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69-534: The district includes all of Anchorage municipality. District superintendent Carol Comeau , appointed in December 2000, retired June 30, 2012. She was succeeded by Jim Browder. After eight months, Jim Browder resigned and was replaced by Ed Graff; later in 2015 Ed Graff was replaced by Deena Bishop (formerly Deena Paramo), previously the Superintendent of Matsu Valley School District . Bishop resigned at

138-671: A 2018 study in the Economic Journal , states were more likely to adopt compulsory education laws during the Age of Mass Migration (1850–1914) if they hosted more European immigrants with lower exposure to civic values. Following Reconstruction the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute was founded in 1881 as a state college, in Tuskegee, Alabama , to train "Colored Teachers," led by Booker T. Washington , (1856–1915), who

207-458: A 3% decrease, which matches 2009 enrollment, eradicating the previous decade of growth. During the 2019–2020 school year, enrollment rates decreased by 6% for those aged five, dropping from 91% to 84%, and by 13% for those aged three and four, from 54% to 40%. Summer 2022 polls and surveys revealed that mental health issues were reported by 60% of college students, with educational institutions being understaffed and unprepared to effectively address

276-529: A bipartisan coalition in Congress, provided federal aid to the states in exchange for measures to penalize schools that were not meeting the goals as measured by standardized state exams in mathematics and language skills. This made standardized testing a requirement. In the same year, the U.S. Supreme Court diluted some of the century-old "Blaine" laws upheld an Ohio law allowing aid to parochial schools under specific circumstances. The 2006 Commission on

345-568: A book in 1916 on this "New Profession" and emphasized the role of superintendent as chief executive of schools. In 1914, the US Commissioner of Education wrote that the US was moving "unmistakably in the direction of a profession of educational administration as distinct from teaching." By 1925, journals and books on educational administration had adopted a view of superintendents as executives, as Cubberley had advocated. Education in

414-656: A constitutional amendment to their state constitutions, called Blaine Amendment after James G. Blaine , one of their chief promoters, forbidding the use of public tax money to fund local parochial schools. States passed laws to make schooling compulsory between 1852 ( Massachusetts ) and 1917 ( Mississippi ). They also used federal funding designated by the Morrill Land-Grant Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up land grant colleges specializing in agriculture and engineering. By 1870, every state had free elementary schools, albeit only in urban centers. According to

483-771: A day for children with physical and mental disabilities. The 1983 National Commission on Excellence in Education report, famously titled A Nation at Risk , touched off a wave of federal, state, and local reform efforts, but by 1990 the country still spent only 2% of its budget on education, compared with 30% on support for the elderly. In 1990, the EHA was replaced with the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which placed more focus on students as individuals, and also provided for more post-high school transition services. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, passed by

552-479: A dramatic increase in the number of high schools operating both in Michigan and other states, which led to an increase in the number of superintendents. Early superintendents tended to focus on instruction, with "overall fiscal affairs, school building construction, and maintenance" remaining under school district control, becoming normal responsibilities of superintendents only in the early twentieth century. By

621-529: A greater percentage of the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) than the average OECD country. In 2014, the country spent 6.2% of its GDP on all levels of education—1.0 percentage points above the OECD average of 5.2%. In 2018, primary and secondary per-pupil spending in the United States was 34 percent higher than the OECD average (ranking 5th of 36 countries reporting data), post-secondary per-pupil spending

690-556: A low risk have dropped from 485 to 385. Federal COVID-19 relief has assisted students and universities. However, it has not been enough to bandage the financial wound created by COVID-19. Colby-Sawyer College located in New Hampshire has received about $ 780,000 in assistance through the United States Department of Education . About half of this money was dispersed amongst the student body. Colby-Swayer College

759-420: A successful candidate to achieve. The certification complements, but does not replace a state's teacher certificate. It is valid for 10 years and establishes the teacher as “highly qualified” and a “master” teacher in the eyes of the district and state. In 2009-10, 99 percent of new teachers were highly qualified. The remaining 1 percent were unable to prove their HQT status and were terminated. As of May 1, 2010,

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828-417: A wide variety of post-secondary education. Post-secondary education is divided into college , as the first tertiary degree, and graduate school. Higher education includes public and private research universities, usually private liberal arts colleges, community colleges, for-profit colleges, and many other kinds and combinations of institutions. College enrollment rates in the United States have increased over

897-466: Is compulsory over an age range starting between five and eight and ending somewhere between ages sixteen and nineteen, depending on the state. This requirement can be satisfied in public or state-certified private schools , or an approved home school program. Compulsory education is divided into three levels: elementary school , middle or junior high school , and high school . Numerous publicly and privately administered colleges and universities offer

966-460: Is a condensed version of that 2,000-page document: it is put forward as an annual report to the community. In 2008-09 test scores remained relatively flat. Language arts scores declined from 81.4 to 80.4 percent and math scores declined from 73.7 to 71.4 percent since last year. These scores follow three years of steady growth. In order to make AYP (adequate yearly progress) each school must meet up to 31 specific targets that have been established by

1035-539: Is the socioeconomic background of the students being tested. According to the National Center for Children in Poverty , 41% of U.S. children under the age of 18 come from lower-income families. These students require specialized attention to perform well in school and on the standardized tests. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that the United States is achieving 77.8% of what should be possible on

1104-524: The Common Core initiative. During the 2010s, American student loan debt became recognized as a social problem. Like every wealthy country, the COVID-19 pandemic and Delta cron hybrid variant had a great impact on education in the United States , requiring schools to implement technology and transition to virtual meetings. Although the use of technology improves the grading process and

1173-650: The Common Core State Standards Initiative that had been developed on a bipartisan basis by the National Governors Association , and the Council of Chief State School Officers . The criteria were not mandatory, they were incentives to improve opportunities to get a grant. Most states revised their laws accordingly, even though they realized it was unlikely they would win a highly competitive new grant. Race to

1242-544: The Michigan Legislature enacted legislature authorizing the election of school districts and the establishment of high schools funded by local taxes. In January 1873, three Kalamazoo property owners filed a lawsuit challenging the law. In a unanimous decision of the Michigan Supreme Court in 1874 written by the prominent Justice Thomas M. Cooley , the law was upheld. This decision led to

1311-620: The No Child Left Behind Act . In addition, the ratio of college-educated adults entering the workforce to the general population (33%) is slightly below the mean of other developed countries (35%) and rate of participation of the labor force in continuing education is high. A 2000s (decade) study by Jon Miller of Michigan State University concluded that "A slightly higher proportion of American adults qualify as scientifically literate than European or Japanese adults". In 2006, there were roughly 600,000 homeless students in

1380-529: The OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of American 15-year-olds as 19th in the world in reading literacy, mathematics, and science with the average American student scoring 495, compared with the OECD Average of 488. In 2017, 46.4% of Americans aged 25 to 64 attained some form of post-secondary education. 48% of Americans aged 25 to 34 attained some form of tertiary education, about 4% above

1449-501: The Oregon Compulsory Education Act , which would require all children between the ages of 8 and 16 to attend public schools , only leaving exceptions for mentally or physically unfit children, exceeding a certain living distance from a public school, or having written consent from a county superintendent to receive private instruction. The law was passed by popular vote but was later ruled unconstitutional by

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1518-595: The Pell Grant program which provides financial support to students from low-income families to access higher education. In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act established funding for special education in schools. The Higher Education Amendments of 1972 made changes to the Pell Grant . The 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) required all public schools accepting federal funds to provide equal access to education and one free meal

1587-606: The Race to the Top grant program. With over $ 15 billion of grants at stake, 34 states quickly revised their education laws according to the proposals of advanced educational reformers. In the competition, points were awarded for allowing charter schools to multiply, for compensating teachers on a merit basis including student test scores, and for adopting higher educational standards. There were incentives for states to establish college and career-ready standards, which in practice meant adopting

1656-533: The United States Office of Education was created in an attempt to standardize educational reform across the country. At the outset, the goals of the Office were to track statistical data on schools and provide insight into the educational outcomes of schools in each state. While supportive of educational improvement, the office lacked the power to enforce policies in any state. Educational aims across

1725-477: The University of Wisconsin . In 1911, the idea of the superintendent as a separate professional emerged. The emergence of the superintendency was linked to the adoption of a business organizational model in education. Beginning in 1914, Columbia and other universities began to teach courses on educational administration, including school finance, business methods, budgeting, and organization. Cubberley wrote

1794-402: The high school movement resulted in a rapid increase in public high school enrollment and graduations. By 1930, 100% of children were attending school, excluding children with significant disabilities or medical concerns. Private schools spread during this time, as well as colleges and, in the rural centers, land grant colleges . In 1922, an attempt was made by the voters of Oregon to enact

1863-763: The $ 1.3 trillion in funding comes from state and local governments, with federal funding accounting for about $ 260 billion in 2021 compared to around $ 200 billion in past years. Private schools are free to determine their own curriculum and staffing policies, with voluntary accreditation available through independent regional accreditation authorities, although some state regulation can apply. As of 2013, about 87% of school-age children attended state-funded public schools, about 10% attended tuition and foundation-funded private schools, and roughly 3% were home-schooled. Total expenditures for American public elementary and secondary schools amounted to $ 927 billion in 2020–21 (in constant 2021–22 dollars). By state law, education

1932-421: The 1830s, however, the increasing numbers of students, as well as the consolidation of one-room schoolhouses into larger districts, led districts to begin appointing the first superintendents. Buffalo, New York , became the first location to appoint a superintendent, on June 9, 1837, with Louisville, Kentucky , following on July 31 of the same year. Large cities, which had the greatest administrative needs, were

2001-794: The Future of Higher Education evaluated higher education. In December 2015, then-American President Barack Obama signed legislation replacing No Child Left Behind with the Every Student Succeeds Act . The Great Recession of 2007–2009 was caused a sharp decline in tax revenues in all American states and cities. The response included cuts to education budgets. Obama's $ 800 billion stimulus package of 2009 included $ 100 billion for public schools, which every state used to protect its education budget. In terms of sponsoring innovation; however, then-President Obama and then-Education Secretary Arne Duncan pursued K-12 education reform through

2070-496: The OECD average of 44%. 35% of Americans aged 25 and over have achieved a bachelor's degree or higher. New England encouraged its towns to support free public schools funded by taxation. In the early 19th century, Massachusetts took the lead in education reform and public education with programs designed by Horace Mann that were widely emulated across the North. Teachers were specially trained in normal schools and taught

2139-707: The South. Responding to the many competing academic philosophies being promoted at the time, an influential working group of educators, known as the Committee of Ten and established in 1892 by the National Education Association , recommended that children should receive twelve years of instruction, consisting of eight years of elementary education (in what were also known as " grammar schools ") followed by four years in high school ("freshmen", "sophomores", "juniors" and "seniors"). Gradually by

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2208-550: The South. Religious denominations across the country set up their private colleges. States also opened state universities, but they were quite small until well into the 20th century. In 1823, Samuel Read Hall founded the first normal school , the Columbian School in Concord, Vermont , aimed at improving the quality of the burgeoning common school system by producing more qualified teachers. During Reconstruction ,

2277-701: The Top had strong bipartisan support, with centrist elements from both parties. It was opposed by the left wing of the Democratic Party, and by the right wing of the Republican Party, and criticized for centralizing too much power in Washington. Complaints also came from middle-class families, who were annoyed at the increasing emphasis on teaching to the test, rather than encouraging teachers to show creativity and stimulating students' imagination. Voters in both major parties have been critical of

2346-548: The U.S. and was designed to represent the U.S. population as a whole. This government study showed that 21% to 23% of adult Americans were not "able to locate information in text", could not "make low-level inferences using printed materials", and were unable to "integrate easily identifiable pieces of information". The U.S. Department of Education's 2003 statistics indicated that 14% of the population—or 32 million adults—had very low literacy skills. Statistics were similar in 2013. In 2015, only 37% of students were able to read at

2415-541: The United States This is an accepted version of this page In the United States , education is provided in public and private schools and by individuals through homeschooling . State governments set overall educational standards, often mandate standardized tests for K–12 public school systems and supervise, usually through a board of regents, state colleges, and universities. The bulk of

2484-470: The United States , but after the Great Recession this number more than doubled to approximately 1.36 million. The Institute for Child Poverty and Homelessness keeps track of state by state levels of child homelessness. As of 2017 , 27% of U.S. students live in a mother-only household, 20% live in poverty, and 9% are non-English speaking. An additional factor in the United States education system

2553-887: The United States Supreme Court in Pierce v. Society of Sisters , determining that "a child is not a mere creature of the state". This case settled the dispute about whether or not private schools had the right to do business and educate within the United States. By 1938, there was a movement to bring education to six years of elementary school, four years of junior high school, and four years of high school. During World War II , enrollment in high schools and colleges plummeted as many high school and college students and teachers dropped out to enlist or take war-related jobs. The 1946 National School Lunch Act provided low-cost or free school lunch meals to qualified low-income students through subsidies to schools based on

2622-535: The United States declined from 18.1 million in 2010 to 15.4 million in 2021, while enrollment in public kindergartens, primary schools, and secondary schools declined by 4% from 2012 to 2022 and enrollment in private schools or charter schools for the same age levels increased by 2% each. In 2014, the Economist Intelligence Unit rated U.S. education as 14th best in the world. The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by

2691-466: The ability of the Office of Education to enact change. In the mid-19th century, the rapidly increasing Catholic population led to the formation of parochial schools in the largest cities. Theologically oriented Episcopalian , Lutheran, and Jewish bodies on a smaller scale set up their own parochial schools. There were debates over whether tax money could be used to support them, with the answer typically being no. From about 1876, thirty-nine states passed

2760-427: The adult population had completed high school and 34% had received a bachelor's degree or higher. The average salary for college or university graduates is greater than $ 51,000, exceeding the national average of those without a high school diploma by more than $ 23,000, according to a 2005 study by the U.S. Census Bureau. The 2010 unemployment rate for high school graduates was 10.8%; the rate for college graduates

2829-470: The crisis. A five-year, $ 14 million study of U.S. adult literacy involving lengthy interviews of U.S. adults, the most comprehensive study of literacy ever commissioned by the U.S. government, was released in September 1993. It involved lengthy interviews of over 26,700 adults statistically balanced for age, gender, ethnicity, education level, and location (urban, suburban, or rural) in 12 states across

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2898-639: The district's website. In 2009, only some 27% of students in Alaska were proficient in Reading on the NAEP test. For some reason, though Anchorage's population exceeded 250,000 NAEP did not include Anchorage in its review of Urban Districts. On December 16, 2019, news was announced to all students at the schools serving Subway sandwiches for lunch that the district decided to go with more healthy and convenient options for school lunches, removing Subway sandwiches from

2967-612: The early twentieth century, superintendents emphasized business affairs. Important leaders in American education at the time were George D. Strayer, Ellwood P. Cubberley , and Edward C. Elliott , who all wrote doctoral dissertations on education finance at Columbia University in the first decade of the 20th century. Cubberley served as superintendent in San Diego and later taught at Stanford University , Strayer taught at Teachers College, Columbia University , and Elliott taught at

3036-484: The end of the 2022 school term and was replaced by Jharrett Bryantt. In the 2018-2019 school year, the Anchorage School District enrolled approximately 46,695 students. In terms of race and ethnicity, the Anchorage School District is considered a minority-majority district, meaning the minority groups make up the majority of the district's population. Non-white students make up roughly 58 percent of

3105-455: The first to appoint superintendents, but as schools consolidated into districts, the practice of appointing a superintendent became more popular. A major event in the history of education in the United States was the "Kalamazoo school case" ( Stuart v. School District No. 1 of the Village of Kalamazoo ). In 1858, Kalamazoo, Michigan established its first high school, and the following year,

3174-408: The idea that a "full stomach" during the day supports class attention and studying. The 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas made racial desegregation of public elementary and high schools mandatory, although white families often attempted to avoid desegregation by sending their children to private secular or religious schools. In the years following this decision,

3243-409: The important affairs of learning, such as deciding local taxes, hiring teachers, setting wages, and determining the length of the school year." The persons responsible were frequently selectmen who had additional government responsibilities. Boston established America's first permanent school committee in 1721; this became America's first school board. Massachusetts and some other regions retain

3312-407: The late 1890s, regional associations of high schools, colleges and universities were being organized to coordinate proper accrediting standards, examinations, and regular surveys of various institutions in order to assure equal treatment in graduation and admissions requirements, as well as course completion and transfer procedures. By 1910, 72% of children were attending school. Between 1910 and 1940

3381-577: The learning gaps created by the crisis will persist." As of result, COVID-19 educational impact in the United States has ended by March 11, 2022, as Deltacron cases fall and ahead of the living with an endemic phase . In 2000, 76.6 million students had enrolled in schools from kindergarten through graduate schools. Of these, 72% aged 12 to 17 were considered academically "on track" for their age, i.e. enrolled in at or above grade level. Of those enrolled in elementary and secondary schools, 5.7 million (10%) were attending private schools. As of 2022, 89% of

3450-421: The long term. At the same time, student loan debt has also risen to $ 1.5 trillion. The large majority of the world's top universities, as listed by various ranking organizations, are in the United States, including 19 of the top 25, and the most prestigious – Harvard University . The country placed first in the annual U.S. News & World Report Best Countries for Education rankings. The U.S. has by far

3519-481: The menu. It went into effect the second semester of the 2019-2020 school year.. Superintendent (education) In the American education system , a superintendent or superintendent of schools is an administrator or manager in charge of a number of public schools or a school district , a local government body overseeing public schools. All school principals in a respective school district report to

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3588-556: The most Nobel Prize winners in history, with 403 (having won 406 awards). In 2010, the United States had a higher combined per-pupil spending for primary, secondary, and post-secondary education than any other OECD country (which overlaps with almost all of the countries designated as being developed by the International Monetary Fund and the United Nations ) and the U.S. education sector consumed

3657-494: The number of Black teachers rose in the North but dropped in the South. In 1965, the far-reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act ('ESEA'), passed as a part of President Lyndon B. Johnson 's War on poverty , provided funds for primary and secondary education ('Title I funding'). Title VI explicitly forbade the establishment of a national curriculum . Title IV of the Higher Education Act of 1965 created

3726-450: The presence of COVID-19, that number has increased to 25 institutions. In the United States due to the financial impact caused by COVID-19, 110 more colleges and universities are now at risk of closing. This labels the total number of colleges and universities in peril due to pandemic to be 345 institutions. While prestigious colleges and universities have historically had financial cushion due to high levels of enrollment, private colleges at

3795-866: The quality of information received, critics assess it a poor substitute for in-person learning, and that online-only education disadvantages students without internet access, who disproportionately live in poor households, and that technology may make it harder for students to pay attention. Some colleges and universities became vulnerable to permanent closure during the pandemic. Universities and colleges were refunding tuition monies to students while investing in online technology and tools, making it harder to invest into empty campuses. Schools are defined as being in low financial health if their combined revenue and unrestricted assets will no longer cover operating expenses in six years. Before COVID-19, 13 institutions were in danger of closing within 6 years in New England. With

3864-630: The right to education at its level of income. Resulting from school closures necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic , over one million eligible children were not enrolled in kindergarten for the 2021–2022 school year. The 2022 annual Report on the Condition of Education conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) for the U.S. Department of Education indicates that prekindergarten to grade 12 enrollment decreased from 50.8 million in fall 2019 to 49.4 million students in fall 2020,

3933-459: The school district's student body. Composition: The district served approximately 8,600 students with special needs who were eligible for special education services in 2008-09. Also that year, the district's English Language Learner program for students with limited English Proficiency served 5,808 students and the Gifted program assisted 3,563 students. In 2008-09, the district's graduation rate

4002-590: The state HQT reports 95.4 percent of ASD teachers had an HQT designation in the content area they were teaching. To put this into perspective almost six years after the State adopted regulations mandating that urban District's limit instruction in core classes to HQ teachers, ASD is still out of compliance, while HQ requirements can be via Praxis examinations. The district also has approximately 225 certificated employees such as counselors, psychologists, speech pathologists, OT/PT, nurses and more. ASD's last curriculum audit

4071-528: The state in which the district is located. Proficiency on state adopted measurements, test participation, attendance, and graduation rates are used to determine AYP for each school each year. 2008-09 school-wide results for the district's 96 schools are as follows: Thirty-nine ASD schools met every requirement for which they were accountable. Fifteen missed AYP by just one target; 42 schools missed by two or more targets. Complete coverage, including historical statistics, of federal AYP requirements, are available on

4140-541: The states in the nineteenth century were broad, making it difficult to create shared goals and priorities. States like Massachusetts , with long-established educational institutions, had well-developed priorities in place by the time the Office of Education was established. In the South and the West, however, newly formed common school systems had different needs and priorities. Competing interests among state legislators limited

4209-410: The superintendent. The role and powers of the superintendent vary among areas According to Sharp and Walter, a popularly held opinion is that "the most important role of the board of education is to hire its superintendent." The first education laws in the United States were enacted in the colonial era , when various New England colonies passed ordinances directing towns "to choose men to manage

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4278-413: The term school committee , but school board and board of education are the more common terms nationwide, and a variety of other labels have been used. In 1986, about 95 percent of school board members were elected, with the rest appointed by town boards, mayors, or others. In early America, school board members handled the day-to-day administration of schools without the need for a superintendent. By

4347-512: The three Rs (reading, writing, and arithmetic) and also history and geography. Public education was at the elementary level in most places. After the Civil War end in 1865, cities began building high schools. The South was far behind northern standards on every educational measure and gave weak support to its segregated all-black schools. However, northern philanthropy and northern churches provided assistance to private black colleges across

4416-425: Was 4.9%. The country has a reading literacy rate of 99% of the population over age 15, while ranking below average in science and mathematics understanding compared to other developed countries. In 2014, a record high of 82% of high school seniors graduated, although one of the reasons for that success might be a decline in academic standards . The poor performance has pushed public and private efforts such as

4485-514: Was 70.48 percent. It has increased nearly 11 percentage points since the 2004-05 school year. The dropout rate for ASD students is 3.43 percent, a figure that has been cut nearly in half since the 2004-05 school year. In 2009-10, ASD had 48 teachers certified by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. National board certification is voluntary and involves a rigorous performance-based assessment that takes one to three years for

4554-495: Was also capable of receiving a loan of $ 2.65 million, to avoid layoffs of their 312 employees. Yale economist Fabrizio Zilibotti co-authored a January 2022 study with professors from the Columbia University , New York University , University of Pennsylvania , Harvard University , Northwestern University , and the University of Amsterdam , showing that "the pandemic is widening educational inequality and that

4623-457: Was conducted in 2002. 22.5 credits are required to graduate high school in the Anchorage School District. All high schools in the Anchorage School District offer AP (Advanced Placement) classes, but only West Anchorage High School offers IB (International Baccalaureate) classes. The district releases test scores each fall in a comprehensive report called Profile of Performance. See Expect the Best

4692-1145: Was double the OECD average (ranking 2nd), and the U.S. education sector consumed 6 percent of the U.S. GDP (ranking 6th). From 1960 through 2017, per-pupil spending in public kindergartens, primary schools, and secondary schools increased in inflation-adjusted terms from $ 3,793 to $ 14,439. From 1950 through 2015, student-teacher and student-nonteaching staff ratios in public kindergartens, primary schools, and secondary schools declined from 27.5 students per teacher and 65 students per nonteaching staff member in 1950 to 16.1 students per teacher and 16.1 students per nonteaching staff member in 2015 (with nonteaching staffing increasing by 709%), while teacher salaries declined by 2% in inflation-adjusted terms from 1992 to 2015. From 1976 to 2018, enrollment at post-secondary institutions increased by 78% and full-time faculty employed increased by 92%, while full-time administrators employed increased by 164% and other non-faculty staffing increased by 452%, and non-instructional spending increased by 48% from 2010 to 2018 while instructional spending increased by 17%. Enrollment in post-secondary institutions in

4761-415: Was himself a freed slave. His movement spread, leading many other Southern states to establish small colleges for "Colored or Negro" students entitled "A. & M." ("Agricultural and Mechanical") or "A. & T." ("Agricultural and Technical"), some of which later developed into state universities. Before the 1940s, there were very few black students at private or state colleges in the North and almost none in

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