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99-492: The president of Angola (Portuguese: Presidente de Angola ) is both head of state and head of government in Angola . According to the constitution adopted in 2010, the post of prime minister is abolished; executive authority belongs to the president who has also a degree of legislative power, as he can govern by decree. The position of president dates from Angola's independence from Portugal . Agostinho Neto obtained
198-434: A head of government or a cabinet minister or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offence) just a military officer or civil servant. For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the head of government ). This means that the government discreetly approves agenda and speeches, especially where
297-438: A head of government who is answerable to the legislature. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the legislature (or, at least, not a majority opposition – a subtle but important difference). It also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and their cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. The executive branch
396-525: A parliamentary system , such as India or the United Kingdom , the head of state usually has mostly ceremonial powers, with a separate head of government. However, in some parliamentary systems, like South Africa , there is an executive president that is both head of state and head of government. Likewise, in some parliamentary systems the head of state is not the head of government, but still has significant powers, for example Morocco . In contrast,
495-415: A semi-presidential system , such as France , has both heads of state and government as the de facto leaders of the nation (in practice they divide the leadership of the nation between themselves). Meanwhile, in presidential systems , the head of state is also the head of government. In one-party ruling communist states , the position of president has no tangible powers by itself; however, since such
594-650: A High Court (a never-as-yet-convened court for trying the Government), a Constitutional Council (an innovation of the Fifth Republic), and an Economic and Social Council. A unique feature of the Constitution of the Fifth Republic is that it establishes a shared law-making power between two branches of government, the legislative branch, where such powers resided in previous constitutions, and
693-573: A bill to the Supreme Court to test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion. The most extreme non-executive republican head of state is the President of Israel , which holds no reserve powers whatsoever. The least ceremonial powers held by the president are to provide a mandate to attempt to form a government, to approve the dissolution of the Knesset made by
792-477: A broader trend during post-war Europe to establish specialized judiciary tribunals to serve as a bulwark against unconstitutional legislative activities. However, the Council was quite limited in its power under de Gaulle’s presidency and was only decisive when it erroneously upheld a popular referendum to streamline the popular presidential election via the Constitution. Following de Gaulle’s resignation in 1969 ,
891-428: A candidate as top of its list, who must be clearly identified on the ballot paper. The top candidate of the party gathering the most votes is elected President in accordance with the 2010 Constitution . The new constitution limits a president to serving two terms, although it does not count the terms served to date, and abolishes the post of prime minister , instead introducing the post of vice-president. João Lourenço
990-518: A ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan. Since the passage in Sweden of the 1974 Instrument of Government , the Swedish monarch no longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding 1809 Instrument of Government . Today, the speaker of
1089-476: A democratic procedure of constitutional amendment. In many cases there are significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the Constitution of Spain ). In republics with a parliamentary system (such as India, Germany, Austria, Italy and Israel), the head of state is usually titled president and the principal functions of such presidents are mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to
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#17327919016661188-518: A head of state, as a matter of custom, simultaneously holds the post of General Secretary of the Communist Party , they are the executive leader with their powers deriving from their status of being the party leader , rather than the office of president. Former French president Charles de Gaulle , while developing the current Constitution of France (1958), said that the head of state should embody l'esprit de la nation ("the spirit of
1287-429: A host role during a state visit , and the programme may feature playing of the national anthems by a military band , inspection of military troops , official exchange of gifts, and attending a state dinner at the official residence of the host. At home, heads of state are expected to render lustre to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in
1386-558: A limited legislative competence: article 34 of the Constitution lists domains exclusive to parliamentary legislation, but the remaining domains are left to the executive's regulations. The president also has the crucial powers to call a referendum and to dissolve the National Assembly . While Parliament may make a vote of no confidence on the government, since 1962 a majority in the National Assembly has supported
1485-513: A majority that did not support the president. Such periods as known in France as cohabitation , where a president appoints a prime minister from the new parliamentary majority. During cohabitation, besides powers reserved to the president by the Constitution, all other government powers would be exercised by the prime minister. In 2000, the Constitution was amended by shortening the president's term of office from seven years to five, coinciding with
1584-763: A matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party , the top leader in the one party system . The presidency is officially regarded as an institution of the state rather than an administrative post; theoretically, the President serves at the pleasure of the National People's Congress , the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative. While clear categories do exist, it
1683-583: A mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state. In monarchies (e.g., Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective "royal" on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate. Heads of state often greet important foreign visitors, particularly visiting heads of state. They assume
1782-785: A notable feature of constitutions in the Americas , including those of Argentina , Brazil , Colombia , El Salvador , Mexico and Venezuela ; this is generally attributed to the strong influence of the United States in the region, and as the United States Constitution served as an inspiration and model for the Latin American wars of independence of the early 19th century. Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems,
1881-439: A referendum to allow him to resume his monarchical powers and duties, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) The Belgian constitutional crisis in 1990, when the head of state refused to sign into law a bill permitting abortion, was resolved by the cabinet assuming the power to promulgate the law while he was treated as "unable to reign" for twenty-four hours. These officials are excluded completely from
1980-538: A secular and democratic country, deriving its sovereignty from the people. Since 2005 it includes the ten articles of the Charter for the Environment . The French Constitution established a semi-presidential system of government, with two competing readings. On one hand, the executive branch has both a president of the republic and a prime minister , which is commonly seen in parliamentary systems with
2079-643: A strong executive. Since the ruling, the Constitutional Council has added the 2004 Charter of the Environment to France’s Constitutional Block, demonstrating France’s newfound tenacity in judicial review. In the Constitution are written the principles of the French Republic: The Constitution, in Article 89, has an amending formula. First, a constitutional bill must be approved by both houses of Parliament. Then,
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#17327919016662178-528: A symbolic president and a prime minister who directs the government. This reading is supported by Articles 5 and 21 of the Constitution, which respectively states that the president is a Guardian of the State and of the Constitution, while the prime minister has the power to decide on Government's actions and policies. On the other hand, the Parliament is very weak for a parliamentary system. Parliament has
2277-507: A theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions, national day celebrations , dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such as cutting a ribbon , groundbreaking , ship christening , laying the first stone. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in
2376-529: A third of them were subsequently ratified by Parliament. The loi d'habilitation is a new constitutional feature, not present in earlier constitutions. Power sharing was unique in being part of the constitution in the Fifth Republic, but the practice was not recent. The determination that Parliament has responsibility for the law goes back to article 6 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man of 1789, and
2475-515: A threat to the public order and national security. This led to opposition from the French Senate , whose president appealed to the Constitutional Council. Consequently, in 1971, the Constitutional Council ruled its landmark decision 71-44 DC , better known as the 1971 Freedom of Association Decision. In such, the Council broke precedent by striking down legislation that allegedly violated the right to freedom of association, thereby fostering
2574-421: Is compatible with European Union law . The Constitution also sets out methods for its own amendment: a referendum (article 11) or a parliamentary process with presidential consent. The normal procedure of constitutional amendment is that the amendment must be adopted in identical terms by both houses of Parliament and then must be adopted by a simple majority in a referendum or by a three-fifths supermajority of
2673-506: Is defined in the constitution as "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people" (article 1), and is generally recognised throughout the world as the Japanese head of state. Although the emperor formally appoints the prime minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate "as designated by the Diet", without any right to decline appointment. He is
2772-561: Is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice. Constitutional change in Liechtenstein in 2003 gave its head of state, the Reigning Prince , constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss the head of government and cabinet. It could be argued that
2871-425: Is the current incumbent. He ascended to power on 26 September 2017. Head of state A head of state (or chief of state ) is the public persona of a state or sovereign state . The specific naming of the head of state depends on the country's form of government and separation of powers ; the head of state may be a ceremonial figurehead or concurrently the head of government and more. In
2970-445: Is the reigning monarch , in the case of a monarchy ; or the president, in the case of a republic . Among the state constitutions (fundamental laws) that establish different political systems, four major types of heads of state can be distinguished: In a federal constituent or a dependent territory, the same role is fulfilled by the holder of an office corresponding to that of a head of state. For example, in each Canadian province
3069-415: Is thus said to be responsible (or answerable) to the legislature, with the head of government and cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional advice to the head of state. In parliamentary constitutional monarchies , the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at
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3168-557: Is typically called the Constitution of the Fifth Republic ( French : la Constitution de la Cinquième République) , and it replaced the Constitution of the Fourth Republic of 1946 with the exception of the preamble per a 1971 decision of the Constitutional Council . The current Constitution regards the separation of church and state , democracy, social welfare, and indivisibility as core principles of
3267-482: The ordonnance has the same status as a réglement (regulation), and can therefor be challenged by the Council of State ; but after ratification, it takes on the same status as a statute ( loi ), and can no longer be challenged. In practice, there have been 23 such lois d'habilitation from 1960 to 1990, with effective periods from one month to three and a half years, resulting in 150 ordonnances . About
3366-493: The French Congress , a joint session of both houses of Parliament (article 89). Prior to 1971, though executive, administrative and judicial decisions had to comply with the general principles of law ( jurisprudence derived from law and the practice of law in general), there were no such restrictions on legislation. It was assumed that unelected judges and other appointees should not be able to overrule laws voted for by
3465-466: The National Assembly ( legislature ) and is thus similar, in principle, to a head of government in a parliamentary system but is also, in addition, recognised as the head of state. The offices of president of Nauru and president of Botswana are similar in this respect to the South African presidency. Panama , during the military dictatorships of Omar Torrijos and Manuel Noriega ,
3564-640: The Reichstag , which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the president was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that
3663-496: The Viceroy and Governor-General of India . Head of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state. A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance. There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after. This may be
3762-413: The constitutionally socialist state type inspired by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its constitutive Soviet republics , real political power belonged to the sole legal party. In these states, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as a natural person . In
3861-600: The de facto Soviet leader at the moment. For example, Nikita Khrushchev never headed the Supreme Soviet but was First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (party leader) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers ( head of government ). This may even lead to an institutional variability, as in North Korea , where, after the presidency of party leader Kim Il Sung , the office
3960-507: The high contracting party with respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign the letters of credence for Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by
4059-529: The personification of the Canadian state and is described by the Department of Canadian Heritage as the "personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians". In many countries, official portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, or other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of
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4158-482: The "imperial model", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower
4257-486: The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and the 1946 constitutional preamble, which were henceforth part of the legislative domain. and after further reforms in 1996, the legislative domain has more power than was originally thought in 1958. It enables the ratification of international treaties and those associated with the European Union. It is unclear whether the wording, especially the reserves of reciprocity,
4356-597: The Constitution. Although Article 1 of the Third Republic 's Constitutional Act of 25 February 1874 explicitly forbade the Parliament to delegate its responsibility, within five years this was ignored and had occurred several times. In 1939, in the runup to the Second World War, Parliament gave the government the power to enact decrees to protect the country. This practice became entrenched after
4455-401: The Council entertained greater judicial power and discretion upon adjudicating in the consequential political crisis. The staunch Gaullist Georges Pompidou was elected as de Gaulle’s replacement. He faced a political crisis when his Prime Minister Jacques Chaban-Delmas pressured the National Assembly into banning the radical Proletarian Left (La gauche prolétarienne) twice, which he deemed
4554-643: The French state. Charles de Gaulle was the main driving force in introducing the new constitution and inaugurating the Fifth Republic , while the text was drafted by Michel Debré . Since then, the constitution has been amended twenty-five times, through 2024 . The preamble of the constitution recalls the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen from 1789 and establishes France as
4653-487: The German president, Paul von Hindenburg , was able to dismiss a chancellor and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently, President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag. Note: The head of state in a "presidential" system may not actually hold
4752-718: The Government. Charles de Gaulle, the first president of the Fifth Republic, was instrumental in the adoption of the new constitution, as he was called back from retirement and narrowly avoided a coup resulting from the Algerian War . De Gaulle always supported the second interpretation of the constitution, in favor of a powerful president. The first socialist president, François Mitterrand, elected in 1981, also supported this interpretation. Beginning in 1986, elections have from time to time resulted in Parliaments with
4851-506: The National Union for Total Independence of Angola ( UNITA ) party, claimed that the election was fraudulent. As of 2021, there is a two-term limit for the president in the Constitution of Angola . The term limit has not been met by any president yet. The Angolan president is elected by double simultaneous first-past-the-post voting for the same five-year term as the assembly, renewable once. Each participating party nominates
4950-450: The Parliament can temporarily delegate a portion of its constitutional law-making power to the government to enable rapid consummation of urgent legislation, by passing an enabling law of legislative delegation called a loi d'habilitation ("enabling law"). According to Article 21, a loi d'habilitation may be issued by Parliament upon request of the government to temporarily delegate Parliament's constitutional law-making power to
5049-461: The Riksdag appoints (following a vote in the Riksdag ) the prime minister and terminates their commission following a vote of no confidence or voluntary resignation. Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing "On Behalf of the Government" and the government—not the monarch—is
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#17327919016665148-944: The Soviet Union this position carried such titles as Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR ; Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet ; and in the case of the Soviet Russia Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (pre-1922), and Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian SFSR (1956–1966). This position may or may not have been held by
5247-476: The bill must either be approved by the Congress , a special joint session of both houses, or submitted to a referendum . In 1962, Charles de Gaulle proposed that the president be elected by direct suffrage. He bypassed the amendment procedure by directly sending a constitutional amendment to referendum (article 11). The Art. 11 procedure was envisioned as a procedure for proposing legislation, including changing
5346-582: The collective principles of the Constitutional Block. Prior to the 1971 Freedom of Association Decision, the Council could only verify laws under the explicit textual stipulation of the 1958 Constitution. Since the 1971 decision, the Constitutional Court obtained an enhanced role in judicial review by having a broader constitutional basis to review alleged legislative breaches, curbing the goal of Gaullists from 1958 of maintaining
5445-564: The constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne. Below follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose. In
5544-516: The decision by King Leopold III of the Belgians to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After World War II , Belgium voted in
5643-493: The directly elected French parliament. One of the cornerstones of the Constitution of the French Fifth Republic was the establishment of the Constitutional Council , composing of nine justices, who oversaw the constitutionality of legislation (treaties, statutes, regulations), ensured election and referendum oversight, and arbitrated legislative disputes between the President and National Assembly. This followed
5742-528: The executive branch headed by the president and his appointed prime minister. Parliament has the fundamental responsibility for passing legislation in the Fifth Republic. There are two Houses of Parliament, the National Assembly and the Senate . The Assembly is directly elected, and the more important, and has primary power in passing legislation; the Senate can delay, but ultimately not block it. Traditionally,
5841-449: The executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majesty's Government or His/Her Excellency's Government . Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist. The Constitution of Japan ( 日本国憲法 , Nihonkoku-Kenpō )
5940-543: The form of official patronage. The Olympic Charter (rule 55.3) of the International Olympic Committee states that the Olympic summer and winter games shall be opened by the head of state of the host nation, by uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter. As such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in part delegated to such persons as a spouse,
6039-504: The government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the National Assembly . Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from
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#17327919016666138-416: The government in a specifically defined subject area and for a specific length of time. While in effect, Parliament is blocked from issuing statutes in that area, and the government is permitted to draw up ordonnances that normally would be beyond their remit. The ordonnance comes into effect immediately, but must be ratified by Parliament before the end of the period or it expires. Until ratification,
6237-488: The head of government's advice. In practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time the prime minister of the United Kingdom was unilaterally selected by the monarch was in 1963, when Queen Elizabeth II appointed Alec Douglas-Home on the advice of outgoing Prime Minister Harold Macmillan . Constitution of France The current Constitution of France was adopted on 4 October 1958. It
6336-538: The head of state is notional chief executive include Australia , Austria , Canada , Denmark , India , Italy , Norway , Spain and the United Kingdom . The few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include the Czech Republic , Ireland , Israel , Japan and Sweden . The head of state usually appoints most or all
6435-406: The key officials in the government, including the head of government and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the civil service , foreign service and commissioned officers in the military . In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on
6534-564: The king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament. For example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Sardinia , and then the Kingdom of Italy , the Statuto Albertino —the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, but not required by law. Examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include
6633-414: The leading symbol of the nation, the president in this system acts mostly as a prime minister since the incumbent must be a member of the legislature at the time of the election, answer question sessions in Parliament, avoid motions of no confidence, etc. Semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably (in the president-parliamentary subtype) a requirement that
6732-402: The legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the United States of America ). In this case the debate centers on confirming them into office, not removing them from office, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members en bloc , so accountability does not operate in the same sense understood as a parliamentary system. Presidential systems are
6831-515: The majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as "Her Majesty's Government" and "His Excellency's Government." Examples of parliamentary systems in which
6930-421: The nation"). Some academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of "models". An independent nation state normally has a head of state, and determines the extent of its head's executive powers of government or formal representational functions. In terms of protocol : the head of a sovereign , independent state is usually identified as the person who, according to that state's constitution,
7029-713: The office of President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly , while the party leader's post as chairman of the National Defense Commission was simultaneously declared "the highest post of the state", not unlike Deng Xiaoping earlier in the People's Republic of China . In China , under the current country's constitution , the Chinese President is a largely ceremonial office with limited power. However, since 1993, as
7128-404: The opposition to become prime minister, a process known as Cohabitation . President François Mitterrand , a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the neo-Gaullist (right wing) Jacques Chirac , who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in security and foreign affairs and
7227-462: The organization of constitutional institutions. The 1962 referendum was approved by 62% of the vote but only 46% of registered voters. The amendment permitted the establishment of a popularly-elected presidency, which would otherwise have been vetoed by the Parliament. The referendum was highly controversial at the time, but the Constitutional Council ruled that it can only review legislative acts for unconstitutionality, not executive acts; since
7326-417: The original version of Article 37, everything that was not reserved to the legislative domain in article was of a regulatory character (i.e., under control of the executive branch), although that clause was removed later. Since 1982, the legislative domain expanded, and since the landmark 1971 decision of the Constitutional Council , additional sources were defined as part of the constitutional block , such as
7425-520: The position when his People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola ( MPLA ) won control of the country from the Portuguese. When Neto died in 1979, José Eduardo dos Santos succeeded him. Under Dos Santos' leadership, Angola became a multi-party state, although it remained controlled by him. The election held in 1992 reelected Dos Santos with 49% of the votes. His opponent, Jonas Savimbi of
7524-446: The president to address Parliament in-session and ended the president's right of collective pardon. (See French constitutional law of 23 July 2008 ). On 4 March 2024, Parliament amended Article 34 in a 780 to 72 vote. This amendment made France, as of passage, the only nation to guarantee the right to an abortion. The amendment describes abortion as a "guaranteed freedom"; while Yugoslavia included similar measures in 1974 guaranteeing
7623-704: The presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or coup d'état , as often seen in Latin American , Middle Eastern and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system, such as a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature can also be found among absolute monarchies , parliamentary monarchies and single party (e.g., Communist ) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are applied in name only and not in political theory or practice. In certain states under Marxist–Leninist constitutions of
7722-608: The presidents in a presidential or semi-presidential system. In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. Usually,
7821-575: The prime minister is the executive branch's liaison with Parliament; Article 49 says they must pledge this role. This is weaker than the constitutions of the Third or Fourth republics, where the government could not be installed until Parliament had received the pledge from the prime minister. The unique aspect in the Fifth Republic is in Article 21 , where the prime minister has the power to make legislation. In another unique feature in Article 38 ,
7920-548: The prime minister on matters of state. In contrast, the only contact the president of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach (head of government) to the president. However, the president has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach . The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers , such as referring
8019-401: The prime minister runs the domestic and economic agenda. Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. Weimar Germany , for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from
8118-429: The prime minister, and to pardon criminals or to commute their sentence. Some parliamentary republics (like South Africa , Botswana and Kiribati ) have fused the roles of the head of state with the head of government (like in a presidential system), while having the sole executive officer, often called a president, being dependent on the Parliament's confidence to rule (like in a parliamentary system). While also being
8217-401: The referendum was proposed by the executive, it was unreviewable. Since a referendum expressed the will of the sovereign people, the Council ruled that the amendment had been adopted. Some scholars had regarded the amendment as a post hoc manifestation of the constituent power, which is the inherent power of the people to bypass an existing constitution to adopt a new constitution. Article 11
8316-583: The role is fulfilled by the lieutenant governor , whereas in most British Overseas Territories the powers and duties are performed by the governor . The same applies to Australian states , Indian states , etc. Hong Kong 's constitutional document, the Basic Law , for example, specifies the chief executive as the head of the special administrative region, in addition to their role as the head of government. These non-sovereign-state heads, nevertheless, have limited or no role in diplomatic affairs, depending on
8415-447: The role of the executive branch was only to execute it. In theory, Parliament would specify general laws, and the executive could only make regulations about how to apply the laws to day-to-day situations. In practice, this turned out differently, as Parliament on its own initiative sometimes passed acts delegating to the executive the right to alter or void acts of Parliament, called décrets-lois . This practice slowly found its way into
8514-403: The status and the norms and practices of the territories concerned. In parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the nominal chief executive officer , heading the executive branch of the state, and possessing limited executive power. In reality, however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a cabinet , presided over by
8613-580: The strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis the Landtag (legislature), has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to the Greek President under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution moved Greece closer to the French semi-presidential model. Another complication exists with South Africa , in which the president is in fact elected by
8712-454: The swearing in at the inauguration of a president of a republic, or the coronation of a monarch. One of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living national symbol of the state; in hereditary monarchies this extends to the monarch being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the Canadian monarch is described by the government as being
8811-498: The symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a personality cult where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag . Other common representations are on coins , postage and other stamps and banknotes , sometimes by no more than
8910-434: The term of Parliament. The amendment means the presidential election would take place around the parliamentary election, making it more likely to have winners who agree with one another and make cohabitation less likely. The Constitution provides for the election of the president and the Parliament , the selection of the Government, the powers of each and the relations between them. It ensures judicial authority and creates
9009-547: The time of the Glorious Revolution , the English parliament acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (the joint monarchs Mary II and William III ); likewise, Edward VIII 's abdication required the approval of each of the six independent realms of which he was monarch. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is created under the constitution and could be abolished through
9108-436: The title of " president " - the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is not directly dependent on the legislature to remain in office. Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not only in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is known as a "presidential system" and sometimes called
9207-481: The war, despite the fact that Article 13 of the 1946 Constitution of the newly founded Fourth Republic expressly forbade it. Part of the reason for this, was a lot of squabbling among numerous small political parties in Parliament, who were unable to agree on anything and were ineffective in passing legislation. This became especially problematic in the 1950s, as the crisis in Algeria began to heat up, and Parliament
9306-537: The “Constitutional Block.” The Block consisted of the 1958 Constitution, explicit standards ( Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 , the Preamble to the Constitution of the Fourth Republic or 1946 Constitution ), and implicit standards (the fundamental principles of the Republic —indivisibility, secularism, democracy, equal opportunity). Thus, according to the Council, the actions taken violated
9405-574: Was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace the previous militaristic and quasi- absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy parliamentary system . The constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet , who is chaired by the prime minister (articles 65 and 66) and responsible to the Diet (articles 67 and 69). The emperor
9504-633: Was nominally a presidential republic. However, the elected civilian presidents were effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of the Panamanian Defense Forces . Historically, at the time of the League of Nations (1920–1946) and the founding of the United Nations (1945), India's head of state was the monarch of the United Kingdom, ruling directly or indirectly as Emperor of India through
9603-466: Was unable to deal with it. Charles de Gaulle, a private citizen at the time, realized that the way out was to have a more powerful executive and a weaker Parliament; when he was finally invited to form a new government in 1958 and write a constitution, his ideas were incorporated into the Constitution of the Fifth Republic , including the legislative power sharing defined in Articles 21 and 38. In
9702-546: Was used for constitutional changes for the second and final time in 1969 , but the "No" prevailed, causing Charles de Gaulle to resign from the presidency. On 21 July 2008, Parliament passed constitutional reforms championed by President Nicolas Sarkozy by a margin of two votes. The changes, when finalized, introduced a consecutive two-term limit for the presidency, gave Parliament a veto over some presidential appointments, ended government control over Parliament's committee system, allowed Parliament to set its own agenda, allowed
9801-411: Was vacant for years. The late president was granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of " Eternal President " . All substantive power, as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, was inherited by his son Kim Jong Il . The post of president was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by
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