Philosophers
55-652: The North Sea Empire , also known as the Anglo-Scandinavian Empire , was the personal union of the kingdoms of England , Denmark and Norway for most of the period between 1013 and 1042 towards the end of the Viking Age . This ephemeral Norse -ruled empire was a thalassocracy , its components only connected by and dependent upon the sea. The first king to unite all three kingdoms was Sweyn Forkbeard , king of Denmark since 986 and of Norway since 1000, when he conquered England in 1013. He died in
110-597: A Danish conquest in his description of Anunds reign 1030. Rather Anund Jakob and Sweden militarily supported Olaf the second in his attempts to regain the Norwegian throne from Cnut 1030. In addition to part of Sweden, of which he or the person who wrote the heading to his letter claimed he was king part of, Cnut received tribute from the Wends and was allied with the Poles; in 1022, together with Godwin and Ulf Jarl, he took
165-525: A falling out and he was outlawed in 1021. The terms of their reconciliation in Denmark in 1023, with an exchange of sons for fosterage and Thorkell becoming Cnut's regent in Denmark, suggests that Thorkell had won them with an armed force. However, it was left to another of Cnut's earls, Siward , to protect his earldom of Northumbria by consolidating English power in Scotland; at his death in 1055 he, not
220-614: A fleet east into the Baltic to confirm his overlordship of the coastal areas that the Danish kings dominated from Jomsborg . Immediately after his return from Rome, Cnut led an army into Scotland and made vassals of Malcolm , the high king of Scotland, and two other kings, one of whom, Echmarcach mac Ragnaill , was a sea-king whose lands included Galloway and the Isle of Man and would become king of Dublin in 1036. All these and likely also
275-467: A fleet provided by Olaf. In 1024, Cnut had offered to let Olaf govern Norway as his vassal; but after Helgeå, he set about undermining his unpopular rule with bribes, and in 1028 set out with 50 ships to subjugate Norway. A large contingent of Danish ships joined him, and Olaf withdrew into the Oslo Fjord while Cnut sailed along the coast, landing at various points and receiving oaths of allegiance from
330-585: A generally bad impression as king. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle said of him that he never did anything royal during his entire reign. He died suddenly in June 1042 "as he stood at his drink" at the wedding feast of Tovi the Proud , one of the Danish thegns of his father's court. At first glance Harthacnut's death seems to have brought about the end of the North Sea Empire. However, Magnus of Norway , utilising
385-558: A meeting at Oxford, his followers and representatives of the English agreed that he would govern under the laws of King Edgar . Anglo-Saxon historian Frank Stenton points out that the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has relatively little to say about Cnut's reign except to note his frequent travels abroad, indicating that he was in strong control of England. Thorkell likely acted as his regent during his absences, until they had
440-428: A northern empire ... [which] would remain united after his death." It may have been simply the custom of his people. In any event, it was clear throughout Cnut's reign that the weakness of his empire lay in the impossibility of finding loyal and competent regents to govern when he could not be present. And his sons could not hold it together. The North Sea Empire collapsed immediately once Cnut died in 1035. In Norway, it
495-552: A people who valued their independence and especially resented that the new customs were Danish. Cnut also prepared to hand over Denmark to one of his sons: upon taking power in Norway, he held a great court in Nidaros and proclaimed Harthacnut , his son by Emma, king of Denmark. As Stenton points out, by appointing different sons his heirs in different countries, he demonstrated that he did not have "the deliberate intention of founding
550-742: A relationship with Conrad that led to the Emperor's son Henry marrying Cnut's daughter Gunnhild and before that to the Emperor ceding to Denmark Schleswig and a strip of ancient Danish territory between Hedeby and the Eider that the Germans had occupied as a buffer zone against the Danes. Olaf II had extended his power throughout Norway while Jarl Erik was with Cnut in England. Cnut's enmity with him extended further back: Æthelred had returned to England in
605-664: Is an ex officio co-prince. This led to personal unions with: : After 1707, see Great Britain below. Note: The point at issue in the War of the Spanish Succession was the fear that the succession to the Spanish throne dictated by Spanish law, which would devolve on Louis, le Grand Dauphin — already heir to the throne of France — would create a personal union that would upset the European balance of power ; France had
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#1732776252927660-520: Is omitted because Cnut had not yet come to power there. By the early 11th century, England had been Christian for centuries; the Danelaw was in transition from paganism to Christianity, but the Scandinavian countries were still predominantly pagan. Cnut's father, Sweyn, had initially been pagan but in later life had been basically Christian. In England, Cnut assiduously promoted the interests of
715-542: The Holy Roman Emperor . The term "North Sea Empire" was coined by historians at the beginning of the 20th century, although the conception of Cnut 's domains as having constituted an empire can be found as early as 1623, in John Speed 's Histoire of Great Britaine . Historically, the union was referred to by its individual parts: the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and England. Cnut was the younger son of
770-639: The Holy Roman Empire , while Schleswig was a part of Denmark). The situation was complicated by the fact that for some time, the Duchies were divided among collateral branches of the House of Oldenburg (the ruling House in Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein). Besides the "main" Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein-Glückstadt, ruled by the Kings of Denmark, there were states encompassing territory in both Duchies. Notably
825-554: The 15 Commonwealth realms , who share Charles III as their head of state, and one of the co-princes of Andorra being the President of France . King Chungseon reigned as King of Goryeo in 1298 and 1308–1313 and as King of Shenyang or King of Shen from 1307 (according to the History of Yuan ) or 1308 (according to Goryeosa ) to 1316. At that time, Goryeo had already become a vassal of Mongol Empire and Mongol imperial family and
880-647: The 18th century, Danish historian Jacob Langebek proposed that Styrbjörn Starke and Tyra Haraldsdotter were the parents of Thorkel Sprakalegg . Therefore, this would make Ulf Jarl a descendant of Olof (II) Björnsson of the House of Munsö and through Tyra a descendant of Harald Bluetooth of the House of Knýtlinga . His brother Eilaf was an earl of King Cnut the Great and his sister Gytha Thorkelsdóttir married Godwin, Earl of Wessex . In 1016, he participated in Cnut
935-529: The Church , and this brought him acceptance from the Christian rulers of Europe that no other Scandinavian king had previously been accorded. In Norway, in contrast, he built churches and was both respectful and generous to the clergy, but also made allies of the heathen chieftains, and unlike Olaf, did not make laws benefitting the Church until his power was on a solid footing. Early in 1017, probably because he
990-736: The Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard . When his father died on 3 February 1014 during an invasion of England, Cnut, who had been left in command of the fleet in the River Trent while Sweyn was in the south of England, was acclaimed by the Danes . However, the invasion fell apart: the men of the Kingdom of Lindsey , who had promised to supply horses for a tactical raid, were not ready before the English nobles had reinstalled King Æthelred (whom they had previously sent into exile), after forcing him to agree to govern less harshly. Cnut's brother Harald became
1045-478: The Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp and the subordinate Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein-Beck, Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg and Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. The duchies of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen were in personal union from 1909, when Prince Günther of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt succeeded also to the throne of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, until 1918, when he (and all
1100-733: The Goryeo royal family had close relationship by marriages of convenience. Because he was a very powerful man during Külüg Khan 's reign, he could become the King of Shenyang where many Korean people lived in Liaodong . However, he lost his power in the Mongol imperial court after the death of the Külüg Khan. Because the Mongol Empire made Chungseon abdicate the crown of the Goryeo in 1313,
1155-485: The Great's invasion of England . He participated in the conquest of England as one of Cnut's most trusted men. From c. 1024 he was appointed the Jarl of Denmark and King Cnut's appointee as regent of Denmark. In the absence of King Cnut, he ruled as the foster-father and guardian of Cnut's son Harthacnut . In 1015–16, he married Cnut's sister, Estrid Svendsdatter of Denmark, by whom he had sons, Svein , who later became
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#17327762529271210-410: The Great's rise to dominence. While Magnus had ejected Sveyn Estridsson from Denmark in 1046, Adam of Bremen briefly notes that Sveyn and an Earl Tovi removed Magnus from Denmark in 1047. This is confirmed by the contemporary Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , which reports that in 1047 Sveyn asked England for 50 ships to help in the battle against Magnus. "And then Sveyn expelled Magnus from Denmark and entered
1265-602: The Holy in the Heimskringla gives an account in which while Cnut lost the land battle, he was the overall victor when Ulf helped him win the accompanying sea battle. One possible explanation for this conflict of sources is that Ulf fought with the Swedes against Cnut in a 1025 battle not recounted by the saga because Olaf did not take part, but Ulf switched sides before the battle at Helgeå. If Eilaf fought against Cnut, he
1320-478: The King of Denmark, but with help from Eric Haakonsson of Norway, Cnut raised a new invasion fleet of his own and returned to England in the summer of 1015. The English were divided by intrigue among the king, his sons, and other nobles. Before the decisive battle for London could be fought, Æthelred died on 23 April 1016. The Londoners chose his son Edmund as their king, while most of the nobles met at Southampton and swore fealty to Cnut. Cnut blockaded London, but
1375-404: The King of England. In the summer of 1017, he cemented his power by marrying Æthelred's widow, Emma , although he had previously married an English noblewoman, Ælfgifu of Northampton . In 1018, he paid off his fleet (with money especially from the citizens of London) and was fully recognised as King of England. King Harald died childless in 1018 or 1019, leaving the country without a king. Cnut
1430-744: The Swedish king Olof Skötkonung was King of England have also been found in Sigtuna). Irish coinage and Swedish history at this early date is very uncertain. Also, Anglo-Saxon sources state Anund Jakob won the Battle of Helgeå . If the Danes controlled Sweden they did only control Svealand for a maximum of 3 years before Anund ousted Cnut. In 1030, Anund is again in firm control according to sources of Sweden. Since Anund Jakob decided on bishops for all of Sweden, 1030 in Adam of Bremens source. Adam does not mention
1485-751: The Welsh paid tribute, on the model of the Danegeld that Æthelred had instituted to pay off the Danes; and Cnut was thus reasserting the dominion over the Celtic kingdoms that recent English kings had had to let lapse, as well as punishing those who had supported Olaf against him. A verse by the Icelandic skald Óttarr svarti calls Cnut "king of the Danes, the Irish, the English and the Islanders"; presumably Norway
1540-506: The agreement he had made with Harthacnut in 1040, took control of Denmark and had plans to invade England and reunite the kingdoms and Empire. In consolidating his power in Denmark he crushed a Wendish invasion at the battle of Lyrskov Hede initiated shortly after he had destroyed the Jomsviking heartlands. This may have been an effective own goal, as it destroyed one of the key political and military components of Sveyn Forkbeard and Cnut
1595-567: The capital, Sigtuna , or in Lund , then part of Denmark, with the inscription CNVT REX SW ("Cnut King of the Swedes"). Western Geatland or Blekinge have been suggested. It was probably either overlordship or disputed rule; Cnut did not have to be present in Sweden to order the minting of coins, coins were also minted asserting he ruled Ireland. These coins are however usually regarded as copies of coins minted in Denmark (curiously, coins stating that
1650-491: The combined Anglo-Danish kingdom as a threat – Cnut's father Sweyn had asserted power over both their countries – took advantage of Cnut's being in England to attack Denmark in 1025 or 1026, and were joined by Ulf Jarl , Cnut's Danish regent, and his brother. Cnut took Olaf's fleet by surprise and took the battle to the Swedish fleet at the Battle of the Helgeå . The precise outcome is disputed, but Cnut came out best; Olaf fled and
1705-634: The constituent states being to some extent interlinked, such as by sharing some limited governmental institutions. Unlike a personal union, in a federation or a unitary state , a central (federal) government spanning all member states exists, with the degree of self-governance distinguishing the two. The ruler in a personal union does not need to be a hereditary monarch. The term was coined by German jurist Johann Stephan Pütter , introducing it into Elementa iuris publici germanici (Elements of German Public Law) of 1760. Personal unions can arise for several reasons, such as: They can also be codified (i.e.,
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1760-408: The constitutions of the states clearly express that they shall share the same person as head of state) or non-codified, in which case they can easily be broken (e.g., by the death of the monarch when the two states have different succession laws ). The concept of a personal union has only very rarely crossed over from monarchies into republics . There are currently two personal unions in the world:
1815-411: The country altogether and go to Denmark. Swein died shortly afterwards. In Denmark, Harthacnut was already ruling as king, but he was unable to leave for three years because of the threat that Magnus of Norway would invade to exact revenge. In the meantime the English nobles, divided between him and Cnut's younger son by Ælfgifu, Harold Harefoot , decided to compromise by having Harold rule as regent; by
1870-406: The country by a huge carnage, and the Danes paid him a large sum of money and recognized him as king. And the same year Magnus died.' Personal union Works List of forms of government A personal union is a combination of two or more monarchical states that have the same monarch while their boundaries, laws, and interests remain distinct. A real union , by contrast, involves
1925-518: The duchies failed. The duchies of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach were in personal union from 1741, when the ruling house of Saxe-Eisenach died out, until 1809, when they were merged into the single duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach . Duchies with peculiar rules for succession . See the Schleswig-Holstein Question . The kings of Denmark at the same time being dukes of Schleswig and Holstein 1460–1864. (Holstein being part of
1980-484: The end of 1037, Ælfgifu had persuaded the most important nobles to swear allegiance to Harold, who was firmly ensconced as Harold I – and Harthacnut's own mother, Queen Emma, had been forced to take refuge in Flanders. Harthacnut prepared an invasion fleet to wrest England from his half-brother, but the latter died in 1040 before it could be used. Harthacnut then became king of England, reuniting it with Denmark, but made
2035-421: The following year, and his realm was divided. His son Cnut the Great acquired England in 1016, Denmark in 1018 and Norway in 1028. He died in 1035 and his realm was again divided, but his successor in Denmark, Harthacnut , inherited England in 1040 and ruled it until his death in 1042. At the height of his power, when Cnut ruled all three kingdoms (1028–1035), he was the most powerful ruler in western Europe after
2090-401: The king of Denmark, and Beorn (Bjørn), who would become an Earl in England. Chronicler Adam of Bremen also gives Ulf a son, Åsbjørn, but does not explicitly name him as son of Estrith, as he does with Svein and Beorn. There may have also been a daughter - Harald Hardrådes saga , part of Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson gives an account of Åsmund, son of Svein's sister, yet he is likely
2145-653: The king, was overlord of all the territory that the Kingdom of Strathclyde had annexed early the previous century. The Danes had more reason to grumble about Cnut's absences than the English; he reigned primarily from England, leaving regents in charge in Denmark. He replaced Thorkell as his primary advisor in England with Godwin , an Englishman whom he made Earl of Wessex, while within three years of their reconciliation, he had also been replaced as regent of Denmark, by Ulf Jarl , Cnut's sister's husband, whom Cnut also made guardian of his son by Emma, Harthacnut . Ulf in turn proved less than loyal, first conspiring against him with
2200-457: The kings of Sweden and Norway, then making a power play by having the nobles swear fealty to Harthacnut (thus effectively to him); Cnut returned to Denmark at Christmas 1026, ordered his housecarls to kill Ulf, and it was done in Trinity church at Roskilde . By the end of his life, he had entirely replaced the Scandinavian inner circle who advised him with Englishmen. In Norway, Cnut stayed into
2255-555: The local chieftains. Finally at Nidaros , now Trondheim , he was acclaimed king at the Eyrathing, and in a few months Olaf fled to Sweden. In 1030, Olaf attempted to return, but the people of the Trondheim area did not want him back and he was defeated and killed at the Battle of Stiklestad . After Helgeå, Cnut also claimed to rule "part of Sweden" together with England, Denmark, and Norway. He may have had coins minted either in
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2310-504: The most powerful military in Europe at the time, and Spain the largest empire. Before 1707, see England and Scotland . After 1801, see United Kingdom below. In 1826, the newly created Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was initially a double duchy, ruled by Duke Ernest I in a personal union. In 1852, the duchies were bound in a political and real union. They were then a quasi-federal unitary state, even though later attempts to merge
2365-507: The new year and then left Jarl Erik's son Hakon in charge as his regent (he had served Sweyn Forkbeard in the same capacity), but he drowned the following winter. As his replacement Cnut sent Swein , the younger of his two sons by Ælfgifu and thus known as Sveinn Alfífuson in Norway – along with his mother as guardian. They were delayed in southern Norway while Olaf's return was rebuffed but became even more unpopular than he had been. Ælfgifu tried to impose new taxation and stricter controls on
2420-443: The other German monarchs) abdicated. : After 1707, see Great Britain above. After 1801, see United Kingdom below. After 1542, see England above. Because heads of state and government of republics are ordinarily chosen from within the citizens of the state in question, sovereign republics very rarely share common leaders. A few examples are: Ulf Jarl Ulf Thorgilsson , commonly known as Ulf Jarl or Earl Ulf ,
2475-717: The other was originally the Count of Foix . It is through this feudal co-prince that the Principality has entered partial personal union with: In 1607 the feudal co-prince was Henry IV of France , who issued an edict that his position should be held by the French Head of State. While during the French Revolution , the new government did not take up the title, all versions of France since 1806 regardless of their government form have accepted that their head of state
2530-588: The personal union was ended. King Chungsuk , Chungseon's eldest son, became the new King of Goryeo. In 1316, the Mongol Empire made Chungseon abdicate the crown of Shen in favour of Wang Ko , one of his nephews, resulting in him becoming the new King of Shen. Due to Andorra's special government form resulting from the Paréage of 1278 , it is a diarchy with co-princes . One of them is the Bishop of Urgell ,
2585-576: The ruler of Denmark. When Cnut learnt what had happened, he returned to Denmark and fought naval engagement against the Swedish and Norwegian forces at the Battle of the Helgeå . The victory left Cnut as the dominant leader in Scandinavia. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , which instead places the battle a year earlier in 1025, names the leaders of the Swedes as Ulf and Eglaf, usually identified with Ulf Jarl and his brother Eilaf. Saxo likewise would have Ulf fighting Cnut at Helgeå. However Saga of Olaf
2640-530: The same Åsmund named as son of Beorn in Morkinskinna . In 1026, Swedish King Anund Jakob and Norwegian King Olaf II took advantage of King Cnut's absence and launched an attack on the Danish in the Baltic Sea. Ulf convinced the freemen to elect Harthacnut king, since they were discontented at Cnut's absenteeism. This was a ruse on Ulf's part since his role as Harthacnut's guardian would make him
2695-443: The threat to Denmark was dispelled. In 1027, Cnut travelled to Rome, partly to expiate his sin for having Jarl Ulf killed the previous Christmas, partly to attend the coronation of Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor and to demonstrate his importance as a ruler. He secured relaxation of tolls levied on pilgrims journeying to Rome from Northern Europe , and on Papal fees for English archbishops receiving their pallium ; he also began
2750-541: Was a Danish jarl of Skåne and regent of Denmark . Ulf was the son of Thorgil Sprakling and the father of King Sweyn II of Denmark and thus the progenitor of the House of Estridsen , which would rule Denmark from 1047 to 1375, which was also sometimes, specially in Swedish sources, referred to as the Ulfinger dynasty to honor him. Ulf Jarl was the son of Danish chieftain Thorgils Sprakalägg . In
2805-411: Was already collapsing: by the winter of 1033, Swein and Ælfgifu were so unpopular that they were forced to leave Trondheim. In 1034, the leader of the army that had rebuffed and killed King Olaf at Stiklestad went together with one of the king's loyal followers to bring his young son Magnus back from Gardariki to rule, and in autumn 1035, a few weeks before Cnut's death, Swein and his mother had to flee
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#17327762529272860-578: Was forced to leave to replenish his supplies and was beaten by Edmund at the Battle of Otford; however, following the Danes as they raided into Essex , Edmund was in turn defeated at the Battle of Assandun . He and Cnut struck an agreement under which Edmund would retain Wessex and Cnut would rule all of England north of the River Thames. However, on 30 November 1016, Edmund in turn died, leaving Cnut as
2915-590: Was forgiven as he was retained as Earl in England until Cnut's death, and then fled, suggesting he was closely linked to the king. Any rapprochement with Ulf was short-lived. At a banquet in Roskilde , the two brothers-in-law were playing chess and started arguing with each other. The next day, the Christmas of 1026, Cnut had one of his housecarls kill Earl Ulf in Trinity Church [ da ] ,
2970-515: Was his brother's heir and went to Denmark in 1019 to claim it. While there he sent his subjects in England a letter saying he was abroad to avert an unspecified "danger", and he only returned to quell incipient rebellions. One Danish chronicle states that the Danes had previously deposed Harald in favour of Cnut, then brought back Harald because of Cnut's frequent absences, until Cnut finally became king permanently after his brother's death. King Olaf II of Norway and King Anund Jacob of Sweden , seeing
3025-562: Was king by right of conquest not more normal means, Cnut divided England into four earldoms on the Scandinavian model: Wessex he governed directly, and of his allies Thorkell the Tall became Earl of East Anglia , Eric Haakonsson retained Northumbria , which Cnut had already given him, and Eadric Streona became Earl of Mercia . But the last was disgraced and executed within a year. In 1018, Cnut revived at least two earldoms in Wessex and at
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