Misplaced Pages

#296703

98-775: The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples , particularly in sculpture, had an influence on Southeast Asia and was widely adopted into the Indianised architecture of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater India ). Evolved from Indian influences, Khmer architecture became clearly distinct from that of the Indian sub-continent as it developed its own special characteristics, some of which were created independently and others of which were incorporated from neighboring cultural traditions, resulting in

196-487: A "rest house with fire" for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining the highways into Angkor . The Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited Angkor in 1296 CE. Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function as the repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies. Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are

294-542: A UNESCO World Heritage Site , are located on the edge of the Deccan Plateau , where dramatic erosion has left massive sandstone outcrops. Researchers have found primitive tools and decorative rock paintings made by humans in the area's many caves and grottos , the earliest paintings dating to circa 8,000 BCE. During the time of the Buddha (c. 563/480 or c. 483/400 BCE), Buddhist monks were also in

392-455: A World Heritage Site, are 30 rock-cut cave Buddhist temples carved into the sheer vertical side of a gorge near a waterfall-fed pool located in the hills of the Sahyadri mountains. Like all the locations of Buddhist caves, this one is located near main trade routes and spans six centuries beginning in the 2nd or 1st century B.C. A period of intense building activity at this site occurred under

490-463: A background. Sculpture in bas-relief is distinguished from sculpture in haut-relief, in that the latter projects farther from the background, in some cases almost detaching itself from it. The Angkorian preferred to work in bas-relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to haut-relief. Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history. Until about the 11th century,

588-487: A common feature of the Khmer temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west. Srahs and barays were reservoirs , generally created by excavation and embankment , respectively. It

686-541: A decorative motif in architecture. Indra is associated with the East; since Angkorian temples typically open to the East, his image is sometimes encountered on lintels and pediments facing that direction. Typically, he is mounted on the three-headed elephant Airavata and holds his trusty weapon, the thunderbolt or vajra . The numerous adventures of Indra documented in Hindu epic Mahabharata are not depicted at Angkor. The kala

784-464: A guardian of temples and as a mount for some warriors. The gajasimha may be found at Banteay Srei and at the temples belonging to the Roluos group. The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the head of a lion, a short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic bas reliefs of the outer gallery. Garuda is a divine being that

882-514: A large part of mainland Southeast Asia . At that time, Khmer was known as the Chenla kingdom, the predecessor state of the Khmer empire. Latest research reveals that the Khmer already erected stone buildings in the protohistoric period, which they used for the worship of mighty tutelary spirits . This earliest extant architecture consists of relatively small cells made from prefabricated megalithic construction parts, which probably date at least to

980-492: A light wooden roof. The problem of preventing the collapse of corbelled structures at Angkor remains a serious one for modern conservation. A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two vertical columns between which runs a door or passageway. Because the Angkorean lacked the ability to construct a true arch , they constructed their passageways using lintels or corbelling . A pediment is a roughly triangular structure above

1078-457: A lintel. A tympanum is the decorated surface of a pediment. The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the decoration of lintels evolved over time, as a result, the study of lintels has proven a useful guide to the dating of temples. Some scholars have endeavored to develop a periodization of lintel styles. The most beautiful Angkorean lintels are thought to be those of the Preah Ko style from

SECTION 10

#1732765031297

1176-474: A millennium. In the 3rd century BCE Indian rock-cut architecture began to develop, starting with the already highly sophisticated and state-sponsored Barabar caves in Bihar , personally dedicated by Ashoka circa 250 BCE. These artificial caves exhibit an amazing level of technical proficiency, the extremely hard granite rock being cut in geometrical fashion and polished to a mirror-like finish. There

1274-515: A new artistic style in Asian architecture unique to the Angkorian tradition. The development of Khmer architecture as a distinct style is particularly evident in artistic depictions of divine and royal figures with facial features representative of the local Khmer population, including rounder faces, broader brows, and other physical characteristics. In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis

1372-404: A rock-cut structure is a decorated rock quarry; most of the stone removed was typically put to economic use elsewhere. In India, caves have long been regarded as sacred places. Caves that were enlarged or entirely man-made were believed to be as sacred as natural caves. The sanctuary in all Indian religious structures, even free-standing ones, was designed to have the same cave-like feeling, as it

1470-428: A steep stairway can be interpreted as a "stairway to heaven", the realm of the gods. "From the monumental point of view", according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize , "the advantage is clear – the square of the base not having to spread in surface area, the entire building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust". Apsaras , divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology. Their origin

1568-401: A stone statues or as relief carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings, generally close to entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples. Dvarapalas may be seen, for example, at Preah Ko , Lolei , Banteay Srei , Preah Khan and Banteay Kdei . The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of an elephant. At Angkor, it is portrayed as

1666-474: A type found in certain late 12th-century temples constructed under King Jayavarman VII : Ta Prohm , Preah Khan , Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar . It is a rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only the stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with carved designs of dancing apsaras ; hence scholars have suggested that

1764-488: A wooden or masonry temple with wall decorations and works of art. Pancha Rathas is an example of monolith Indian rock cut architecture dating from the late 7th century located at Mamallapuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Ellora cave temple 16, the Kailash Temple , is singular in that it was excavated from the top down rather than by the usual practice of carving into the scarp of a hillside. The Kailash Temple

1862-425: Is 487 metres (1,598 ft) and its height is quite regular, averaging 400 metres (1,300 ft) all along the range. Geologically Phnom Kulen is formed of sandstone . It was important as a quarry in Angkorian times, the major quarries being located in the southeastern angle of the massif. There is a sanctuary in the area, Phnom Kulen National Park , straddling the districts of Svay Leu and Va Rin. Its purpose

1960-424: Is a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect and associated with the destructive side of the god Siva . In Khmer temple architecture, the kala serves as a common decorative element on lintels, tympana and walls, where it is depicted as a monstrous head with a large upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower jaw. Some kalas are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as

2058-549: Is a mountain range and a part of Phnom Kulen National Park in Siem Reap Province , Cambodia . Rather than a hill range, Phnom Kulen is an isolated chain of small mountain plateaux of moderate height lying south of the Dângrêk Mountains . The range stretches for about 40 kilometres (25 mi) in a WNW–ESE direction and is located some 48 kilometres (30 mi) north of Siem Reap . Its highest point

SECTION 20

#1732765031297

2156-469: Is a shallow pond below it. The second waterfall is 15–20 metres (49–66 ft) high and 10–15 metres (33–49 ft) wide. This pours into a larger area of water which is popular to visit and swim in. These sizes apply to the dry and rainy seasons although the current will be weaker in the dry season. Kbal Spean is known for its carvings representing fertility and its waters which hold special significance to Hindus . Just 5 centimetres (2.0 in) under

2254-415: Is accessible by motor bike and take approximately one hour from the waterfall. Peung Tbal is a large rock site which has carvings of the Hindu gods Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, and Ganesh. This site was made around the time of the 8th or 9th centuries. The site is near to the village of Anlong Thom. Peung Aysey is another site located inside of the jungle of Kulen and contains more rock carvings of Hindu gods and

2352-412: Is along the river of Siem Reap and has a lot of figures of Yoni and Linga spreading out at the bottom of the river. The Terrace of Sdach Kum Ling has a small brick-built ruined temple in its centre. It was covered by lava for hundreds of years. Srah Damrei is a large, sandstone sculpture of an elephant. It is joined by several other smaller sculptures which have been dated to the 8th or 9th centuries. It

2450-409: Is also a World Heritage Site . There is no timeline that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-standing temples built with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The building of free-standing structures, especially Buddhist temples, began in the 3rd century BCE, whereas Hindu temples started to be built from the 5th century CE. Meanwhile, rock cut temples continued to be excavated until

2548-572: Is another cave with the structure and polishing qualities of the Barabar caves, but without any inscription. This is the Sitamarhi Cave , 20 km from Rajgir , 10 km south-west of Hisua , also dated of the Maurya empire. It is smaller than the Barabar caves, measuring only 4.91x3.43m, with a ceiling height of 2.01m. The entrance is also trapezoidal, as for the Barabar caves. Finally,

2646-601: Is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean of Milk , or samudra manthan , found in the Vishnu Purana . Other stories in the Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual apsaras, who were often used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons, heroes and ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however,

2744-460: Is flanked by Dharaıendra and Padmavati, is still under active worship. The inscription mentions the site as Charana Hill, a holy site. This was the last excavation at Ellora. The Ankai Fort caves are thought to be from the same period. The final wave of Indian rock-cut cave construction occurred at Gwalior with five clusters of rock-cut monuments surrounding the Gwalior fort , two centuries after

2842-703: Is generally small and dark, without natural light. The oldest rock-cut architecture is found in the Barabar caves , Bihar , which were built around the 3rd century BC. Other early cave temples are found in the western Deccan ; these are mostly Buddhist shrines and monasteries, dating between 100 BC and 170 AD. Originally, there were probably wooden structures associated with them, which would have deteriorated over time. Historically, artisans carried forward design elements from wood in their rock-cut temples: skilled craftsmen carved rock to imitate timber texture, grain, and structure. The earliest cave temples include

2940-473: Is located 30 kilometres (19 mi) northwards from Angkor Wat . Its name means "mountain of the lychees ". There is a sacred hilltop site on top of the range. Phnom Kulen is considered a holy mountain in Cambodia, of special religious significance to Hindus and Buddhists who come to the mountain in pilgrimage. Near these mountains is Preah Ang Thom , a 16th-century Buddhist monastery notable for

3038-448: Is necessarily on religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone. Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in

Khmer architecture - Misplaced Pages Continue

3136-640: Is not clear whether the significance of these reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two. The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East Baray located on either side of Angkor Thom . The East Baray is now dry. The West Mebon is an 11th-century temple standing at the center of the West Baray and the East Mebon is a 10th-century temple standing at

3234-613: Is not part of the structure is removed until the only rock left makes up the architectural elements of the excavated interior. Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious in nature. There are more than 1,500 known rock-cut structures in India. Many of these structures contain artwork of global importance, and most are adorned with exquisite stone carvings. These ancient and medieval structures represent significant achievements of structural engineering and craftsmanship. The effort expended often astonishes visitors, but seen from one aspect,

3332-508: Is part man and part bird. He is the lord of birds, the mythological enemy of nāgas , and the battle steed of Vishnu . Depictions of Garuda at Angkor number in the thousands, and though Indian in inspiration exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer. They may be classified as follows: In the ancient religion of the Vedas , Indra the sky-god reigned supreme. In the medieval Hinduism of Angkor, however, he had no religious status, and served only as

3430-624: Is recreational and scientific in order to preserve the natural scenic features of Phnom Kulen mountain, like some famous waterfalls. The park is located about 48 kilometres (30 mi) to the north of the provincial town of Siem Reap . This site was added to Cambodia's national Tentative List for World Heritage on March 27, 2020 (originally proclaimed December 1, 1992), to be nominated under World Heritage criteria (iii) (iv) and (v). The effort continued in 2016 when over 300 families were removed from already crowded areas and existing facilities for tourists were upgraded. The Phnom Kulen mountain range

3528-415: Is soft when taken from the ground but that hardens when exposed to the sun, for foundations and other hidden parts of buildings. Because the surface of laterite is uneven, it was not suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with stucco. Laterite was more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor itself. Because the water table in this entire region is well high, Laterite has been used in

3626-634: Is thought that many Buddhists relocated to the Deccan under the protection of the Andhra dynasty , thus shifting the cave-building effort to western India: an enormous effort at creating religious caves (usually Buddhist or Jain) continued there until the 2nd century CE, culminating with the Karla Caves or the Pandavleni Caves . These caves generally followed an apsidal plan with a stupa in

3724-493: The Bhagavata Purana . The following are some of the most important Angkorian depictions of the life of Krishna: Indian rock-cut architecture Indian rock-cut architecture is more various and found in greater abundance in that country than any other form of rock-cut architecture around the world. Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. Rock that

3822-701: The Bhaja Caves , the Karla Caves , the Bedse Caves , the Kanheri Caves , and some of the Ajanta Caves . Relics found in these caves suggest a connection between the religious and the commercial. Buddhist missionaries are known to have accompanied traders on the busy international trading routes through India. Some of the more sumptuous cave temples, commissioned by wealthy traders, included pillars, arches, and elaborate facades. They were made during

3920-516: The Devaraja cult of the king, a linga cult, in what is dated as 804 CE and declaring his independence from Java of whom the Khmer had been a vassal state. (Whether this is actually "Java", the Khmer chvea used to describe Champa , as well as the legend that he was earlier held as a ransom of the kingdom in Java. See Higham's The Civilization of Angkor for more information about the debate.) During

4018-601: The Hall of Dancers at Preah Khan , in the pillars that line the passageways through the outer gallery of the Bayon , and in the famous bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat , where they appear individually and in groups. Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with lances and clubs. They are presented either as

Khmer architecture - Misplaced Pages Continue

4116-608: The Jain Son Bhandar Caves in Rajgir , generally dated to the 2nd–4th centuries CE, nevertheless share a broad structure reminiscent of the caves of Barabar and some small areas of irregular polish, which leads some authors to suggest that they may actually be contemporary to, and even earlier than, the Barabar caves, and would conveniently create a precedent and an evolutionary step to the Barabar Caves. To

4214-582: The Kanheri Caves were excavated in the 1st and 2nd centuries B.C., as were those at Ajanta , which were occupied continuously by Buddhist monks from 200 BCE to 650 AD. As the Buddhist ideology encouraged involvement in trade, monasteries often became stopovers for inland traders and provided lodging houses along trade routes . As mercantile and royal endowments grew, cave interiors became more elaborate, with interior walls decorated in paintings, reliefs, and intricate carvings. Numerous donors provided

4312-706: The Phimeanakas , and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor . According to Charles Higham , "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler, whose essence, if a Saivite , was embodied in a linga... housed in the central sanctuary which served as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after his death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to the royal ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor worship". Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from

4410-482: The Vakataka king Harisena between 460 and 478. A profuse variety of decorative sculpture, intricately carved columns and carved reliefs are found, including exquisitely carved cornices and pilaster . Skilled artisans crafted living rock to imitate timbered wood (such as lintels ) in construction and grain and intricate decorative carving, although such architectural elements were ornamental and not functional in

4508-444: The second century BC . There are three pre-Angkorean architectural styles: Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural styles. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named for a particular temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style. Angkorian builders used brick , sandstone , laterite and wood as their materials. The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite,

4606-530: The 11th-century world. It would later be eclipsed by Angkor, but still served a vital role, as its water irrigated the entire region. The Khmer Rouge used the location as a final stronghold as their regime came to an end in 1979 in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War . Chup Preah is a stream flowing into the mountain's valley. Kulen Mountain has two waterfalls. The first is between 4–5 metres (13–16 ft) high and 20–25 metres (66–82 ft) wide. There

4704-435: The 12th century, rock-cut architecture became almost totally structural in nature. That is, rocks were cut into bricks and used to build free-standing structures. Kailash was the last spectacular rock-cut excavated temple. Numerous rock reliefs , relief sculptures carved into rock faces, have been found outside caves or at other sites. New discoveries of relatively small rock-cut sites, mostly Buddhist, continue to be made in

4802-628: The 12th century. The stepwell is a large hole in the ground with steps at one or more sides. They are used in India to collect and conserve water from the monsoon rains, for use in the dry season. The steps allow access to the water whatever level it is at. They have a history of around 4,000 years in India, first appearing in the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization , reappearing around the 5th century CE, and then constructed until relatively recent times, with some still in use. Many have walls lined with stone brought from elsewhere for

4900-577: The 21st century, especially in the Deccan . The earliest caves used by humans were natural caves that they occupied or used for a variety of purposes, such as shrines and shelters. Evidence suggests that the caves were first occupied and slightly altered during the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods, up to about 6000 BC. These changes are not classified as architecture. Early examples included decorating overhanging rock with rock-cut designs . The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka , now designated as

4998-670: The Angkorian Khmer confined their narrative bas-reliefs to the space on the tympana above doorways. The most famous early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the tympana at the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei , depicting scenes from Hindu mythology as well as scenes from the great works of Indian literature, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata . By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire walls with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat ,

SECTION 50

#1732765031297

5096-458: The Angkorian era the relief was known as Mahendraparvata (the mountain of Great Indra ). Phnom Kulen was further developed under the rule of Udayadityavarman II , who made it the capital of his empire and constructed many temples and residences as well as the 1000 Lingas at Kbal Spean . At its peak, the Kulen development was larger than modern-day Phnom Penh and one of the largest cities in

5194-712: The Bakong and Borobudur in Java , going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to the upper terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might have served as the prototype of Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java . Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details of Borobudur, including arched gateways in corbelling method. Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon , Pre Rup , Ta Keo , Koh Ker ,

5292-749: The Ellora Parshvantha cave temple. They contain many monumental Jain images. South-West Group: Now termed Trishalagiri. The group is the first one encountered when driving to the Urvai Gate, just outside the fortifications. There are the oldest Jain monuments in Gwalior from the post-Gupta period. Archaeologist L.B. Singh dates them to 6th to 8th cent AD. South-East Group (Popularly referred to as Ek Patthar Ki Bawadi group or " Gopachal Atishya Kshetra "), Urvahi group ( Siddhachal Caves , North-West group and North-East group were all excavated during

5390-457: The Khmer civilization's adoption into its decorative iconography of elements derived from long forgotten primitive antecedents. Scenes from the life of Krishna , a hero and Avatar of the god Vishnu , are common in the relief carvings decorating Angkorian temples, and unknown in Angkorian sculpture in the round. The literary sources for these scenes are the Mahabharata , the Harivamsa , and

5488-772: The Sandstones or the Granites. However, the tenets of the Sacred Architecture as enunciated in the Vedas and the Shastras, require no adhesives to be used while building blocks are assembled one over the other to create the Temples, as such bricks have been used only in relatively smaller temples such as Lolei and The Preah Ko. Besides, strength of bricks is much lesser as compared to the stones (mentioned here-in) and

5586-528: The Tomar rule during 1440–1473 AD. Babur , who visited Gwalior in AD 1527, ordered the Gwalior statues to be destroyed. However, only the faces of many of colossal Jain images were destroyed, some of them were later repaired by the local Jains. The Pallava architects started the carving of rock for the creation of monolithic copies of structural temples. A feature of the rock-cut cave temple distribution until

5684-435: The apparition of stepwells in India, dating from 200 to 400 CE. Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850–950 CE) took place. At Ellora, on the hill to the northeast of the main complex of caves, is a Jain cave temple containing a 16-foot (4.9 m) rock-carved image of Lord Parshvanath with an inscription dated 1234/5 CE. This well preserved image

5782-402: The axis of the enclosure wall. If the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often decorated, and guardian figures ( dvarapalas ) are often placed or carved on either side of the doorways. A Hall of Dancers is the structure of

5880-440: The back for the chaityas , and a rectangular plan with surrounding cells for the viharas . When Buddhist missionaries arrived, they naturally gravitated to caves for use as temples and abodes, in accord with their religious ideas of asceticism and the monastic life. The Western Ghats topography, with its flat-topped basalt hills, deep ravines , and sharp cliffs , was suited to their cultural inclinations. The earliest of

5978-419: The base for other figures. Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative element in Khmer temple architecture may be found in an earlier period when the skulls of human victims were incorporated into buildings as a kind of protective magic or apotropaism . Such skulls tended to lose their lower jaws when the ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the kalas of Angkor may represent

SECTION 60

#1732765031297

6076-472: The cardinal points. A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the gallery evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a temple. During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress

6174-409: The cave shrines, called Chaityas , were for congregational worship. The earliest rock-cut garbhagriha , similar to free-standing ones later, had an inner circular chamber with pillars to create a circumambulatory path ( pradakshina ) around the stupa and an outer rectangular hall for the congregation of the devotees. The construction of caves would wane after the 2nd century CE, possibly due to

6272-691: The center of the East Baray. The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which stands the 12th-century temple of Neak Pean . Scholars have speculated that the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta , known for its miraculous healing powers. The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru ,

6370-470: The centre of the temple, and by the greater decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru , the legendary home of the Hindu gods. The prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved, common to much Khmerreligious architecture. Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented

6468-475: The centre than the one supporting it from below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The corbel arch is structurally weaker than the true arch . The use of corbelling prevented the Angkorian engineers from constructing large openings or spaces in buildings roofed with stone, and made such buildings particularly prone to collapse once they were no longer maintained. These difficulties did not, of course, exist for buildings constructed with stone walls surmounted by

6566-691: The classical sense. Later many Hindu kings from southern India patronize many cave temples dedicated to Hindu gods and goddesses. One such prominent example of cave temple architecture are the Badami Cave Temples at Badami, the early Chalukya capital, carved out in the 6th century. There are four cave temples hewn from the sides of cliffs, three Hindu and one Jain , that contain carved architectural elements such as decorative pillars and brackets as well as finely carved sculpture and richly etched ceiling panels. Nearby are many small Buddhist cave shrines. Rock-cut architecture also developed with

6664-400: The external gallery wall is covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King Jayavarman VII . The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of

6762-545: The fact that Mauryan caves were dedicated and sponsored by the Mauryan Imperial government, allowing for huge resources and efforts to be spent, whereas later caves where essentially the result of donations by commoners, who could not afford as high a level of spending. Probably owing to the 2nd century BCE fall of the Mauryan Empire and the subsequent persecutions of Buddhism under Pushyamitra Sunga , it

6860-682: The former degrade with age. Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick temples that are similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam . A Cham story tells of the time that the two countries settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest proposed by the Cham King Po Klaung Garai . While the Khmer built a standard brick tower, Po Klaung Garai directed his people to build an impressive replica of paper and wood. The only stone used by Angkorian builders

6958-626: The funds for the building of these caves and left donatory inscriptions, including laity, members of the clergy, government officials, and even foreigners such as Yavanas ( Greeks ) representing about 8% of all inscriptions. Facades were added to the exteriors while the interiors became designated for specific uses, such as monasteries ( viharas ) and worship halls ( chaityas ). Over the centuries, simple caves began to resemble free-standing buildings, needing to be formally designed and requiring highly skilled artisans and craftsmen to complete. These artisans had not forgotten their timber roots and imitated

7056-409: The giant reclining Buddha , the country's largest. The Samré tribe was formerly living at the edge of Phnom Kulen, quarrying sandstone and transporting it to the royal sites. Phnom Kulen has major symbolic importance for Cambodia as the birthplace of the ancient Khmer Empire , for it was at Phnom Kulen that King Jayavarman II proclaimed independence from Java in 802 CE. Jayavarman II initiated

7154-415: The glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for dating the remains. Many temples had been built before Cambodia became the powerful Khmer Empire which dominated

7252-448: The god Brahma . The river then ends with a waterfall and a pool. Preah Ang Thom houses a large statue of Buddha . It was built in the 16th century and is 8 metres (26 ft) high. Preah Ang Thom is the sacred and worshipping god for Kulen Mountain. There are also two large Cham Pa trees nearby. Besides Preah Ang Thom, Chhok Ruot, footprints of Preah Bat Choan Tuk, Peung Chhok, Peung Ey So and Peung Ey Sey, can also be seen. The Linga

7350-411: The god of judgment and Hell, with South; Varuna , the god of the ocean, with West; and Kubera , god of wealth, with North. Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of the riser exceeds that of the tread , producing an angle of ascent somewhere between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for this peculiarity appear to be both religious and monumental. From the religious perspective,

7448-628: The habit of using natural caves, such as the Saptaparni Cave , southwest from Rajgir , Bihar . Many believe it to be the site in which Buddha spent some time before his death, and where the first Buddhist council was held after the Buddha died ( paranirvana ). The Buddha himself had also used the Indrasala Cave for meditation, starting a tradition of using caves, natural or man-made, as religious retreats, that would last for over

7546-406: The hall itself may have been used for dancing. House of Fire, or Dharmasala , is the name given to a type of building found only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th-century monarch Jayavarman VII : Preah Khan , Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar . A House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing windows. Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as

7644-677: The home of the gods in Hinduism . Enclosures represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple. The first great temple mountain was the Bakong , a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 by King Indravarman I . The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped pyramid , popularly identified as temple mountain of early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of

7742-427: The late 9th century. Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala , the nāga and the makara , as well as various forms of vegetation. Also frequently depicted are the Hindu gods associated with the four cardinal directions, with the identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment depending on the direction faced by that element. Indra , the god of the sky, is associated with East; Yama ,

7840-401: The more famous Angkorian narrative bas-reliefs: Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction, typically to the east. The other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise blank walls. Colonnettes were narrow decorative columns that served as supports for the beams and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on

7938-399: The mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru , the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at

8036-811: The nuances of a wooden structure and the wood grain in working with stone. Early examples of rock-cut architecture are the Buddhist and Jain cave basadi , temples and monasteries , many with gavakshas ( chandrashalas ). The ascetic nature of these religions inclined their followers to live in natural caves and grottos in the hillsides, away from the cities, and these became enhanced and embellished over time. Although many temples, monasteries, and stupas had been destroyed, by contrast, cave temples are very well preserved as they are both less visible and therefore less vulnerable to vandalism as well as made of more durable material than wood and masonry. There are around 1200 cave temples still in existence, most of which are Buddhist. The residences of monks were called Viharas and

8134-570: The other 33 caves, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain, were carved into the side of the plateau rock. The effect of the Kailash Temple is that of a free-standing temple surrounded by smaller cave shrines carved out of the same black rock. The Kailash Temple is carved with figures of gods and goddesses from the Hindu Puranas , along with mystical beings like the heavenly nymphs and musicians and figures of good fortune and fertility. Ellora Caves

8232-567: The period when maritime trade boomed between the Roman Empire and south-east Asia. Although free-standing structural temples were being built by the 5th century, rock-cut cave temples continued to be built in parallel. Later rock-cut cave architecture became more sophisticated, as in the Ellora Caves . The monolithic Kailash Temple is considered to be the peak of this type construction. Although cave temples continued to be built until

8330-422: The period, they were round, rectangular, or octagonal in shape. Colonnettes were often circled with molded rings and decorated with carved leaves. Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct rooms, passageways and openings in buildings. A corbel arch is constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side of an opening, with each successive layer projecting further towards

8428-662: The purpose, but many are truly rock-cut. The most elaborate are highly decorated. They are mostly found in drier states such as Gujarat and Rajasthan . Famous examples include: Chand Baori , Rani ki vav , Step-well of Ambapur , and the Dada Harir Stepwell . In the Mumbai area: In the Junnar area: Phnom Kulen Phnom Kulen (or Kulen Mountain ; Khmer : ភ្នំគូលែន , Phnum Kulên [pʰnom kuːlɛːn] ; lit.   ' Lychee Mountain ' )

8526-515: The reign of King Kharavela . Udayagiri means "Sunrise Hill" and has 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves. After the Barabar Caves, huge efforts were made at building religious caves in Western India until the 6th century CE. However, the polishing of cave walls was abandoned, never to be revived. Such grandiose caves as Karla Caves (1st century CE) or the Ajanta Caves (5th century CE) do not have any polishing either. This may be due to

8624-546: The rise of Mahayana Buddhism and the associated intense architectural and artistic production in Gandhara and Amaravati . The building of rock-cut caves would revive briefly in the 6th century CE, with the magnificent achievements of Ajanta and Ellora , before finally subsiding as Hinduism replaced Buddhism in the sub-continent, and stand-alone temples became more prevalent. The Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra ,

8722-660: The southeast of Bihar , the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves , partly natural and partly artificial caves were built near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha , India . The caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, mentioned as Kumari Parvat in the Hathigumpha inscription . They have a number of finely and ornately carved caves built during 2nd century BCE. It is believed that most of these caves were carved out as residential blocks for Jain monks during

8820-430: The structure of the temple. A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor , passage through the enclosure walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of an impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway. Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with a gopura at each of the four cardinal points . In plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and elongated along

8918-484: The time of the early Pallavas is that they did not move further south than Arakandanallur, with the solitary exception of Tiruchitrapalli on the south bank of the Kaveri River , the traditional southern boundary between north and south. Also, good granite exposures for rock-cut structures were generally not available south of the river. A rock cut temple is carved from a large rock and excavated and cut to imitate

9016-477: The underlying layers of Angkor Wat and other temples (especially the larger ones), because it can absorb water and help towards better stability of the Temple. The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's primary deity, the one to whom the site was dedicated: typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity

9114-428: The water's surface over 1000 small linga carvings are etched into the sandstone riverbed. The waters are regarded as holy, given that Jayavarman II chose to bathe in the river, and had the river diverted so that the stone bed could be carved. Carvings include a stone representation of the Hindu god Vishnu lying on his serpent Ananta , with his wife Lakshmi at his feet. A lotus flower protrudes from his navel bearing

9212-551: The wood elements having been lost to decay and other destructive processes. The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples are the temple towers of Preah Ko , Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya , and Chóp Mạt in Tay Ninh . Decorations were usually carved into a stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the brick itself. This was because bricks were a softer material, and did not lend themselves to sculpting, as opposed to stones of different kinds such as

9310-461: Was a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorian temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing rather than dancing are more commonly called " devatas ". Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor , but are most common in the foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for example, in

9408-430: Was created through a single, huge top-down excavation 100 feet deep down into the volcanic basaltic cliff rock. It was commissioned in the 8th century by King Krishna I and took more than 100 years to complete. The Kailash Temple, or cave 16 as it is known at Ellora Caves located at Maharashtra on the Deccan Plateau , is a huge monolithic temple dedicated to Lord Shiva . There are 34 caves built at this site, but

9506-436: Was represented by a statue (or in the case of Shiva , most commonly by a linga ). Since the temple was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at large, but rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres across. Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower ( prasat ) rising above it, by its location at

9604-452: Was sandstone, obtained from the Kulen mountains . Since its obtainment was considerably more expensive than that of brick, sandstone only gradually came into use, and at first was used for particular elements such as door frames. The 10th-century temple of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed more or less entirely from Sandstone. Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that

#296703