the papacy, and during Frederick's reign, the Guelphs became more strictly associated with the papacy while the Ghibellines became supporters of the Empire and Frederick in particular. Pope Gregory IX excommunicated Frederick II in 1227 for failing to go on Crusade, then again for going on

9928-468: The Guelphs were square. During the 12th and 13th centuries, armies of the Ghibelline communes usually adopted the war banner of the Holy Roman Empire  – white cross on a red field – as their own. Guelph armies usually reversed the colors – red cross on white. These two schemes are prevalent in the civic heraldry of northern Italian towns and remain

10074-529: The Hernici offered unconditional surrender. In 306 BC the towns which had not joined the war remained independent, while “Anagnia and such others as had borne arms against the Romans were admitted to citizenship without the right to vote. They were prohibited from holding councils and from intermarrying, and were allowed no magistrates save those who had charge of religious rites.” Anagni preserved her religious autonomy and strategic importance. Under Roman domination

10220-703: The Hohenstaufen Conrad III was elected, while Lothair's heir, Henry the Proud , of the House of Welf , continued fighting. Guelph (often spelled Guelf ; in Italian Guelfo , plural Guelfi ) is an Italian form of the name of the House of Welf , the family of the dukes of Bavaria (including the namesake Duke Welf II of Bavaria , as well as Henry the Lion ). The Welfs were said to have used

10366-448: The Italian and Anagnino. Some examples include the deletion of some n's, l's, and r's commonly found in Italian. For linguistic historians, the dialect is especially important for studying pre-Roman Italic languages and also the formation of Italian. Like Latin, the v's are pronounced like u's; for example vino (wine in Italian) is uino in Anagnino. Today's Standard Italian is influenced by German, French, Arabic, Greek, and Spanish, while

10512-569: The Tuscan Guelphs finally defeated the Ghibellines in 1289 at the Battle of Campaldino and at Vicopisano , the Guelphs began infighting. By 1300, the Florentine Guelphs had divided into the Black and White Guelphs. The Blacks continued to support the Papacy, while the Whites were opposed to Papal influence, specifically the influence of Pope Boniface VIII . Dante was among the supporters of

10658-475: The Tyrant of Verona, laid siege to the city. The imperial camp was ambushed by the Guelphs and in the ensuing Battle of Parma the imperial party was routed, losing much of their treasury. Frederick retreated and gathered another army, but the resistance of Parma encouraged other cities to rebel, and Frederick was powerless to do anything. The Ghibellines were eventually defeated in the Battle of Fossalta against

10804-540: The White Guelphs. In 1302 he was exiled when the Black Guelphs took control of Florence. Those who were not connected to either side or who had no connections to either Guelphs or Ghibellines considered both factions unworthy of support but were still affected by changes of power in their respective cities. Emperor Henry VII was disgusted by supporters of both sides when he visited Italy in 1310. In 1325,

10950-633: The Zhoukoudian or some closely related population. " Wushan Man " was proposed as Homo erectus wushanensis , but is now thought to be based upon fossilized fragments of an extinct non-hominin ape. Since the discovery of Java Man in 1893, there has been a trend in paleoanthropology of reducing the number of proposed species of Homo , to the point where H. erectus includes all early ( Lower Paleolithic ) forms of Homo sufficiently derived from H. habilis and distinct from early H. heidelbergensis (in Africa also known as H. rhodesiensis ). It

11096-652: The area were the Hernici who migrated from the Aniene valley and descended from the Marsi (Marsians) (or from the Sabines ), at least according to the ethnical term deriving from the Marsian herna ("stone"), that is: "Those who live on the stony hills". Only two words remain of their language: Samentum , a strip of sacrificial skin, and Bututti , a sort of funeral lament. Anagni was an important city and spiritual centre of

11242-532: The army of Bologna. Enzo was captured and imprisoned until his death. Although the Ghibellines started recovering, defeating the Guelphs in the Battle of Cingoli , Frederick by then was ill. By the time he died, his son Conrad IV had reconquered much of his possessions. This brought peace to Italy for a few years. After the death of Frederick II in 1250, the Ghibellines were supported by Conrad IV and later King Manfred of Sicily . The Guelphs were supported by Charles I of Naples . The Ghibellines of Siena defeated

11388-454: The basic cranial features are maintained. In a wider sense, H. erectus had mostly been replaced by H. heidelbergensis by about 300 kya, with possible late survival of H. erectus soloensis in Java an estimated 117-108 kya. Homo erectus is the most long-lived species of Homo , having survived for almost two million years. By contrast, Homo sapiens emerged about a third of a million years ago. Regarding many archaic humans , there

11534-562: The belief that modern humans first evolved in Asia was widely accepted. A few naturalists— Charles Darwin the most prominent among them—theorized that humans' earliest ancestors were African. Darwin had pointed out that chimpanzees and gorillas , humans ' closest relatives, evolved and exist only in Africa. Darwin did not include orangutans among the great apes of the Old World, likely because he thought of orangutans as primitive humans rather than apes. While Darwin considered Africa as

11680-576: The case of the Guelphs) or against the temporal power of the Pope (in the case of the Ghibellines). In Florence and elsewhere, the Guelphs usually included merchants and burghers, while the Ghibellines tended to be noblemen. To identify themselves, people adopted distinctive customs such as wearing a feather on a particular side of their hats, or cutting fruit a particular way, according to their affiliation. The conflict between Guelphs and Ghibellines

11826-481: The case. However, the squamous part of occipital bone , particularly the internal occipital crest , at the rear of the skull is notably thicker than that of modern humans, likely a basal (ancestral) trait. The fossil record indicates that H. erectus was the first human species to have featured a projecting nose, which is generally thought to have evolved in response to breathing dry air in order to retain moisture. American psychologist Lucia Jacobs hypothesized that

11972-609: The city were abandoned. Anagni was a diocese , the seat of a bishop, since the 5th century. In the 9th century, the first Cathedral was built on the ruins of the temple dedicated to the Goddess Ceres . This cathedral, including a hospice , was rebuilt in the 11th century through the effort of bishop Peter of Anagni , who convinced the Byzantine Emperor Michael VII Doukas to provide funds and craftsmen. The agricultural reconquest, begun in

12118-638: The city-states of Guelph Bologna and Ghibelline Modena clashed in the War of the Bucket , resulting in Modena's victory at the Battle of Zappolino , which led to a resurgence of Ghibelline fortunes. In 1334, Pope Benedict XII threatened people who used either the Guelph or Ghibelline name with excommunication . The term Ghibelline continued to indicate allegiance to the declining Imperial authority in Italy, and saw

12264-485: The city. The great architectonic and urbanistic reconstructions began around 1633. The ancient noble mansions embellished by magnificent portals were restructured and, toward the end of the 19th century, also the cultural level of the city rose again, thanks to the growing welfare. Other institutions and congregations were born, which, together with the constitution of various schools, made Anagni an important centre of study thanks to its long cultural tradition. In 1890, in

12410-671: The creation of the Golden Ambrosian Republic in 1447. However, over the next few years they engaged in intense disputes. After the initial leadership of the Ghibellines, the Guelphs seized power at the election of the Captains and Defenders of the Liberty of Milan. The Guelph government became increasingly autocratic, leading to a Ghibelline conspiracy led by Giorgio Lampugnino and Teodoro Bossi. It failed, and many Ghibellines were massacred in 1449. Others fled, including

12556-403: The daily energy expenditure (DEE)—the amount of calories metabolized in one day—was estimated to be about 2271.8 and 1909.5 kcal , respectively. This is similar to that of earlier Homo , despite a marked increase in activity and migratory capacity, likely because the longer legs of H. erectus were more energy-efficient in long-distance movement. Nonetheless, the estimate for H. erectus females

12702-605: The dialect of Anagni and the others of central Italy (south of Rome, west of the Apennines, and north of Campania) are relatively considered solely Latin and pre-Italic, due to the limited settlement of foreign people in the area. Anagni is twinned with: Part of "The Shield of Time" by American Science Fiction writer Poul Anderson is set in 12th Century Anagni, seen by a modern American time traveler. Homo erectus Homo erectus ( / ˌ h oʊ m oʊ ə ˈ r ɛ k t ə s / lit.   ' upright man ' )

12848-442: The diet of these hominins. At the 1.5 Mya Trinil H. K. site, Java, H. erectus likely gathered fish and shellfish. Dentally, H. erectus mouths were not as versatile as those of ancestor species, capable of processing a narrower range of foods. However, tools were likely used to process hard foods, thus affecting the chewing apparatus. This combination may have instead increased dietary flexibility (though this does not equate to

12994-603: The division between Guelphs and Ghibellines became irrelevant. This became evident with the election of Pope Paul V (1605), the first to bear the "Ghibelline" Reichsadler in chief on his Papal coat of arms . On 25 March 2015, the Parte Guelfa was reconstituted as a Christian order and archconfraternity to serve the Catholic Church and the Catholic Archdiocese of Florence, guided by

13140-521: The dreams of power of the Caetani Family collapsed and the doctrine of ultimate papal suzerainty was weakened. The transfer of the papal court to Avignon marked for Anagni the beginning of a long decline lasting through the entire 15th century. The town was sacked by the troops of Duke Werner von Urslingen in 1348, and depopulated. In 1556, Anagni became a battlefield in the conflict between Pope Paul IV and King Philip II of Spain , when it

13286-445: The emergence of H. erectus with fire usage nor with any technological breakthrough for that matter, and cooking likely did not become a common practice until after 400 kya. Java Man's dispersal through Southeast Asia coincides with the extirpation of the giant turtle Megalochelys , possibly due to overhunting as the turtle would have been an easy, slow-moving target which could have been stored for quite some time. H. erectus

13432-479: The eyes, and transitions into a bar covering the ears, connecting all the way in the back of the skull, meaning blows to any of these regions can be effectively dissipated across the skull; and the sagittal keel protects the top of the braincase. Many skullcaps bear usually debilitating fractures, such as the Peking Man skull X, yet they can show signs of surviving and healing. Anthropologist Peter Brown suggested

13578-415: The fact that some modern populations have not seen any dramatic brain size increase relative to H. erectus with most of the increase occurring in northern populations, which has the result of obscuring interpopulational variation. As the authors write '...the increase in the mean of H. sapiens cranial capacity is to a large extent due to an increase in the upper limit with a much less pronounced increase in

13724-412: The faster brain growth trajectory of great apes than modern humans. This indicates that H. erectus was probably not cognitively comparable to modern humans, and that secondary altriciality —an extended childhood and long period of dependency due to the great amount of time required for brain maturation—evolved much later in human evolution, perhaps in the modern human/Neanderthal last common ancestor. It

13870-452: The first in the Homo lineage. H. erectus tracks near Ileret , Kenya, also indicate a human gait . A humanlike shoulder suggests an ability for high speed throwing. It was once thought that Turkana boy had 6 lumbar vertebra instead of the 5 seen in modern humans and 11 instead of 12 thoracic vertebrae , but this has since been revised, and the specimen is now considered to have exhibited

14016-492: The garrison massacred. The Pope made another treaty but he immediately broke it and continued to back the Guelphs. The Pope supported Henry Raspe, Landgrave of Thuringia as King of the Romans and soon plotted to have Frederick killed. After an attempted assassination failed, the pope fled to Liguria . Soon the tide turned against the imperial party. The Lombard city of Parma rebelled. Enzo – who had not been present – asked his father for help. Frederick and Ezzelino III da Romano ,

14162-646: The heated ecclesiological dispute raised by the University of Paris against the Mendicant Orders. The leader of this dispute, William of Saint-Amour , had published an anti-mendicant pamphlet, De periculis novissimorum temporum ( On the Dangers of the Last Days ) between the fall of 1255 and spring of 1256. Alexander officially condemned the work in Anagni on October 5, 1256. In 1255 Clare of Assisi

14308-468: The house of Hohenstaufen , who were allied with and related to the old dynasty. Out of fear of the Hohenstaufen, Lothair III placed himself under the pope's protection. To this end, he ceded all Imperial rights to the pope under Henry V's Concordat of Worms . War then broke out in Germany between those who supported the Hohenstaufen, and those who were aligned to Lothair and the pope. Upon Lothair's death,

14454-467: The imperial party, while the Guelphs supported the pope. Cities more directly threatened by the enlargement of the Papal States tended to align with the Ghibelline faction, while the cities that wanted more autonomy from the Empire tended to belong to the Guelph faction. The clash between the municipalities of Northern Italy and imperial power originated in the struggle for investitures . The Guelph Lombard League defeated Emperor Frederick Barbarossa at

14600-509: The increasing dependence on meat. With an emphasis on teamwork, division of labor, and food sharing, hunting and gathering was a dramatically different subsistence strategy from previous modes. H. erectus sites frequently are associated with assemblages of medium- to large-sized game, namely elephants , rhinos , hippos , bovines , and boars . H. erectus would have had considerable leftovers, potentially pointing to food sharing or long-term food preservation (such as by drying) if most of

14746-752: The kill was indeed utilized. It is possible that H. erectus grew to become quite dependent on large-animal meat, and the disappearance of H. erectus from the Levant is correlated with the local extinction of the straight-tusked elephant . Nonetheless, H. erectus diet likely varied widely depending upon location. For example, at the 780 kya Gesher Benot Ya'aqov site, Israel, the inhabitants gathered and ate 55 different types of fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts, and tubers, and it appears that they used fire to roast certain plant materials that otherwise would have been inedible; they also consumed amphibians, reptiles, birds, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, in addition to

14892-400: The large ape gut is used to synthesize fat by fermenting plant matter, which was replaced by dietary animal fat, allowing more energy to be diverted to brain growth. This would have increased brain size indirectly while maintaining the same caloric requirements of ancestor species. H. erectus may have also been the first to use a hunting and gathering food collecting strategy as a response to

15038-596: The largest scale." (1889, pp. 155–156). In 1949, the species was reported in Swartkrans Cave, South Africa, by South African paleoanthropologists Robert Broom and John Talbot Robinson , who described it as " Telanthropus capensis ". Homo fossils have also been reported from nearby caves, but their species designation has been a tumultuous discussion. A few North African sites have additionally yielded H. erectus remains, which at first were classified as " Atlantanthropus mauritanicus " in 1951. Beginning in

15184-552: The limbs) is extremely narrowed (medullary stenosis ). This degree of thickening is usually exhibited in semi-aquatic animals which used their heavy ( pachyosteosclerotic ) bones as ballasts to help them sink, induced by hypothyroidism . Male specimens have thicker cortical bone than females. It is largely unclear what function this could have served. All pathological inducers would leave scarring or some other indicator not normally exhibited in H. erectus . Before more complete skeletons were discovered, Weidenreich suggested H. erectus

15330-415: The low success rate, female parties focus on more predictable foods. Based on modern day savanna chimp and baboon group composition and behavior, H. erectus ergaster may have lived in large, multi-male groups in order to defend against large savanna predators in the open and exposed environment. However, dispersal patterns indicate that H. erectus generally avoided areas with high carnivore density. It

15476-424: The lower limit relative to our H. erectus sample. And this increase in the upper limit seems to be more pronounced in northern populations – which may be a result of correlated increases in body size in addition to climatic factors. Consequently, the authors argue that purely based on brain size similarities, Asian H. erectus could be re-classified as a subspecies of H. sapiens , that is H. sapiens soloensis - as

15622-661: The most probable birthplace of human ancestors, he also made the following statement about the geographic location of human origins in his book The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex : "... it is useless to speculate on this subject; for two or three anthropomorphous apes, one the Dryopithecus …, existed in Europe during the Miocene age; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample time for migration on

15768-521: The most productive H. erectus site in the world. Continued interest in Java led to further H. erectus fossil discoveries at Ngandong ( Solo Man ) in 1931, Mojokerto (Java Man) in 1936, and Sangiran (Java Man) in 1937. The Sangiran site yielded the best preserved Java Man skull. German paleoanthropologist Franz Weidenreich provided much of the detailed description of the Chinese specimens in several monographs. The original specimens were lost during

15914-402: The mouth as a third hand to carry objects. In 2004, Noel Boaz and Russel Ciochon suggested it was a result of a cultural practice, wherein H. erectus would fight each other with fists, stones, or clubs to settle disputes or battle for mates, since the skull is reinforced in key areas. The mandible is quite robust, capable of absorbing heavy blows (no "glass jaw"); the heavy brow ridge protects

16060-564: The name as a rallying cry during the Siege of Weinsberg in 1140, in which the rival Hohenstaufens (led by Conrad III) used "Wibellingen" (the name of a castle today known as Waiblingen , as their cry; "Wibellingen" subsequently became Ghibellino in Italian). Thus, the Hohenstaufen faction became known as the Ghibellines and the Welfs eventually became known as the Guelphs. The Ghibellines were

16206-409: The nighttime temperature can drop to 10 or 5 °C (50 or 41 °F)—so they may have required hair to stay warm, unlike early Homo which inhabited lower, hotter elevations. Populations in higher latitudes potentially developed lighter skin to prevent vitamin D deficiency . A 500–300 kya H. erectus specimen from Turkey was diagnosed with the earliest known case of tuberculous meningitis , which

16352-403: The opportunity arose. Maintaining fires would require firekeepers to have knowledge of slow-burning materials such as dung. Fire becomes markedly more abundant in the wider archaeological record after 400,000–300,000 years ago, which can be explained as some advancement in fire management techniques took place at this time or human ancestors only opportunistically used fire until this time. It

16498-491: The pope. In 1303, the king's advisor Guillaume de Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna led a band of two thousand mercenaries on horse and foot. They joined locals in an attack on the palaces of the pope and his nephew at Anagni. The Pope's attendants and his nephew Francesco all soon fled; only the Spaniard Pedro Rodríguez , Cardinal of Santa Sabina , remained at his side. The palace was plundered and Boniface

16644-455: The popes, in the 12th and 13th centuries. As a result, several events connected with the struggle between Papacy and Empire took place in the city, including some of the most important political events in these two centuries. In 1122, Callistus II promulgated the basic Bull of the Concordat of Worms ; in 1159, Pope Adrian IV received in Anagni, during the siege of Crema , the legates of Milan , Brescia , and Piacenza (the building of

16790-614: The powerful Colonna Family. In 1300, Boniface VIII, set up the first Jubilee and founded the first Roman university, but also began a feud with the King of France, Philip the Fair , who had arrogated the right to tax the French clergy. In response, in 1302 Boniface delivered the Bull Unam Sanctam , which proclaimed absolute papal supremacy over the earthly power of kings. In anger, Philip organized an expedition to arrest and remove

16936-443: The practical application of this is unclear. Nonetheless, the mandibular bodies of H. erectus are somewhat thinner than those of early Homo . The premolars and molars also have a higher frequency of pits than H. habilis , suggesting H. erectus ate more brittle foods (which cause pitting). These all indicate that the H. erectus mouth was less capable of processing hard foods and more at shearing through tougher foods, thus reducing

17082-699: The presence of the Queen, the Queen Margaret's National Boarding-house for the education of the orphan-girls of grammar school teachers was opened. In 1897, the Jesuit Collegio Leoniano, entitled to the pontiff Leo XIII , was also opened. Finally, in 1930, the Prince of Piedmont's Boarding-house was built for the sons of local body personnel. Since World War II , the territory of Anagni has become an important industrial settlement. Anagni

17228-579: The projecting nose instead allowed for distinguishing the direction different smells come from (stereo olfaction) to facilitate navigation and long-distance migration. The average brain size of Asian H. erectus is about 1,000 cc (61 cu in). However, markedly smaller specimens have been found in Dmanisi, Georgia ( H. e. georgicus ); Koobi Fora and Olorgesailie , Kenya; and possibly Gona , Ethiopia. Overall, H. erectus brain size varies from 546–1,251 cc (33.3–76.3 cu in), which

17374-537: The prominent Ghibelline Vitaliano I Borromeo , who was sheltered in his County of Arona . Public opinion turned against the Guelphs. In the next elections the Ghibellines were briefly victorious, but were deposed after imprisoning Guelph leaders Giovanni Appiani and Giovanni Ossona. After Francesco I Sforza was made Duke by Milan's senate in 1450, many Ghibellines who had fled such as Filippo Borromeo and Luisino Bossi were restored to positions of prominence in Milan. In

17520-400: The range of variation of H. erectus to perhaps include species as H. rudolfensis , H. gautengensis , H. ergaster , and perhaps H. habilis . However, a 2015 study suggested that H. georgicus represents an earlier, more primitive species of Homo derived from an older dispersal of hominins from Africa, with H. ergaster/erectus possibly deriving from a later dispersal. H. georgicus

17666-410: The rock piles were used to support poles stuck into the ground, possibly to support a windbreak or a rough hut. Some modern-day nomadic tribes build similar low-lying rock walls to build temporary shelters upon, bending upright branches as poles and using grasses or animal hide as a screen. Dating to 1.75 Mya, it is the oldest claimed evidence of architecture. The earliest evidence of cave habitation

17812-535: The seat of temples and sanctuaries including the temple of Ceres on which the Cathedral was built. In the 2nd century AD, many linen codices containing sacred Etruscan texts were still well-conserved, according to Emperor Marcus Aurelius . There is a sole survivor of these texts, the Liber Linteus . By the end of the Roman Empire, a crisis caused a collapse of Anagni's population; the lower parts of

17958-580: The site, and the two seemed to coexist for some time. The earliest records of Acheulean technology outside of Africa date to no older than 1 Mya, indicating it only became widespread after some secondary H. erectus dispersal from Africa. On Java, H. erectus produced tools from shells at Sangiran and Trinil. Spherical stones, measuring 6–12 cm (2.4–4.7 in) in diameter, are frequently found in African and Chinese Lower Paleolithic sites, and were potentially used as bolas ; if correct, this would indicate string and cordage technology. H. erectus

18104-584: The skin exposed to harmful UV radiation . It is possible that exposed skin only became maladaptive in the Pleistocene, because the increasing tilt of the Earth (which also caused the ice ages ) would have increased solar radiation bombardment- which would suggest that hairlessness first emerged in the australopithecines. However, australopithecines seem to have lived at much higher, much colder elevations—typically 1,000–1,600 m (3,300–5,200 ft) where

18250-484: The time, they largely dismissed his findings as a malformed non-human ape. The significance of these fossils would not be realized until the 1927 discovery of what Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black called " Sinanthropus pekinensis " (Peking Man) at the Zhoukoudian cave near Beijing , China. Black lobbied across North America and Europe for funding to continue excavating the site, which has since become

18396-399: The town expanded and the so-called Servian walls were modified at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. In Imperial times, many emperors spent their summers in Anagni to escape the heat of Rome, the most notable ones being Marcus Aurelius , Septimius Severus , Commodus , and Caracalla . The large imperial villa in the vicinity at Villa Magna was owned by Marcus Aurelius. The city was

18542-515: The two, was the immediate ancestor of other archaic humans and modern humans. It has been proposed that Asian H. erectus have several unique characteristics from non-Asian populations ( autapomorphies ), but there is no clear consensus on what these characteristics are or if they are indeed limited to only Asia. Based on supposed derived characteristics, the 120 kya Javan H. e. soloensis has been proposed to have speciated from H. erectus , as H. soloensis , but this has been challenged because most of

18688-592: The usual large creatures such as elephant and fallow deer . At the 1.95 Mya FwJJ20 lakeside site in the East Turkana Basin, Kenya, the inhabitants ate (alongside the usual bovids, hippos, and rhinos) aquatic creatures such as turtles , crocodiles , and catfish . The large animals were likely scavenged at this site, but the turtles and fish were possibly collected live. In East Africa between 2.0 and 1.4 Mya, carcasses of C 4 -grazing ungulates, particularly alcelaphins , featured increasingly prominently in

18834-447: The variety of foods it could process, likely as a response to tool use. Like modern humans, H. erectus varied widely in size, ranging from 146–185 cm (4 ft 9 in – 6 ft 1 in) in height and 40–68 kg (88–150 lb) in weight, thought to be due to regional differences in climate, mortality rates, or nutrition. Among primates, this marked of a response to environmental stressors ( phenotypic plasticity )

18980-679: The walls and ceiling are among the best preserved examples of Romanesque / Byzantine art in Italy, and form a single iconographic scheme, which includes natural philosophy , saints, the Apocalypse , and the Old Testament Ark of the Covenant . The unrestored Cosmati floor is in excellent condition. On the same level as the crypt is the Oratory of Saint Thomas (Becket), with less well preserved frescoes. The museum possesses

19126-496: Was German naturalist Ernst Haeckel , who argued that the first human species evolved on the now-disproven hypothetical continent " Lemuria " in what is now Southeast Asia, from a species he termed " Pithecanthropus alalus " ("speechless apeman"). "Lemuria" had supposedly sunk below the Indian Ocean , so no fossils could be found to prove this. Nevertheless, Haeckel's model inspired Dutch scientist Eugène Dubois to journey to

19272-401: Was a gigantic species, thickened bone required to support the massive weight. It was hypothesized that intense physical activity could have induced bone thickening, but in 1970, human biologist Stanley Marion Garn demonstrated there is a low correlation between the two at least in modern humans. Garn instead noted different races have different average cortical bone thicknesses, and concluded it

19418-584: Was achieved in Venice in 1177. The 13th century was the golden age of the city. In one hundred years, Anagni produced four popes, three of them members of the Conti family. The first one to ascend to the papal throne was Lotarius Conti, who, as Innocent III (1198–1216), was one of the outstanding personalities of his century, together with Frederick II of whom he favoured the coronation as Emperor of Germany and Saint Francis whose first Rule he approved. Innocent III

19564-558: Was also the summer residence of the popes until recently. It was similar to what Castel Gandolfo in the Alban Hills is to today's popes. The Cathedral, dedicated to Saint Mary, was built in Romanesque style during the years 1071–1105, with Gothic -style additions in the mid-13th century. The crypt contains the tombs of St Magnus of Anagni , the patron of the city, and of St Secundina of Anagni . The frescoes covering all

19710-601: Was an apex predator ; sites generally show consumption of medium to large animals, such as bovines or elephants , and suggest the development of predatory behavior and coordinated hunting. H. erectus is associated with the Acheulean stone tool industry , and is postulated to have been the earliest human ancestor capable of using fire, hunting and gathering in coordinated groups, caring for injured or sick group members, and possibly seafaring and art (though examples of art are controversial, and are otherwise rudimentary and few and far between). Intentional seafaring has also been

19856-495: Was anatomically capable of speech, though it is postulated they communicated using some proto-language . Contrary to the view Charles Darwin expressed in his 1871 book Descent of Man , many late-19th century evolutionary naturalists postulated that Asia, not Africa, was the birthplace of humankind as it is midway between Europe and America, providing optimal dispersal routes throughout the world (the Out of Asia theory ). Among these

20002-566: Was besieged by the Spanish army under the Duke of Alba . After a bombardment by the Spanish, the papal troops abandoned their positions and the Spanish put the town to the sack on 15 September. The damage suffered by the town, in particular by the town walls, were accentuated by the fortifying works carried out in 1564 under Pope Pius IV . Around 1579 a short period of reflourishing began, thanks to Cardinal Benedetto Lomellino, bishop and governor of

20148-558: Was elected. At first, Frederick was pleased with the election since Innocent had relatives in the Imperial camp. However, the new Pope immediately turned against Frederick. When the City of Viterbo rebelled, the Pope backed the Guelphs. and Frederick immediately marched to Italy and besieged Viterbo . The pope signed a peace treaty with the emperor, relieving the city. After the Emperor left, Cardinal Raniero Capocci , leader of Viterbo, had

20294-570: Was important in the Republic of Genoa , where the former were called rampini ("grappling hooks") and the latter mascherati ("masked"), although the origin of these terms is not clear. Local families like Fieschi and Grimaldi usually sided with the Guelph party, in conflict with the Doria and some branches of the Spinola families. While Genoa was often under Guelph rule in the early years of

20440-534: Was nearly killed (Nogaret prevented Sciarra Colonna from murdering the pope). Still, Boniface was held prisoner and starved of food and drink for three days. This incident is called the Outrage of Anagni . According to a legend, during the imprisonment, the Pope was slapped by Sciarra Colonna with his gauntlet , called the Schiaffo di Anagni (Slap of Anagni). The imprisonment of the Pope inspired Dante Alighieri in

20586-568: Was officially canonized in Anagni. In 1265 a provincial Chapter at Anagni of the Roman province of the Dominican Order assigned Thomas Aquinas as regent master thereby transforming the existing studium conventuale at the Roman convent of Santa Sabina into the Order's first studium provinciale featuring as an innovation the study of philosophy ( studia philosophiae ). This studium

20732-417: Was previously believed that, based on the narrow pelvis of Turkana boy, H. erectus could only safely deliver a baby with a brain volume of about 230 cc (14 cu in), equating to a similar brain growth rate as modern humans to achieve the average adult brain size of 600–1,067 cc (36.6–65.1 cu in). However, a 1.8 Ma female pelvis from Gona, Ethiopia, shows that H. erectus babies with

20878-496: Was suggested by earlier authors. Dentally, H. erectus have the thinnest enamel of any Plio–Pleistocene hominin. Enamel prevents the tooth from breaking from hard foods but impedes shearing through tough foods. The bodies of the mandibles of H. erectus , and all early Homo , are thicker than those of modern humans and all living apes. The mandibular body resists torsion from the bite force or chewing, meaning their jaws could produce unusually powerful stresses while eating, but

21024-509: Was the first human ancestor to spread throughout Eurasia , with a continental range extending from the Iberian Peninsula to Java . Asian populations of H. erectus may be ancestral to H. floresiensis and possibly to H. luzonensis . The last known population of H. erectus is H. e. soloensis from Java, around 117,000–108,000 years ago. H. erectus had a more modern gait and body proportions, and

21170-410: Was the first human species to have exhibited a flat face, prominent nose, and possibly sparse body hair coverage. Though the species' brain size certainly exceeds that of ancestor species, capacity varied widely depending on the population. In earlier populations, brain development seemed to cease early in childhood, suggesting that offspring matured faster, thus limiting cognitive development. H. erectus

21316-500: Was undetermined. Another case that depicts the difficulty of assigning sex to the fossil record is a few samples taken in Olduvai Gorge. In 1960, in Olduvai Gorge two skulls identified as OH12 and OH9, were found to be that of H. erectus with a cranial capacities of 1000 cc and 700 cc. It is unclear if sexual dimorphism is at play here since the remains are fragmentary. If H. erectus did not exhibit sexual dimorphism, then it

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