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146-671: After Mexico gained independence from Spain , it legalized immigration from the United States. Empresarios were granted contracts to settle immigrants from the United States and Europe in Mexican Texas . As the number of Americans living in Texas increased, Mexican authorities began to fear the United States would want to annex Texas. On April 6, 1830, the Mexican government passed a series of laws restricting immigration from

292-409: A part of Mexico . There, Johnson put his surveying education to use. In 1826 he plotted the new town of Harrisburg . He quickly earned the trust of empresario Stephen F. Austin . When another empresario, Haden Edwards, showed signs of revolting against the Mexican government, Austin asked Johnson and two other men to try to prevent a disturbance. They were unsuccessful, and Edwards soon launched

438-428: A Mexican sharpshooter killed Milam; the sharpshooter was quickly killed by Texian fire. Johnson oversaw Milam's burial in one of the newly dug trenches. With Milam's death, Johnson assumed command of the battle. He assigned Robert C. Morris to oversee Milam's column of men. The Texians continued to fight their way from house to house, slowly driving back the Mexican troops. The Texian advance had further demoralized

584-623: A constitutional convention to discuss their status in the new political order. It was a shrewd political move, but none accepted the invitation. However, it became clear to the Supreme Central Junta that keeping his overseas kingdoms loyal was imperative. Silver from New Spain was vital for funding the war against France. The body expanded to include membership from Spanish America, with the explicit recognition that they were kingdoms in their own right and not colonies of Spain. Elections were set to send delegates to Spain to participate in

730-712: A crisis of legitimacy of crown rule, since he had placed his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne after forcing the abdication of the Spanish monarch Charles IV . In Spain and many of its overseas possessions, the local response was to set up juntas , ruling in the name of the Bourbon monarchy . Delegates in Spain and overseas territories met in Cádiz —a small corner of the Iberian Peninsula still under Spanish control—as

876-409: A defense, sending out the Spanish general Torcuato Trujillo with 1,000 men, 400 horsemen, and two cannons—all that could be found on such short notice. The crown had established a standing military in the late eighteenth century, granting non-Spaniards who served the fuero militar , the only special privileges for mixed-race men were eligible. Indians were excluded from the military. Royal army troops of

1022-712: A disproportionate impact on American-born priests, who filled the ranks of the lower clergy in New Spain. A number of parish priests, most famously Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos , subsequently became involved in the insurgency for independence. When the crown expelled the Jesuits from Spain and the overseas empire in 1767, it had a major impact on elites in New Spain, whose Jesuit sons were sent into exile, and cultural institutions, especially universities and colleges where they taught were affected. In New Spain there were riots in protest of their expulsion. Colonial rule

1168-590: A fortified road between the port of Veracruz and Jalapa, the first major stopping point on the way to Mexico City. The rebels faced stiff Spanish military resistance and the apathy of many of the most influential criollos. Frank W. Johnson Francis White Johnson (October 3, 1799 – April 8, 1884) was a leader of the Texian Army from December 1835 through February 1836, during the Texas Revolution . Johnson arrived in Texas in 1826 and worked as

1314-481: A job that would have sent him to what is now Alabama. Instead, he lived in various places in Illinois and Missouri, supporting himself by teaching, serving as constable, or working in a lead mine. He also briefly ran a grocery store and then a lumber mill. Johnson contracted malaria in 1826. A doctor advised him to find a more healthful environment, so he and his cousin, Wiley B. White, immigrated to Texas, then

1460-666: A key factor in Creoles considering political independence. Within the Spanish Empire there was an unofficial yet apparent racial hierarchy which affected the social mobility of those not at the top of society. White, Spanish-born Peninsulares were at the top where many occupied the highest levels of government. This was followed by Mexican-born pure Spanish descendants, who also occupied most government positions, and Creoles. Below this were indigenous groups, African Mexicans and mixed race Mexicans. Many Creole elites deeply resented

1606-594: A legitimate, representative, and autonomous government in New Spain, but not necessarily breaking from the Spanish Empire. Opposition to that proposal came from conservative elements, including the peninsular-born judges of the High Court ( Audiencia ), who voiced Peninsular interests. Iturrigaray attempted to find a compromise between the two factions, but failed. Upon hearing the news of the Napoleonic invasion some elites suspected that Iturrigaray intended to declare

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1752-437: A letter, ostensibly from a friend, warning that 100 armed men would come from Louisiana to reclaim the slaves. When Bradburn realized that the letter was a hoax, he arrested William B. Travis for questioning. He intended to send Travis to Matamoros for a military trial on charges of attempted insurrection to separate the territory from Mexico. Conviction on this charge would lead to Travis's execution. Unfamiliar with Mexican law,

1898-517: A local merchant and boat captain as well as a member of this group, complained that taxes were not being enforced equally at all ports. He intentionally tested the new commander, Capt. Antonio Tenorio, by loading his boat in a way to increase the curiosity of the officials. Briscoe simply loaded his boat with ballast . Tenorio was incensed and arrested Briscoe and his partner DeWitt Clinton Harris. The soldiers escorting Harris and Briscoe shot and wounded another Texian, young William Smith. Travis played

2044-409: A major part of Mexican Catholicism, from preaching and restrictions on villagers to engage in processions around communal land to protect from unwanted spirits caused much outcry and prompted a multitude of legal battles between indigenous groups and the colonial regime through the separate indigenous courts. Not only this, but new laws essentially forcing indigenous groups to learn Spanish in schools and

2190-503: A major role afterward. When news of the arrests was heard in San Felipe de Austin, where radical sentiments were taking hold, the political chief Peter Miller authorized Travis to gather a Texian Militia company for a response. Travis commandeered a vessel at Harrisburg , and sailed for Anahuac with the company and a cannon. His 25-man force quickly gained surrender of the more than 40 Mexican troops. After disarming them, Travis and

2336-401: A messenger to Nacogdoches , requesting the assistance of Colonel Piedras. When Piedras was within 30 miles (48 km) of Anahuac, he sent a delegation to Johnson. Johnson provided him with a list of grievances against Bradburn. Piedras agreed to force Bradburn to resign, and to have the civilian prisoners released to civilian authorities. Shortly after the conflict was resolved, Johnson

2482-416: A royal regiment during the rule of José de Iturrigaray , who was overthrown in 1808 by peninsular Spaniards who considered him too sympathetic to the grievances of American-born Spaniards. With the ouster of the viceroy, Allende turned against the new regime and was open to the conspiracy for independence. Hidalgo joined the conspiracy, and with Allende vouching for him rose to being one of its leaders. Word of

2628-460: A separate Mexican identity, though at the time this would have occurred only among elite Creole circles. Despite these murmurings of independence, serious challenges to Spanish imperial power before 1810 were rare and relatively isolated. One early challenge to crown authority came after the introduction of the New Laws in 1542 by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor . Under these laws, the grants of

2774-479: A standing military in the 1780s began to shift the political calculus since the crown could now use an armed force to impose rule. To aid building a standing military, the crown created set of corporate privileges ( fuero ) for the military. For the first time, mixed-race castas and blacks had access to corporate privileges, usually reserved for white elites. Silver entrepreneurs and large-scale merchants also had access to special privileges. Lucrative overseas trade

2920-666: A surveyor for several empresarios , including Stephen F. Austin . One of his first activities was to plot the new town of Harrisburg . Johnson unsuccessfully tried to prevent the Fredonian Rebellion and served as a delegate to the Convention of 1832 . During the early part of the Texas Revolution, Johnson served as the adjutant and inspector general of the Texian Army. During the final assault of

3066-598: A vision for a sovereign Mexico. Morelos was not ambitious to become leader of the insurgency, but it was clear that he was recognized by insurgents as its supreme military commander. He moved swiftly and decisively, stripping Rayón of power, dissolving the Supreme Junta, and in 1813, Morelos convened the Congress of Chilpancingo , also known as the Congress of Anáhuac. The congress brought together representatives of

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3212-482: Is further emphasized to mandate December 12, the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe, as a day to honor her. A provision of key importance to dark-skinned plebeians (point 15) is "That slavery is proscribed forever, as well as the distinctions of caste [race], so that all shall be equal; and that the only distinction between one American and another shall be that between vice and virtue.". Also important for Morelos's vision of

3358-544: Is now considered the father of Mexican independence. His uprising on 16 September 1810 is considered the spark igniting the Mexican War of Independence. He inspired tens of thousands of ordinary men to follow him, but did not organize them into a disciplined fighting force or have a broad military strategy, but he did want to destroy the old order. Fellow insurgent leader and second in command, Ignacio Allende , said of Hidalgo, "Neither were his men amenable to discipline, nor

3504-426: The encomenderos were to be ended following the deaths of the current grant holders. The encomenderos ' conspiracy included Don Martín Cortés , son of Hernán Cortés , who was exiled, with other conspirators executed. Another challenge to crown authority occurred in 1624 when elites ousted the reformist Viceroy Diego Carrillo de Mendoza, 1st Marquess of Gelves , who sought to break up crime rackets from which

3650-854: The American Civil War living in Indianapolis, Indiana . He returned to Texas in 1871, living in Austin and Round Rock . For the remainder of his life, Johnson lived as a virtual recluse and spent most of his time researching Texas history . In 1873 he helped found the Texas Veterans Association, and he served as its president until his death. Johnson died of cancer in Aguascalientes, Mexico , about April 8, 1884. The Texas Veterans Association lobbied for funding to have his remains moved to Texas, and Johnson

3796-928: The Cherokee . For the next several months it was unclear who was in charge of the Texian army—Fannin, Johnson, Grant, or Houston. After Houston's speech, many of the Texian volunteers began to rethink their commitment to the Matamoros Expedition. Many left the army. Others decided to follow the "new" leader of the Texian Army and joined Fannin at Presidio La Bahia in Goliad. Only 70 men remained with Johnson and Grant. Johnson and Grant settled in San Patricio , where they continued to make plans to invade Mexico. In mid-February, Grant took about two dozen men south to catch wild horses. While Grant

3942-561: The Cortes of Cádiz , and drafted the Spanish Constitution of 1812 . That constitution sought to create a new governing framework in the absence of the legitimate Spanish monarch. It tried to accommodate the aspirations of American-born Spaniards ( criollos ) for more local control and equal standing with Peninsular-born Spaniards, known locally as peninsulares . This political process had far-reaching impacts in New Spain during

4088-496: The Fredonian Rebellion , which was quickly put down. By 1832, Johnson had become the surveyor-general of Austin's colony, and briefly served as alcade . In late May, Johnson became one of the instigators of the first of the Anahuac Disturbances . He joined a group of citizens protesting military commander Juan Davis Bradburn 's arrest of William Barret Travis and Patrick Jack. The settlers were outraged that

4234-415: The archbishop 's residence. A painting by Cristóbal de Villalpando shows the damage of the tumulto . Unlike the riot in 1624, in which elites were involved and the viceroy ousted with no repercussions against the instigators, the 1692 riot was instigated by plebeians alone and had an additional racial component. The rioters attacked key symbols of Spanish power and shouted political slogans, such as, "Kill

4380-477: The provisional government had created a new regular branch of the Texian Army and placed Sam Houston in charge. Houston was given no authority over the volunteers, however, leaving Johnson as their commander. In the relative quiet after the Mexican garrison left, Dr. James Grant began advocating an attack on Matamoros . Many of the remaining Texian soldiers approved of the mission and clamored for it to begin. On December 25, Grant traveled to Washington on

4526-473: The siege of Bexar , Johnson led one of the two divisions which fought Mexican troops and was a member of the committee that negotiated the Mexican surrender. Following the battle, Johnson became commander of the volunteers. In late December 1835, the Texas provisional government named him co-commander of an expedition to invade Mexico. By late January, the provisional government had named several others as heads of

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4672-684: The tierra caliente (hot country) of southern Mexico and to a certain extent in northern New Spain. In 1816, Francisco Javier Mina , a Spanish military leader who had fought against Ferdinand VII , joined the independence movement. Mina and 300 men landed at Rio Santander ( Tamaulipas ) in April, in 1817 and fought for seven months until his capture by royalist forces in November 1817. Two insurgent leaders arose: Guadalupe Victoria (born José Miguel Fernández y Félix) in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in

4818-473: The 1808–1809 food shortage may have been a contributory factor for popular resentment at the political regime. Various indigenous rebellions in the colonial era occurred but were generally local in nature, attempting to redress perceived wrongs of immediate authorities rather than throw off crown rule more broadly. They were not a broad independence movement as such. However, during the War of Independence, issues at

4964-534: The Anahuac area. The current commander was reported as being uneasy about the insubordinate attitudes of the locals, and he requested additional military assistance from his superiors. Tensions continued to escalate as some citizens demonstrated with anti-taxation protests and petitions. In addition, a group is known as the Citizens of Texas began to meet with the intention of realizing these demands. Andrew Briscoe,

5110-514: The Brazoria councilmen, John Austin , stopped to consult Colonel Domingo Ugartechea , who commanded the garrison on the Brazos. Ugartechea recommended that Austin request that the men be remanded into civilian custody. Bradburn's officers explained to Austin and company that the laws prohibited turning the accused men over to civilian authorities. The Brazoria men returned home. After they left,

5256-475: The Brazos to convince the provisional government to support the plan. The Governing Council agreed, but secretly named Johnson and James Fannin co-commanders of the expedition. On January 3, Johnson and Grant left Bexar, taking with them 300 of the 400 men who had been stationed there. This incensed Colonel James C. Neill , who remained at the Alamo to lead the remaining men. On January 6, 1836, Neill wrote to

5402-421: The Congress of Chilpancingo, Morelos was captured 5 November 1815, interrogated, was tried and executed by firing squad. With his death, conventional warfare ended and guerrilla warfare continued uninterrupted. With the execution of Morelos in 1815, Vicente Guerrero emerged as the most important leader of the insurgency. From 1815 to 1821, most of the fighting for independence from Spain was by guerrilla forces in

5548-458: The Hidalgo and his forces surrounded Mexico City, a group of 2,500 royalist women joined under Ana Iraeta de Mier, to create and distribute pamphlets based on their loyalty towards Spain and help fellow loyalist families. Hidalgo's forces continued to fight and achieved victory. When the cannons were captured by the rebels, the surviving Royalists retreated to the city. Despite apparently having

5694-439: The Mexican interior, no Mexican troops remained in eastern Texas. This encouraged the colonists to increase political activity. Soon after, they organized the Convention of 1832 , marking the first attempt to gather Texians from each of the colonies to discuss common goals. A second dispute arose in late June 27, 1835, again over the issue of customs. Leading up to this crisis, a large number of Anglo settlers had immigrated into

5840-405: The Mexican officers discovered that their horses had been stolen. They arrested two local men on suspicion of the theft. On hearing of the new arrests, the Brazoria contingent returned to Anahuac. They camped with other angry civilians several miles from Anahuac and elected Frank W. Johnson as commander. The group soon captured Bradburn's nineteen cavalry officers, who had been trying to reconnoiter

5986-515: The Mexican troops, and a Mexican cavalry company deserted on December 9. Shortly after that, Mexican General Martin Perfecto de Cos sent one of his officers to negotiate a surrender. Johnson served on the negotiating team. The siege of Bexar officially ended when the two sides adopted the surrender agreement on December 11. The Mexican soldiers were set free on the condition that they return to Mexico within six days and not take up arms against

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6132-689: The Mexico City coup ousting Iturrigaray, juntas in Spain created the Supreme Central Junta of Spain and the Indies , on 25 September 1808 in Aranjuez. Its creation was a major step in the political development in the Spanish empire, once it became clear that there needed to be a central governing body rather than scattered juntas of particular regions. Joseph I of Spain had invited representatives from Spanish America to Bayonne , France for

6278-613: The Morelos called for the establishment of Catholicism as the only religion (but with certain restrictions), the abolition of slavery and racial distinctions between and of all other nations," going on in point 5 to say, "sovereignty springs directly from the People." His second point makes the "Catholic Religion" the only one permissible, and that "Catholic dogma shall be sustained by the Church hierarchy" (point 4). The importance of Catholicism

6424-588: The Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence, is an important formal document in Mexican history, since it declares Mexico an independent nation and lays out its powers as a sovereign state to make war and peace, to appoint ambassadors, and to have standing with the Papacy, rather than indirectly through the Spanish monarch. The document enshrines Roman Catholicism the sole religion. Calleja restructured

6570-578: The Supreme Central Junta. Although in the Spanish Empire there was not an ongoing tradition of high level representative government, found in Britain and British North America, towns in Spain and New Spain had elected representative ruling bodies, the cabildos or ayuntamientos , which came to play an important political role when the legitimate Spanish monarch was ousted in 1808. The successful 1809 elections in Mexico City for delegates to be sent to Spain had some precedents. Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

6716-453: The Texian Army, and there was confusion in the army and the general public over who was in charge. Johnson and his men were surprised at the Battle of San Patricio on February 27, 1836. Most of his men were killed, but Johnson escaped. During the next three decades, Johnson alternately lived in Texas or traveled the United States. He settled permanently near Austin, Texas , in 1871 and spent

6862-439: The Texian position. On June 10, Johnson led the men into Anahuac, where they occupied several buildings. After negotiation with Mexican officers, Johnson agreed to release his prisoners and withdraw from the town; Travis and Jack would then be freed. Although most of the rebels left Anahuac, between 15 and 30 of them remained scattered through the town. Bradburn believed this violated their agreement and threatened to fire on

7008-514: The Texian position. On June 10, the insurgents occupied buildings in northern Anahuac. Bradburn worried that the armed men wanted to do more than free the American prisoners; he suspected a full-scale revolt. Bradburn had Travis and Jack tied to the ground and held at gunpoint. Bradburn threatened to shoot both men if the Texians attacked. Travis encouraged Johnson to lead an attack anyway. During

7154-437: The Texians again. With Cos's departure, there was no longer an organized garrison of Mexican troops in Texas, and many of the Texians believed that the war was over. Johnson described the battle as "the period put to our present war". Burleson resigned his leadership of the army on December 15 and returned to his home. Many of the men did likewise, and Johnson assumed command of the soldiers who remained. During this time,

7300-401: The Texians waited for their artillery, Bradburn appealed for reinforcements from Colonel Piedras, stationed at Nacogdoches 200 miles (320 km) north, and Colonel Elosúa at San Antonio, about 300 miles (480 km) to the west. On June 19, Piedras and about 100 of his men set out to support Bradburn. John Austin and his men returned to Brazoria for the cannons. On June 20, he called

7446-413: The United States into Texas. The laws also canceled all unfilled empresario contracts and established customs houses in Texas to enforce the collection of customs duties. Mexican military officer Juan Davis Bradburn , formerly an American citizen, was appointed commander of a new customs and garrison post on Galveston Bay . In October 1830, Bradburn established a post atop a 30 feet (9.1 m) bluff at

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7592-417: The United States, digging for buried treasure or precious metals and trying to sell lands in Texas. His wife, Rozelia, divorced him in 1842. In 1847, he returned to Texas and wooed his former wife again. Her new husband granted her a divorce and Rozelia moved in with Johnson again. They lived together until she died in 1850. In 1853, Johnson moved to Ellis County . He left Texas in 1860 and spent most of

7738-526: The Veramendi house. For the rest of the day, Johnson and his men worked to fortify the Veramendi home, digging trenches and creating earthworks around the yard. For the next several days, fighting house to house, the Texians gradually closed in on the fortified Mexican positions in Bexar's main plazas. On the afternoon of December 7, Milam came to the Veramendi house to consult with Johnson. As they spoke,

7884-549: The [American-born] Spaniards and the Gachupines [Iberian-born Spaniards] who eat our corn! We go to war happily! God wants us to finish off the Spaniards! We do not care if we die without confession ! Is this not our land?" The viceroy attempted to address the cause of the riot, a hike in maize prices that affected the urban poor. But the 1692 riot "represented class warfare that put Spanish authority at risk. Punishment

8030-414: The advantage, Hidalgo retreated, against the counsel of Allende. This retreat, on the verge of apparent victory, has puzzled historians and biographers ever since. They generally believe that Hidalgo wanted to spare the numerous Mexican citizens in Mexico City from the inevitable sacking and plunder that would have ensued. His retreat is considered Hidalgo's greatest tactical error and his failure to act "was

8176-536: The aristocrats and the king himself losing his head in revolutionary violence. The rise of military strongman Napoleon Bonaparte brought some order within France, but the turmoil there set the stage for the black slave revolt in the French sugar colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) in 1791. The Haitian Revolution obliterated the slavocracy and gained independence for Haiti in 1804. Tensions in New Spain were growing after

8322-440: The army to San Antonio de Bexar , where they initiated a siege. On November 6, Austin reorganized the army, forming a new regiment. Although Johnson ran in the election for commander, he received only 10 votes, putting him fourth. Edward Burleson won, becoming the regiment commander. Two weeks later, Austin resigned as commander of the Texian Army and called an election to appoint the new commander. Burleson won handily. As

8468-418: The army. Houston accompanied the army as it marched to Refugio. Once there, he gave a speech and pointedly asked how this small group of men planned to take a city of 12,000 people. Later that day, Houston received official word that he had been fired and that the council had now placed James Fannin in charge of the army. Houston left in disgust and traveled to East Texas to negotiate a peace treaty with

8614-478: The arrests did not require a warrant, a statement of charges, or trial by jury. Most were unfamiliar with Mexican law and assumed that the United States Bill of Rights still applied to them. The civilians congregated several miles from the military post at Anahuac and elected Johnson as their commander. The group soon captured Bradburn's 19 cavalry officers, who had been trying to reconnoiter

8760-655: The autocratic rule of Ferdinand VII in 1820, conservatives in New Spain saw political independence as a way to maintain their position. The unified military force entered Mexico City in triumph in September 1821 and the Spanish viceroy Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba , ending Spanish rule. Following independence, the mainland of New Spain was organized as the First Mexican Empire , led by Agustín de Iturbide . This ephemeral constitutional monarchy

8906-511: The beginning of his downfall." Hidalgo moved west and set up headquarters in Guadalajara , where one of the worst incidents of violence against Spanish civilians occurred, a month of massacres from 12 December 1810 (the Feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe) to 13 January 1811. At his trial following his capture later that year, Hidalgo admitted to ordering the murders. None "were given a trial, nor

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9052-509: The birthname William Lamport . Lamport's conspiracy was discovered, and he was arrested by the Inquisition in 1642 and executed fifteen years later for sedition . Today, there is a statue of Lamport in the mausoleum at the base of the Angel of Independence in Mexico City. In 1692, there was a major riot in Mexico City, where a plebeian mob attempted to burn down the viceroy's palace and

9198-567: The capture of the insurgent leaders, he fled south on 26 March 1811 to continue the fight. He subsequently fought the Spanish in the battles of Puerto de Piñones , Zacatecas , El Maguey , and Zitácuaro . In an important step, Rayón organized the Suprema Junta Gubernativa de América (Supreme National Governing Junta of America), which claimed legitimacy to lead the insurgency. Rayón articulated Elementos constitucionales , which states that "Sovereignty arises directly from

9344-436: The clergy and clerics preached sermons against the insurgency. They were not organized in any formal fashion, more of a mass movement than an army. Hidalgo inspired his followers, but did not organize or train them as a fighting force, nor impose order and discipline on them. A few militia men in uniform joined Hidalgo's movement and attempted to create some military order and discipline, but they were few in number. The bulk of

9490-523: The coast, and most of these settlers lived too close to the coast. Although the commissioner was finally able to grant the titles, Anglo settlers were angry with Bradburn for enforcing Mexican law. In January 1832, Bradburn received a letter listing 10 men in his jurisdiction who wanted to separate Texas from Mexico. From that point onward, Bradburn became increasingly obsessed about the Anglo-Americans and their intentions, believing that every event

9636-514: The collapse of royal government and the military triumph of forces for independence. Mexican independence from Spain was not an inevitable outcome of the relationship between the Spanish Empire and its most valuable overseas possession, but events in Spain had a direct impact on the outbreak of the armed insurgency in 1810 and the course of warfare through the end of the conflict. Napoleon Bonaparte 's invasion of Spain in 1808 touched off

9782-529: The company freed the Texians and expelled the troops. Because Travis had acted without broad community support, he apologized to avoid endangering Stephen F. Austin , then in Mexico City . Austin was the most prominent empresario under contract by the Spanish, and later Mexican, governments to oversee the immigration of people to Mexico's frontier. Later that summer, Mexican military authorities demanded

9928-506: The conflict. After the skirmish, the remaining Texians gathered at Turtle Bayou to await the arrival of cannons coming from Brazoria. On June 5, the Texians adopted the Turtle Bayou Resolutions . In this document, they announced they were federalists who supported rebellious Mexican general Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna . They decried "the present dynasty" that kept them under military rather than civil authority. While

10074-485: The consolidation of loans held by the Catholic Church. The 1804 Act of Consolidation called for borrowers to immediately repay the entire principal of the loan rather than stretch payments over decades. Borrowers were criollo land owners who could in no way repay large loans on short notice. The impact threatened the financial stability of elite Americans. The crown's forced extraction of funds is considered by some

10220-542: The conspiracy got to crown officials, and the corregidor Domínguez cracked down, but his wife Josefa was able to warn Allende who then alerted Hidalgo. At this point there was no firm ideology or action plan, but the tip-off galvanized Hidalgo to action. On Sunday, 16 September 1810 with his parishioners gathered for mass, Hidalgo issued his call to arms, the Grito de Dolores . It is unclear what Hidalgo actually said, since there are different accounts. The one which became part of

10366-429: The council the right to depose the other, and both groups continued to insist that they were the rightful rulers. On January 10, Johnson issued a call to form a Federal Volunteer Army of Texas which would march on Matamoros . On January 14, Houston arrived in Goliad to take command of the army that Johnson and Grant had gathered. On his arrival he discovered that Grant and Johnson were calling themselves commanders of

10512-408: The countryside were not pacified. From 1816 to 1820, the insurgency was stalemated, but not stamped out. Royalist military officer, Antonio López de Santa Anna led amnestied former insurgents, pursuing insurgent leader Guadalupe Victoria. Insurgents attacked key roads, vital for commerce and imperial control, such that the crown sent a commander from Peru, Brigadier Fernando Miyares y Mancebo, to build

10658-502: The death of his brother Joaquín in 1803, Hidalgo, who was having money problems due to debts on landed estates he owned, became curate of the poor parish of Dolores. He became member of a group of well-educated American-born Spaniards in Querétaro . They met under the guise of being a literary society, supported by the wife of crown official ( corregidor ) Miguel Domínguez, Josefa Ortíz de Domínguez , known now as "La Corregidora". Instead

10804-455: The elites profited and curtail opulent displays of clerical power. The viceroy was removed following an urban religious riot of Mexico City commoners in 1624 stirred up by the elites. The crowd, which was mostly Catholic , was reported to have shouted, "Long live the King! Long live Christ! Death to bad government! Death to the heretic Lutheran [Viceroy Gelves]! Arrest the viceroy!" The attack

10950-527: The ensuing negotiations, the Texians offered to exchange the cavalry officers for Travis and the other prisoners. Mexican officers agreed to release their prisoners into civilian custody in exchange for the cavalry officers and for the withdrawal of the Anglos to Turtle Bayou . Although most of the rebels left Anahuac, between 15 and 30 of them remained scattered through the town. Bradburn believed this violated their agreement and warned that he would begin firing on

11096-527: The entrance to the Trinity River. The post became known as Anahuac. Bradburn was unpopular from the beginning of his tenure with those seeking to expand the Anglo-American presence in Texas. He opposed the efforts of the state land commissioner to grant titles to settlers who lived near Anahuac. The Mexican Constitution of 1824 prohibited immigrants from settling within 26 miles (42 km) of

11242-615: The four corners of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas of Guanajuato as a grim warning to those who dared follow in their footsteps. Warfare in the northern Bajío region waned after the capture and execution of the insurgency's creole leadership, but the insurgency had already spread to other more southern regions, to the towns of Zitácuaro, Cuautla, Antequera (now Oaxaca) towns where a new leadership had emerged. Priests José María Morelos and Mariano Matamoros , as well as Vicente Guerrero , Guadalupe Victoria , and Ignacio López Rayón carried on

11388-582: The garrison. On July 2, he released the prisoners to the civilian authorities; within a week they were released with no charges filed. On July 8, Piedras left for Nacogdoches. He gave command of the Anahuac garrison to Lieutenant Cortina, previously the third-in-command. Three days after Piedras left, the bulk of the Anahuac troops declared themselves federalists. The troops were drunk and Cortina, unable to maintain order, asked Bradburn to resume command. Bradburn refused, instead recommending that Subarán take responsibility. After an attempt at his assassination

11534-403: The governing council: "If there has ever been a dollar here I have no knowledge of it. The clothing sent here by the aid and patriotic exertions of the honorable Council, was taken from us by arbitrary measures of Johnson and Grant, taken from men who endured all the hardships of winter and who were not even sufficiently clad for summer, many of them having but one blanket and one shirt, and what

11680-432: The government as a communal vessel. Leading up to the crisis in 1808 both Creole and Mexican-born Spaniards, and indigenous and mixed groups had come to dislike the colonial regime for different reasons. The Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula destabilized not only Spain but also Spain's overseas possessions. The viceroy was the "king's living image" in New Spain. In 1808 viceroy José de Iturrigaray (1803–1808)

11826-399: The image of Guadalupe on their hats. Supporters of the imperial regime took as their patron the Virgin of Remedios, so that religious symbolism was used by both insurgents and royalists. There were a number of parish priests and other lower clergy in the insurgency, most prominently Hidalgo and José María Morelos , but the Church hierarchy was flatly opposed. Insurgents were excommunicated by

11972-524: The independence war and beyond. Pre-existing cultural, religious, and racial divides in Mexico played a major role in not only the development of the independence movement but also the development of the conflict as it progressed. The conflict had several phases. The first uprising for independence was led by parish priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla , who issued the Cry of Dolores on 16 September 1810. The revolt

12118-505: The insurgency had spread beyond its original region and leadership. Hidalgo was a learned priest who knew multiple languages, had a significant library, and was friends with men who held Enlightenment views. He held the important position of rector of the Seminary of San Nicolás, but had run afoul of the Inquisition for unorthodox beliefs and speaking against the monarchy. He had already sired two daughters with Josefa Quintana. Following

12264-556: The insurgency on a different basis, organizing their forces, using guerrilla tactics, and importantly for the insurgency, creating organizations and creating written documents that articulated the insurgents' goals. Following the execution of Hidalgo and other insurgents, leadership of the remaining insurgent movement initially coalesced under Ignacio López Rayón , a civilian lawyer and businessman. He had been stationed in Saltillo , Coahuila with 3,500 men and 22 cannons. When he heard of

12410-527: The insurgency together. Morelos formulated his Sentiments of the Nation, addressed to the congress. In point 1, he clearly and flatly states that "America is free and independent of Spain." On 6 November of that year, the Congress signed the first official document of independence, known as the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America . In addition to declaring independence from Spain,

12556-532: The insurgency, the Sentimientos de la Nación ("Sentiments of the Nation") (1813). One clear point was political independence from Spain. Despite its having only a vague ideology, Hidalgo's movement demonstrated the massive discontent and power of Mexico's plebeians as an existential threat to the imperial regime. The government focused its resources on defeating Hidalgo's insurgents militarily and in tracking down and publicly executing its leadership. But by then

12702-408: The lack of social mobility this brought as only Peninsular-born Spaniards could occupy the highest levels of government. This contributed to their reasoning behind backing the move for independence, to achieve power. They did not wish to overthrow the status quo entirely, as this would threaten their lucrative position in Mexican society. Instead, they wished to move up the social ladder, unable to under

12848-419: The land grants were voided in 1837. As relations soured between Texas colonists and the Mexican government, Johnson began to advocate for war. In the summer of 1835, Mexican general Martin Perfecto de Cos issued warrants for the arrest of Johnson and five other men, all accused of land speculation or attacking Anahuac. Local officials refused to enforce the warrants, and the men were never arrested. All of

12994-400: The letters before delivery. Although settlers at first did not get involved, they became alarmed at learning that Bradburn was taking statements from potential witnesses without allowing Travis, Jack, or their legal representation to speak with the witnesses. Jack's brother organized a contingent of men to march from Brazoria to Anahuac. Anglos began arriving from other villages as well. One of

13140-436: The local ayuntamiento to order the militias to disband; they refused and instead formed their own militia. On August 1, the combined militias ordered Piedras to vow support for the federalist revolt. When he refused, the Texians attacked and the Battle of Nacogdoches commenced. Several days later, they took Piedras and his men prisoner and "convinced" them to become federalists. With the soldiers' surrender and retreat into

13286-581: The local level in these rural areas were so widespread as to constitute what some historians have called "the other rebellion". Finally, before the events of 1808 upended the political situation in New Spain, there was an isolated and abortive 1799 event called the Conspiracy of the Machetes , perpetrated by a small group in Mexico City seeking independence. In the early 19th century, the Age of Revolution

13432-571: The members discussed the possibility of a popular rising, similar to one that already had recently been quashed in Valladolid (now Morelia ) in 1809 in the name of Ferdinand VII . Hidalgo was friends with Ignacio Allende , a captain in the regiment of Dragoons in New Spain, who was also among the conspirators. The "Conspiracy of Querétaro" began forming cells in other Spanish cities in the north, including Celaya , Guanajuato , San Miguel el Grande , now named after Allende. Allende had served in

13578-469: The men were well respected in their communities, and the warrants greatly angered other colonists. This, combined with news that Cos was leading a large military force to Texas, convinced many colonists to embrace the idea of revolt. When the Texas Revolution began in October 1835, Johnson was named the adjutant and inspector general of the volunteer forces, which were led by Austin. Johnson accompanied

13724-506: The mid-eighteenth-century Bourbon reforms . With the reforms the crown sought to increase the power of the Spanish state, decrease the power of the Catholic church , rationalize and tighten control over the royal bureaucracy by placing peninsular-born officials rather than American-born, and increase revenues to the crown by a series of measures that undermined the economic position of American-born elites. The reforms were an attempt to revive

13870-676: The morning of December 5, Colonel James C. Neill created a distraction by ordering the artillery to fire on the walls of the Alamo Mission . As the artillery boomed, the two attack columns sneaked towards Bexar. Johnson led his men along the San Antonio River , and they quickly charged the Veramendi house. Milam's men took the de la Garza house across the street. Mexican soldiers opened fire, forcing Johnson and his men to take cover behind buildings. Milam's men provided covering fire, allowing Johnson and his men to safely enter

14016-465: The movement. The religious character of the movement was present from the beginning, embodied in leadership of the priest, Hidalgo. The movement's banner with image of the Virgin of Guadalupe , seized by Hidalgo from the church at Atotonilco, was symbolically important. The "dark virgin" was seen as a protector of dark-skinned Mexicans, and now seen as well as a liberator. Many men in Hidalgo's forces put

14162-421: The new nation was equality before the law (point 13), rather than maintaining special courts and privileges ( fueros ) to particular groups, such as churchmen, miners, merchants, and the military. The Congress elected Morelos as the head of the executive branch of government, as well as supreme commander of the insurgency, coordinating its far-flung components. The formal statement by the Congress of Chilpancingo,

14308-517: The official record of accusation against Hidalgo was "Long live religion! Long live Our Most Holy Mother of Guadalupe! Long live Fernando VII! Long live America and down with bad government!" From a small gathering at the Dolores church, others joined the uprising including workers on local landed estates, prisoners liberated from jail, and a few members of a royal army regiment. Many estate workers' weapons were agricultural tools now to be used against

14454-507: The people, resides in the person of Ferdinand VII , and is exercised by the Suprema Junta Gubernativa de América . The Supreme Junta generated a flood of detailed regulations and orders. On the ground, Father José María Morelos pursued successful military engagements, accepting the authority of the Supreme Junta. After winning victories and taking the port of Acapulco , then the towns Tixtla, Izúcar, and Taxco, Morelos

14600-408: The political and economic fortunes of the Spanish empire, but many historians see the reforms as accelerating the breakdown of its unity. This involved often removing large quantities of wealth that had been obtained in Mexico, before exporting to other parts of the empire to fund the many wars the Spanish were fighting. The crown removed privileges ( fuero eclesiástico ) from ecclesiastics that had

14746-503: The port of Veracruz and the capital, Mexico City. To avert that strategic disaster, which would have left the capital cut off from its main port, viceroy Venegas transferred Calleja from the Bajío to deal with Morelos's forces. Morelos's forces moved south and took Oaxaca, allowing him to control most of the southern region. During this period, the insurgency had reason for optimism and formulated documents declaring independence and articulating

14892-421: The professional army were supplemented by local militias. The regime was determined to crush the uprising and attempted to stifle malcontents who might be drawn to the insurgency. Ignacio López Rayón joined Hidalgo's forces whilst passing near Maravatío , Michoacan while en route to Mexico City and on 30 October, Hidalgo's army encountered Spanish military resistance at the Battle of Monte de las Cruces . As

15038-471: The rebels to flee north towards the United States, perhaps hoping they would attain financial and military support. They were intercepted by Ignacio Elizondo , who pretended to join the fleeing insurgent forces. Hidalgo and his remaining soldiers were captured in the state of Coahuila at the Wells of Baján ( Norias de Baján ). When the insurgents adopted the tactics of guerrilla warfare and operated where it

15184-413: The regime. Some were mounted and acted as a cavalry under the direction of their estate foremen. Others were poorly armed Indians with bows and arrows. The numbers joining the revolt rapidly swelled under Hidalgo's leadership, they began moving beyond the village of Dolores. Despite rising tensions following the events of 1808, the royal regime was largely unprepared for the suddenness, size, and violence of

15330-466: The remainder of the conflict. The war ended in April, after Texians defeated General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna at the battle of San Jacinto . For the next three years, Johnson operated a plantation at Johnson's Bluff, along the Trinity River in what is now San Jacinto County . In 1839, facing bankruptcy, Johnson abandoned his family and fled Texas. For the next several years, he wandered

15476-485: The residents together, and they voted to oppose the centralist government. Austin invited Colonel Domingo Ugartechea , who commanded the small Fort Velasco on the Brazos, to join their cause. After Ugartechea refused, on June 26 the Brazoria residents attacked the fort. The action became known as the Battle of Velasco . The next morning, Ugartechea surrendered under an agreement that he and his men would return to Matamoros but leave their artillery behind. When Piedras

15622-408: The rest of his life researching Texas history . In 1914, thirty years after Johnson's death, historian Eugene C. Barker edited Johnson's manuscripts into a book, A History of Texas and Texans . Francis White Johnson was born October 3, 1799, near Leesburg, Virginia . In 1812, he moved with his parents Henson and Jane Johnson to Tennessee. Although Johnson was trained as a surveyor, he turned down

15768-489: The ringleader, Patrick Jack. After Bradburn received death threats, he released Jack. Tensions between Bradburn and the colonists escalated. Bradburn strongly supported the Mexican law forbidding slavery . In August 1831 he gave asylum to three men who had escaped slavery in Louisiana. The owner retained local lawyer William Barret Travis to represent him in trying to get the slaves returned. In May 1832, Bradburn received

15914-453: The royal army in an attempt to crush the insurgency, creating commands in Puebla, Valladolid (now Morelia), Guanajuato, and Nueva Galicia, with experienced peninsular military officers to lead them. American-born officer Agustín de Iturbide was part of this royalist leadership. Brigadier Ciriaco de Llano captured and executed Mariano Matamoros , an effective insurgent. After the dissolution of

16060-566: The royal army remained loyal to the imperial regime, but Hidalgo's rising had caught them unprepared and their response was delayed. Hidalgo's early victories gave the movement momentum, but "the lack of weapons, trained soldiers, and good officers meant that except in unusual circumstances the rebels could not field armies capable of fighting conventional battles against the royalists." The growing insurgent force marched through towns including San Miguel el Grande and Celaya, where they met little resistance, and gained more followers. When they reached

16206-502: The settlers were outraged that Bradburn could arrest the man without a warrant, a statement of charges, or trial by jury. Most erroneously assumed they were still covered by the United States Bill of Rights . Jack threatened Bradburn, who arrested him again. Travis and Jack then began plotting their escape. They attempted to smuggle letters to David G. Burnet , a fellow instigator; the letters called on Texians to aid them but stopped short of calling for armed rebellion. Bradburn intercepted

16352-410: The siege progressed, many of the Texians left the army to return to their homes. On December 4, Burleson called a meeting of the troops and suggested that they withdraw to Goliad for the remainder of the winter. As the troops discussed the possibility, a Mexican cavalry officer arrived in their camp and asked to surrender. He explained that Mexican morale inside Bexar was very low. This news boosted

16498-453: The spirits of the Texians, and Ben Milam challenged the men to join him in an assault on the town. Milam formed the men into two divisions, which would simultaneously attack the empty houses on the outskirts of Bexar. Milam led one division, and Johnson, now a colonel, was appointed commander of the second. Johnson's division numbered 177 men divided into 7 companies. They were guided by Deaf Smith and John W. Smith. Early on

16644-618: The surrender of Travis for military trial. The colonists opposed this. Travis and Austin continued active in Texas development. Travis died at the Battle of the Alamo . Austin served as secretary of state for the Republic of Texas for a short time before his own death. Mexican War of Independence Independence agreement [REDACTED]   Spanish Empire The Mexican War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia de México , 16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821)

16790-400: The taxation of Cofradias or Confraternities negatively affected the literacy and living standards in villages. The ruling white Spanish elite and the majority of the country had very different views not only in culture and religion but on the role of government and social relations, with many elites viewing the government as a tool for progressing their own power, while indigenous groups saw

16936-424: The town of Guanajuato on 28 September , they found Spanish forces barricaded inside the public granary, Alhóndiga de Granaditas . Among them were some 'forced' Royalists, creoles who had served and sided with the Spanish. By this time, the rebels numbered 30,000 and the battle was horrific. They killed more than 500 European and American Spaniards, and marched on toward Mexico City. The new viceroy quickly organized

17082-411: The town. The Texians gathered at Turtle Bayou . While they waited for cannon to arrive from Brazoria , the men drafted the Turtle Bayou Resolutions . In this document, they declared themselves federalists who supported rebellious Mexican general Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna . They also decried "the present dynasty" which gave them military order instead of civil authority. Bradburn had dispatched

17228-423: The unspoken racial hierarchy of the regime. Religious tension is arguably one of the biggest contributions to tension before the French invasion of Spain in 1808. Many Creoles, Mexican Spaniards and the majority of indigenous, mixed and African groups in Mexico practiced Mexican Catholicism while the ruling Peninsulares preferred Modern Catholicism . Mexican or traditional Catholicism often worshiped through

17374-478: The upper hand, with military stalemate continuing until 1821, when former royalist commander Agustín de Iturbide made an alliance with Guerrero under the Plan of Iguala in 1821. They formed a unified military force rapidly bringing about the collapse of royal government and the establishment of independent Mexico. The unexpected turn of events in Mexico was prompted by events in Spain. When Spanish liberals overthrew

17520-498: The use of relics, symbols and artifacts where they believe the Holy Spirit existed in the physical form of the artifact, and was a mix of traditional indigenous forms of worship and Catholicism. This contrasted with the view of modern Catholicism that many Peninsulares shared, where God was worshiped through divine artifacts and relics, but there was no religious presence within the physical artifact. Laws prohibiting Lay preachers,

17666-513: The viceroy, and imprisoning him along with some American-born Spanish members of the city council. The peninsular rebels installed Pedro de Garibay as viceroy. Since he was not a crown appointee, but rather the leader of a rebel faction, creoles viewed him as an illegitimate representative of the crown. The event radicalized both sides.  For creoles, it was clear that to gain power they needed to form conspiracies against Peninsular rule, and later they took up arms to achieve their goals. Garibay

17812-499: The viceroyalty a sovereign state and perhaps establish himself as head of a new state. With the support of the archbishop, Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont , landowner Gabriel de Yermo , the merchant guild of Mexico City ( consulado ), and other members of elite society in the capital, Yermo led a coup d'état against the viceroy. They stormed the Viceregal Palace in Mexico City, the night of 15 September 1808, deposing

17958-441: The village of Tixla, in what is now the state of Guerrero . Both gained allegiance and respect from their followers. Believing the situation under control, the Spanish viceroy issued a general pardon to every rebel who would lay down his arms. Many did lay down their arms and received pardons, but when the opportunity arose, they often returned to the insurgency. The royal army controlled the major cities and towns, but whole swaths of

18104-426: The village within two hours. Most of the Texians believed that Bradburn had lied to them just to get them out of the buildings they had occupied. Unbeknownst to the Anglos at the time, the buildings contained extra ammunition and supplies. After hearing Bradburn's warning, the women and children of Anahuac fled the town. Mexican soldiers briefly engaged the men who remained; five Mexican soldiers and one Texian died in

18250-404: Was Hidalgo interested in regulations." Hidalgo issued a few important decrees in the later stage of the insurgency, but did not articulate a coherent set of goals much beyond his initial call to arms denouncing bad government. Only following Hidalgo's death in 1811 under the leadership of his former seminary student, Father José María Morelos , was a document created that made explicit the goals of

18396-638: Was already underway when the 1808 Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula destabilized not only Spain but also Spain's overseas possessions. In 1776, the Anglo-American Thirteen Colonies and the American Revolution successfully gained their independence in 1783, with the help of both the Spanish Empire and Louis XVI 's French monarchy. Louis XVI was toppled in the French Revolution of 1789, with

18542-581: Was an armed conflict and political process resulting in Mexico 's independence from the Spanish Empire . It was not a single, coherent event, but local and regional struggles that occurred within the same period, and can be considered a revolutionary civil war . It culminated with the drafting of the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire in Mexico City on September 28, 1821, following

18688-531: Was besieged for 72 days by royalist troops under Calleja at Cuautla . The Junta failed to send aid to Morelos. Morelos's troops held out and broke out of the siege, going on to take Antequera, (now Oaxaca ). The relationship between Morelos and the Junta soured, with Morelos complaining, "Your disagreements have been of service to the enemy." Morelos was a real contrast to Hidalgo, although both were rebel priests. Both had sympathy for Mexico's downtrodden, but Morelos

18834-482: Was effective, such as in the hot country of southern Mexico, they were able to undermine the royalist army. Around Guanajuato , regional insurgent leader Albino García  [ es ] for a time successfully combined insurgency with banditry. With the capture of Hidalgo and the creole leadership in the north, this phase of the insurgency was at an end. The captured rebel leaders were found guilty of treason and sentenced to death, except for Mariano Abasolo , who

18980-506: Was elected to the Convention of 1832 as a delegate from San Felipe de Austin , and became the chairman of the Central Standing Committee. In 1835, Johnson, along with Samuel May Williams and Dr. Robert Peebles, were named empresarios for a land grant in Texas. Settlers could claim land if they agreed to serve one year of military service. Johnson did not insist that the settlers actually fulfill their promise, and

19126-856: Was forestalled, Bradburn decided to leave Texas. None of the local ship captains would give him passage. On July 13, Subarán announced he would not guarantee the safety of any officers who supported the centralist government. That night, Bradburn left Anahuac; a hired guide took him on foot to Louisiana. Other officers sought sanctuary with sympathetic locals. Historians have discussed Bradburn's role. William C. Davis believes that he "overreacted and made heroes of two local malcontents whose actions their own people otherwise had not been much inclined to sanction". The resulting Turtle Bayou Resolutions , however, encouraged other Texians to follow similar courses. Many communities declared support for Santa Anna. When Piedras returned to Nacogdoches, he discovered citizens were forming Texian Militia companies . He asked

19272-442: Was gone, Mexican General Jose de Urrea led a surprise attack on San Patricio in the early hours of the morning of February 27. Most of Johnson's men were killed, but Johnson escaped. Grant was also later surprised by Urrea's army, while they camped at Agua Dulce Creek . When Johnson received word that Houston was retreating towards East Texas, Johnson became disgusted with the revolution and up and quit. He returned to his home for

19418-545: Was in office when Napoleon's forces invaded Iberia and deposed the Spanish monarch Charles IV and Napoleon's brother Joseph was declared the monarch. This turn of events set off a crisis of legitimacy.  Viceroy Iturrigaray had been appointed by Charles IV, so his legitimacy to rule was not in doubt. In Mexico City, the city council ( ayuntamiento ), a stronghold of American-born Spaniards, began promoting ideas of autonomy for New Spain, and declaring New Spain to be on an equal basis to Spain. Their proposal would have created

19564-399: Was in the hands of family firms based in Spain with ties to New Spain. Silver mining was the motor of the economy of New Spain, but also fueled the economies of Spain and the entire Atlantic world. That industry was in the hands of peninsula-born mine owners and their elite merchant investors. The crown imposed new regulations to boost their revenues from their overseas territories, particularly

19710-501: Was intended for them given away to men some of whom had not been in the army more than four days, and many not exceeding two weeks." The Texan provisional governor, Henry Smith , strongly opposed the Matamoros expedition and loudly proclaimed that anyone who supported it was a traitor or an idiot. Smith then dissolved the governing council, which responded by impeaching him. The temporary Texas constitution had given neither Smith nor

19856-452: Was massive and not well organized. Hidalgo was captured by royalist forces, defrocked from the priesthood, and executed in July 1811. The second phase of the insurgency was led by Father José María Morelos , who was captured by royalist forces and executed in 1815. The insurgency devolved into guerrilla warfare, with Vicente Guerrero emerging as a leader. Neither royalists nor insurgents gained

20002-462: Was not based on outright coercion, until the early nineteenth century, since the crown did not have sufficient personnel and firepower to enforce its rule. Rather, the crown's hegemony and legitimacy to rule was accepted and ruled through institutions acting as mediators between competing groups, many organized as corporate entities. These were ecclesiastics, mining entrepreneurs, elite merchants, as well as indigenous communities. The crown's creation of

20148-598: Was of advanced years and held office for just a year, replaced by Archbishop Lizana y Beaumont, also holding office for about a year. There was a precedent for the archbishop serving as viceroy, and given that Garibay came to power by coup, the archbishop had more legitimacy as ruler. Francisco Javier Venegas was appointed viceroy and landed in Veracruz in August, reaching Mexico City 14 September 1810. The next day, Hidalgo issued his call to arms in Dolores. Immediately after

20294-470: Was of mixed-race while Hidalgo was an American-born Spaniard, so Morelos experientially understood racial discrimination in the colonial order. On more practical grounds, Morelos built an organized and disciplined military force, while Hidalgo's followers lacked arms, training, or discipline, an effective force that the royal army took seriously. Potentially Morelos could have taken the colony's second largest city, Puebla de los Angeles , situated halfway between

20440-470: Was overthrown and a federal republic was declared in 1823 and codified in the Constitution of 1824 . After some Spanish reconquest attempts , including the expedition of Isidro Barradas in 1829, Spain under the rule of Isabella II recognized the independence of Mexico in 1836. There is evidence that even from an early period in post-conquest Mexican history, some began articulating the idea of

20586-531: Was part of a conspiracy to detach Texas.' In June 1832, two of Bradburn's soldiers attacked an Anglo woman settler. Angry settlers tarred and feathered a neighbor who had failed to aid her. They demanded for Bradburn to turn over the soldiers for a similar punishment. After Bradburn refused, local men organized a Texian Militia company , supposedly to protect the settlement from the Indians. Mexican law forbade residents from creating militias and so Bradburn arrested

20732-409: Was sent to Spain to serve a life sentence in prison. Allende, Jiménez, and Aldama were executed on 26 June 1811, shot in the back as a sign of dishonor. Hidalgo, as a priest, had to undergo a civil trial and review by the Inquisition . He was eventually stripped of his priesthood, found guilty, and executed on 30 July 1811. The heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama, and Jiménez were preserved and hung from

20878-407: Was specifically against Gelves, seen as a bad representative of the crown, rather than against the monarchy or colonial rule itself. In 1642, there was a brief conspiracy to unite American-born Spaniards, blacks, Indians and castas against the Spanish crown and proclaim Mexican independence. The man seeking to bring about independendence called himself Don Guillén Lampart y Guzmán, an Irishman with

21024-494: Was swift and brutal, and no further riots in the capital challenged the Pax Hispanica." Food shortages almost a century later, due to a growing population and severe droughts, led to two food riots in 1785 and 1808. The first riot was more severe, but both culminated in violence and anger at officials of the colonial regime. However, there is no direct link between these riots and the independence movement of 1810, although

21170-473: Was there any reason to do so, since he knew perfectly well they were innocent." In Guadalajara, the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe suddenly disappeared from insurgents' hats and there were many desertions. The royalist forces, led by Félix María Calleja del Rey , were becoming more effective against disorganized and poorly armed of Hidalgo, defeating them at a bridge on the Calderón River , forcing

21316-456: Was within 30 miles (48 km) of Anahuac, he sent a delegation to Johnson, who provided him with a list of grievances against Bradburn. Piedras negotiated a resolution of the conflict. Among the measures to which he agreed were: With Texians' acceptance of the terms on June 28, Piedras marched to Anahuac on July 1. Bradburn's chosen successor, Lieutenant Colonel Felix Maria Subarán, refused to take his place. Piedras took temporary command of

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