The Anglo-Scottish Wars comprise the various battles which continued to be fought between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland from the time of the Wars of Independence in the early 14th century through to the latter years of the 16th century.
111-450: Although the Wars of Independence, in which Scotland twice resisted attempted conquest by Plantagenet kings of England, formally ended in the treaties of 1328 and 1357 respectively, relations between the two countries remained uneasy. Incursions by English kings into Scotland continued under Richard II and Henry IV and informal cross-border conflict remained endemic. Formal flashpoints on
222-473: A challenge sent to James IV by his herald, Thomas Hawley , the Rouge Croix Pursuivant . Surrey complained that James had sent his Islay Herald , agreeing that they would join in battle on Friday between 12 noon and 3 pm, and asked that James would face him on the plain at Milfield as appointed. James had no intention of leaving his carefully prepared position, perhaps recalling the fate of
333-551: A commanding hilltop position at Flodden, awaited the English force that had been sent against him and declined a challenge to fight in an open field. Surrey's army, therefore, carried out a circuitous march to position themselves in the rear of the Scottish camp. The Scots countered that by abandoning their camp and occupying the adjacent Branxton Hill and denying it to the English. The battle began with an artillery duel followed by
444-668: A condition she cost the Schottes King not a penny. Henry also replied by letter on 12 August, writing that James was mistaken and that any of his attempts on England would be resisted. Using the pretext of revenge for the murder of Robert Kerr, a Warden of the Scottish East March who had been killed by John "The Bastard" Heron in 1508, James invaded England with an army of about 30,000 men. However, both sides had been making lengthy preparations for this conflict. Henry VIII had already organised an army and artillery in
555-482: A council or parliament at Twiselhaugh and made a proclamation for the benefit of the heirs of anyone killed during this invasion. By 29 August after a siege of six days, Bishop Thomas Ruthall 's Norham Castle was taken and partly demolished after the Scottish heavy artillery had breached the recently refurbished outer walls. The Scots then moved south, capturing the castles of Etal and Ford . A later Scottish chronicle writer, Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie , tells
666-700: A daughter of Francis I of France , and when she died a few months later of tuberculosis , he married Mary of Guise . Tension between England and Scotland increased once again; not least because Henry had already broken with the Roman Catholic Church and embarked upon the Dissolution of the Monasteries , whereas James held to Rome and gave authority to powerful prelates such as Cardinal David Beaton . War broke out in 1541. Once again there were preliminary border skirmishes, but when James sent
777-641: A diversion in Ireland before joining the French at Brest , from where it might cut the English line of communication across the English Channel . However, the fleet was so badly delayed that it played no part in the war; unfortunately, James had sent most of his experienced artillerymen with the expedition, a decision which was to have unforeseen consequences for his land campaign. Henry was in France with
888-454: A downhill advance by Scottish infantry armed with pikes. Unknown to the Scots, an area of marshy land lay in their path, which had the effect of breaking up their formations. That gave the English troops the chance to bring about a close-quarter battle for which they were better equipped. James IV was killed in the fighting and became the last monarch from Great Britain to die in battle. That and
999-595: A few. The Norman conquest of England provides an example: it built on cultural ties, led to the subjugation of the Kingdom of England to Norman control and brought William the Conqueror to the English throne in 1066. Conquest may link in some ways with colonialism . England, for example, experienced phases and areas of Anglo-Saxon , Viking and Franco-Norman colonisation and conquest. The Ottomans used
1110-497: A formal challenge for an open field battle to the English army under the Earl of Surrey and then fortified his position; this perceived lack of chivalry led Surrey to warn James that no quarter would be given or accepted. Surrey's army manoeuvred around the Scottish army, which launched an attack to open a route north to Scotland. In the resulting disastrous Battle of Flodden , James IV was killed, along with many of his nobles and gentry,
1221-460: A grandson of James II of Scotland as Regent to rule Scotland instead of Margaret and her son. Albany, who lived in France, came to Scotland on 26 May 1515. By that date Margaret had given birth to James's posthumous son Alexander and married the Earl of Angus . A later sixteenth-century Scottish attitude to the futility of the battle was given by Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie, in words that he attributed to Patrick Lord Lindsay at council before
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#17327646452631332-635: A key role throughout the period of the Anglo-Scottish Wars. Scots and English soldiers on French soil during the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) generally fought on opposing sides, with the Scots standing for the French against the English under the Auld Alliance . France in later periods, in turn, often intervened on Scottish soil for the Scots. This French involvement had increasingly complex political consequences for all sides by
1443-475: A large army into England, its leadership was weak and divided and it suffered a humbling defeat at the Battle of Solway Moss . James died shortly after the defeat. Once again, Scotland's monarch was an infant, this time Mary, Queen of Scots . Henry tried to pressure a divided Scotland into an alliance, and secure the marriage of Mary to his son Edward (the " Rough Wooing "). When Cardinal Beaton gained control of
1554-400: A method of gradual, non-military conquest in which they established suzerainty over their neighbours and then displaced their ruling dynasties . This concept was first systematized by Halil İnalcık . Conquests of this sort did not involve violent revolution but were a process of slow assimilation , established by bureaucratic means such as registers of population and resources as part of
1665-457: A move was not an option because his 20,000-26,000 strong army desperately needed resupply, the convoy of wagons bringing food and beer for the troops from Newcastle having been ambushed and looted by local Englishmen. During a council of war on Wednesday evening, an ingenious alternative plan was devised, advised by "the Bastard" Heron, who had intimate local knowledge and had recently arrived at
1776-416: A powder flask belonging to James IV and gave it to Henry VIII. A cross with rubies and sapphires with a gold chain worn by James and a hexagonal table salt with the figure of St Andrews on the lid were given to Henry by James Stanley , Bishop of Ely . Lord Dacre discovered the body of James IV on the battlefield. He later wrote that the Scots "love me worst of any Englishman living, by reason that I fande
1887-685: A quarrel with her Protestant neighbour. Conquest Conquest is the act of military subjugation of an enemy by force of arms . Military history provides many examples of conquest: the Roman conquest of Britain , the Mauryan conquest of Afghanistan and of vast areas of the Indian subcontinent , the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and various Muslim conquests , to mention just
1998-458: A range of 2,000 yards (1,800 m). However, the heaviest of these required a team of 36 oxen to move each one and were only able to fire once every twenty minutes at the most. They were commanded by the king's secretary, Patrick Paniter , an able diplomat, but who had no artillery experience. Upon Surrey's arrival, he deployed his troops on the forward slope of Piper Hill to match the Scottish dispositions. On his right, facing Hume and Huntly,
2109-421: A result of war, the conquerors taking whatever things of value they find. The desire for it has been one of the most common causes of war and conquest. In the formation of the modern state, the conspicuous immediate causes are the closely related facts of migration and conquest. The state has increased civilization and allowed increased cultural contact allowing for a cultural exchange and stimulus; frequently
2220-575: A room at the top of a tower is called 'Queen Margaret's bower'. Ten days after the Battle of Flodden, the Lords of Council met at Stirling on 19 September, and set up a General Council of the Realm "to sit upon the daily council for all matters occurring in the realm" of thirty-five lords including clergymen, lords of parliament, and two of the minor barons, the lairds of The Bass and Inverrugy. This committee
2331-473: A strong government can be maintained only through the unity of these two important facts. In other cases, especially when the conquerors create or maintain strong cultural or social institutions, the conquered culture could adopt norms or ideas from the conquering culture to expedite interactions with the new ruling class. These changes were often imposed on the conquered people by force, particularly during religiously motivated conquests . Scholars have debated
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#17327646452632442-411: Is a significant influence of migration and conquest on political development and state formation. Conquest leading to migration has contributed to race mixture and cultural exchange. The latter points influence on conquest has been of far greater significance in the evolution of society. Conquest brings humans into contact, even though it is a hostile contact. Plunder has in all times and places been
2553-409: Is not credible, since the bridge is some 6 miles (9.7 km) distant from Flodden, but James's scouts must have reported their approach. James quickly saw the threat and ordered his army to break camp and move to Branxton Hill, a commanding position which would deny the feature to the English and still give his pike formations the advantage of a downhill attack if the opportunity arose. The disadvantage
2664-566: Is unknown. On 18 August, five cannons brought down from Edinburgh Castle to the Netherbow Port at St Mary's Wynd for the invasion set off towards England dragged by borrowed oxen. On 19 August two gross culverins , four culverins pickmoyance and six (mid-sized) culverins moyane followed with the gunner Robert Borthwick and master carpenter John Drummond . The king himself set off that night with two hastily prepared standards of St Margaret and St Andrew. Catherine of Aragon
2775-755: The Auld Alliance with France by diverting Henry's English troops from their campaign against the French king, Louis XII . At this time, England was involved as a member of the " Catholic League " in the War of the League of Cambrai , defending Italy and the Pope from the French, a part of the Italian Wars . Pope Leo X , already a signatory to the anti-French Treaty of Mechlin , sent a letter to James threatening him with ecclesiastical censure for breaking his peace treaties with England on 28 June 1513, and subsequently James
2886-553: The Aztecs ; Incas ; the African Kingdoms Dahomey and Benin ; and the ancient civilizations of Egypt , Babylonia , Assyria and Persia all stand out as more militaristic than the less organized societies around them. Military adventures were on a larger scale and effective conquest for the first time became feasible. Military conquest has been one of the most persistent causes of human migrations . There
2997-491: The Battle of Flodden . Three decades later, after the death of James V in 1542, the so-called ' rough wooing ' at the hands of invading English armies under the Earl of Hertford brought manifest depredations to Scotland. The last pitched battle between Scotland and England as independent states was the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in September 1547. Periods of fighting and conflict nevertheless continued. France also played
3108-484: The British Isles . Home, Huntly and his troops were the only formation to escape intact; others escaped in small groups, closely pursued by the English. Soon after the battle, the council of Scotland decided to send for help from Christian II of Denmark . The Scottish ambassador, Andrew Brounhill, was given instructions to explain "how this cais is hapnit." Brounhill's instructions blame James IV for moving down
3219-581: The College of Arms with a sword, a dagger and a turquoise ring in 1681. The family tradition was either that these items belonged to James IV or were arms carried by Thomas Howard at Flodden. The sword blade is signed by the maker Maestre Domingo of Toledo . There is some doubt whether the weapons are of the correct period. The Earl of Arundel was painted by Philip Fruytiers , following Anthony van Dyck 's 1639 composition, with his ancestor's sword, gauntlet and helm from Flodden. Thomas Lord Darcy retrieved
3330-628: The Emperor Maximilian at the siege of Thérouanne . The Scottish Lyon King of Arms brought James IV's letter of 26 July to him. James asked him to desist from attacking France in breach of their treaty. Henry's exchange with Islay Herald or the Lyon King on 11 August at his tent at the siege was recorded. The Herald declared that Henry should abandon his efforts against the town and go home. Angered, Henry said that James had no right to summon him, and ought to be England's ally, as James
3441-486: The Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland and resulted in an English victory. The battle was fought near Branxton , in the county of Northumberland , in northern England, between an invading Scots army under King James IV and an English army commanded by the Earl of Surrey . In terms of troop numbers, it was the largest battle ever fought between the two kingdoms. After besieging and capturing several English border castles, James encamped his invading army on
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3552-407: The division of labour . Through conquest, society became divided into a ruling militant class and a subject industrial class. The regulative function devolved upon the conquering soldiers and operations side to the serfs and slaves. After a conquest where a minority imposes itself on a majority, it usually adopts the language and religion of the majority, through this force of numbers and because
3663-469: The " Flowers of the Forest ". James V of Scotland was an infant barely a year old at his father's death. Various factions among the Scottish nobles contended for power, and custody of the young king. While Henry VIII secretly encouraged some of them, English armies and some families of English and nominally Scottish Border Reivers repeatedly forayed and looted in southwest Scotland, to maintain pressure on
3774-476: The Catholics and prevent French aid reaching them. For the later part of the 16th century, peace was ensured by the probability that James VI of Scotland , who was raised as a Protestant and was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots , would become King of England on the death of Elizabeth. There was perennial trouble from Border Reivers , but Elizabeth was inclined to forgive even their depredations rather than pick
3885-592: The Dukes of Norfolk still carry an augmentation of honour awarded on account of their ancestor's victory at Flodden, a modified version of the Royal coat of arms of Scotland with the lower half of the lion removed and an arrow through the lion's mouth. At Framlingham Castle the Duke kept two silver-gilt cups engraved with the arms of James IV, which he bequeathed to Cardinal Wolsey in 1524. The Duke's descendants presented
3996-629: The Earl burst into tears and left, leaving his two sons, the Master of Angus and Glenbervie , with most of the Douglas kindred to fight. In the meantime, Surrey was reluctant to commit his army too early, since once in the field they had to be paid and fed at enormous expense. From his encampment at Pontefract , he issued an order for forces raised in the northern counties to assemble at Newcastle on Tyne on 1 September. Surrey had 500 soldiers with him and
4107-972: The Earls of Cassillis, Rothes and Caithness. On the right, the Earls of Argyll and Lennox commanded a force drawn from the Highlands and Islands . Some sources state that there was a fifth battle acting as a reserve, perhaps commanded by the Earl of Bothwell . The Scottish infantry had been equipped with 18 feet (5.5 m) long pikes by their French allies; a new weapon which had proved devastating in continental Europe, but required training, discipline and suitable terrain to use effectively. The Scottish artillery, consisting mainly of heavy siege guns , included five great curtals and two great culverins (known as "the Seven Sisters"), together with four sakers , and six great serpentines. These modern weapons fired an iron ball weighing up to 66 pounds (30 kg) to
4218-561: The English at 5,000. Brian Tuke, the English Clerk of the Signet, sent a newsletter stating 10,000 Scots killed and 10,000 escaped the field. Tuke reckoned the total Scottish invasion force to have been 60,000 and the English army at 40,000. George Buchanan wrote in his History of Scotland (published in 1582) that, according to the lists that were compiled throughout the counties of Scotland, there were about 5,000 killed. A plaque on
4329-520: The English camp. On Thursday, 8 September, Surrey moved his army from Wooler Haugh and instead of heading northwest towards Flodden, he turned east across the River Till . From there, the English picked up the old Roman road known as the Devil's Causeway and headed north, making camp at Barmoor, near Lowick . James may have assumed that Surrey was heading for Berwick-upon-Tweed for resupply, but he
4440-510: The English force by 8,000. The Scottish army was organised into four divisions or battles . That on the left wing was commanded by the Lord Home and the Earl of Huntly and consisted of a combination of Borderers and Highlanders . Next in the line was the battle commanded by the Earls of Erroll , Crawford and Montrose composed of men from the northeast of Scotland. The third was commanded by James himself together with his son Alexander and
4551-419: The English forces. Raphael Holinshed 's story is that a part of the Scottish army returned to Scotland, and the rest stayed at Ford waiting for Norham to surrender and debating their next move. James IV wanted to fight and considered moving to assault Berwick-upon-Tweed , but the Earl of Angus spoke against this and said that Scotland had done enough for France. James sent Angus home, and according to Holinshed,
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4662-461: The English may have mistaken Elphinstone's body for the king. A legend arose that James had been warned against invading England by supernatural powers. While he was praying in St Michael's Kirk at Linlithgow , a man strangely dressed in blue had approached his desk saying his mother had told him to say James should not go to war or take the advice of women. Then before the king could reply,
4773-518: The English, one month in advance, of his intent to invade. This gave the English time to gather an army. After a muster on the Burgh Muir of Edinburgh, the Scottish host moved to Ellemford, to the north of Duns, Scottish Borders , and camped to wait for Angus and Home . The Scottish army, numbering some 42,000 men, crossed the River Tweed into England near Coldstream ; the exact date of
4884-469: The Ill Raid on the same plain; he replied to Surrey that it was "not fitting for an Earl to seek to command a King". This put Surrey in a difficult position; the choice was to make a frontal attack on Flodden Edge, uphill in the face of the Scottish guns in their prepared position and in all probability be defeated, or to refuse battle, earning disgrace and the anger of King Henry. Waiting for James to make
4995-514: The King, but was not made Regent of Scotland . The French soldier Antoine d'Arces arrived at Dumbarton Castle in November with a shipload of armaments which were transported to Stirling. The English already knew the details of this planned shipment from a paper found in a bag at Flodden field. Now that James IV was dead, Antoine d'Arces promoted the appointment of John Stewart, Duke of Albany ,
5106-564: The River Till, the English army split into two; one force under Surrey crossed several fords near Heaton Castle , while a larger vanguard numbering some 15,000 commanded by the Lord Admiral and including the artillery train, crossed at Twizell Bridge downstream. Pitscottie says the vanguard crossed the bridge at 11 am and that James would not allow the Scots artillery to fire on the vulnerable English during this manoeuvre. This
5217-496: The Royal Postmaster of England, in the immediate aftermath of the battle, states that about 10,000 Scots were killed, a claim repeated by Henry VIII on 16 September while he was still uncertain of the death of James IV. William Knight sent the news from Lille to Rome on 20 September, claiming 12,000 Scots had died, with fewer than 500 English casualties. Italian newsletters put the Scottish losses at 18,000 or 20,000 and
5328-517: The Scots with a sudden volley of arrows, the English killed as many as 600 of the Scots before they were able to escape, leaving their booty and the Home family banner behind them. Although the "Ill Raid" had little effect on the forthcoming campaign, it may have influenced James's decision not to fight an open battle against Surrey on the same ground. Whether the raid was undertaken solely on Lord Home's initiative, or whether it had been authorised by James
5439-503: The Scots. The pike was an effective weapon only in a battle of movement, especially to withstand a cavalry charge. The Scottish pikes were described by the author of the Trewe Encounter as "keen and sharp spears 5 yards long". Although the pike had become a Swiss weapon of choice and represented modern warfare, the hilly terrain of Northumberland, the nature of the combat, and the slippery footing did not allow it to be employed to
5550-574: The Scottish authorities. Eventually, after the faction of the Earl of Angus gained control, peaceful relations were restored between England and Scotland. (Part of the reason for Henry's mellowing was that the disorders he had provoked in Scotland threatened to spill south of the border.) When James V came of age and assumed control, he overthrew the Angus faction, and renewed Scotland's Auld Alliance with France. He married first Madeleine of Valois ,
5661-668: The Scottish border had been sent to France. A northern army was maintained with artillery and its expense account started on 21 July. The first captains were recruited in Lambeth. Many of these soldiers wore green and white Tudor colours. Surrey marched to Doncaster in July and then Pontefract, where he assembled more troops from northern England. On 5 August, a force estimated at up to 7,000 Scottish border reivers commanded by Lord Home , crossed into Northumberland and began to pillage farms and villages, taking anything of value before burning
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#17327646452635772-414: The Scottish guns were destroyed by return fire, when in fact they were captured undamaged after the battle. The apparent silence of the Scottish artillery allowed the light English guns to turn a rapid fire on the massed ranks of infantry, although the effectiveness of this bombardment is difficult to assess. The next phase started when Home and Huntly's battle on the Scottish left advanced downhill towards
5883-413: The Scottish naval officer Sir Andrew Barton . A version of Howard's declaration to James IV that he would lead the vanguard and take no prisoners was included in later English chronicle accounts of the battle. Howard claimed his presence in "proper person" at the front was his trial by combat for Barton's death. Flodden was essentially a victory of the bill used by the English over the pike used by
5994-567: The Swiss pikemen at the Battle of Marignano , using a combination of heavy cavalry and artillery, ushering in a new era in the history of war. An official English diplomatic report issued by Brian Tuke noted the Scots' iron spears and their initial "very good order after the German fashion", but concluded that "the English halberdiers decided the whole affair, so that in the battle the bows and ordnance were of little use." Despite Tuke's comment (he
6105-487: The archers. After suffering heavy casualties the Highlanders scattered. The fierce fighting continued, centred on the contest between Surrey and James. As other English formations overcame the Scottish forces they had initially engaged, they moved to reinforce their leader. An instruction to English troops that no prisoners were to be taken explains the exceptional mortality amongst the Scottish nobility. James himself
6216-425: The armoured front line was mostly unaffected; this is confirmed by the ballads which note that some few Scots were wounded in the scalp and, wrote Hall, James IV sustained a significant arrow wound. Many of the archers were recruited from Lancashire and Cheshire . Sir Richard Assheton raised one such company from Middleton , near Manchester . He rebuilt his parish church St. Leonard's, Middleton , which contains
6327-466: The attempt to enforce an alliance, and also to impose an Anglican church on Scotland. He won a great victory at the Battle of Pinkie , but Mary was smuggled to France to be betrothed to the Dauphin Francis . Fighting continued for some more years, notably at the siege of Haddington , and French troops assisted the Scots. Without lasting peace, Somerset's regime could not stand the expense of
6438-425: The battle with an artillery duel, but his big guns did not perform as well as he had hoped. Contemporary accounts put this down to the difficulty for the Scots of shooting downhill, but another factor must have been that their guns had been poorly sited instead of being carefully emplaced, which was usually required for such heavy weapons, further slowing their ponderous rate of fire. This may explain English claims that
6549-471: The battle, there were legends that James IV had survived. A Scottish merchant at Tournai in October claimed to have spoken with him, and Lindsay of Pitscottie records two myths: "thair cam four great men upon hors, and every ane of thame had ane wisp upoun thair spear headis, quhairby they might know one another and brought the king furth of the feild, upoun ane dun hackney," and also that the king escaped from
6660-401: The battle. When James was in council at the camp at Flodden Edge, a hare ran out of his tent and escaped the weapons of his knights; it was found that mice had gnawed away the strings and buckle of the king's helmet; and in the morning his tent was spreckled with a bloody dew. The wife of James IV, Queen Margaret Tudor, is said to have awaited news of her husband at Linlithgow Palace , where
6771-520: The best effect. Bishop Ruthall reported to Thomas Wolsey , 'the bills disappointed the Scots of their long spears, on which they relied.' The infantrymen at Flodden, both Scots and English, had fought essentially like their ancestors, and Flodden has been described as the last great medieval battle in the British Isles. This was the last time that bill and pike would come together as equals in battle. Two years later Francis I of France defeated
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#17327646452636882-402: The body of the King of Scots." The chronicle writer John Stow gave a location for the king's death; "Pipard's Hill," now unknown, which may have been the small hill on Branxton Ridge overlooking Branxton church. Dacre took the body to Berwick-upon-Tweed, where according to Hall's Chronicle , it was viewed by the captured Scottish courtiers William Scott and John Forman who acknowledged it was
6993-590: The body too, as Henry had sent her the Duke of Longueville , his prisoner from Thérouanne, but "Englishmen's hearts would not suffer it." In addition to these relics, the gold crucifix worn by James IV on the field of battle, set with three balas rubies and three sapphires and containing a fragment of the True Cross, was listed in the jewel book inventory of Henry VIII in the chapel of the Tower of London . Soon after
7104-529: The border included places remaining under English occupation, such as Roxburgh Castle and the port of Berwick-upon-Tweed . Roxburgh was recaptured by the Scots in 1460 under Mary of Guelders after the death of James II in the same campaign. Similarly, they captured Berwick in 1461 in exchange for support to the Lancastrians. Berwick had changed hands a number of times in the past, and as one country attempted to take advantage of weakness or instability in
7215-727: The border of England and Scotland, most notably the Battle of Sark in 1448. These battles were the result of England's ongoing military campaigning in France and Scottish attempts to support the House of Valois. England under Henry VIII declared war on France in 1512 (as part of the larger conflict known as the War of the League of Cambrai ). James IV of Scotland invaded England in fulfillment of his alliance with France (even though married to Henry's sister Margaret). In 1513, after preliminary raids by borderers came to grief, James's main army invaded England. His artillery quickly subdued English castles such as Norham and Wark. However, James issued
7326-499: The close-quarter fighting that developed. It is unclear whether James had seen the difficulty encountered by the battle of the three earls, but he followed them down the slope regardless, making for Surrey's formation. James has been criticised for placing himself in the front line, thereby putting himself in personal danger and losing his overview of the field. He was, however, well-known for taking risks in battle and it would have been out of character for him to stay back. Encountering
7437-451: The completion of the muster and the arrival of the Lord Admiral whose ships had been delayed by storms. On Sunday 4 September, James and the Scottish army had taken up a position at Flodden Edge, a hill to the south of Branxton. This was an immensely strong natural feature since the flanks were protected by marshes on one side and steep slopes on the other, leaving only a direct approach. The amount of fortification which James constructed on
7548-566: The conquerors have taken over the culture of their subjects. With subjugation, further class distinctions arise. The conquered people are enslaved; thus the widest possible social classes are produced: the enslaved and the free. The slaves are put to work to support the upper classes, who regard war as their chief business. The state is in origin a product of war and exists primarily as an enforced peace between conquerors and conquered. From slavery and from conquest, another result of war, sprang differentiation of classes and occupations termed
7659-478: The crossing is not recorded, but is generally accepted to have been 22 August. The Scottish troops were unpaid and were only required by feudal obligation to serve for forty days. Once across the border, a detachment turned south to attack Wark on Tweed Castle , while the bulk of the army followed the course of the Tweed downstream to the northeast to invest the remaining border castles. On 24 August, James IV held
7770-443: The engagement. Lord Lindsay advised the King to withdraw, comparing their situation to an honest merchant playing dice with a trickster, and wagering a gold rose-noble against a bent halfpenny. Their King was the gold piece, England the trickster, and Thomas Howard the halfpenny. Surrey's army lost 1,500 men killed in battle. There were various conflicting accounts of the Scottish loss. A contemporary account produced in French for
7881-399: The existence of a norm against conquest since 1945. Conquest of large swaths of territory has been rare, but states have since 1945 continued to pursue annexation of small swaths of territory. Battle of Flodden The Battle of Flodden , Flodden Field , or occasionally Branxton or Brainston Moor was fought on 9 September 1513 during the War of the League of Cambrai between
7992-575: The feudal timar system. The ancient civilized peoples conducted wars on a large scale that were, in effect, conquests. In Egypt the effects of invasion and conquest are to be seen in different racial types represented in paintings and sculptures. Improved agriculture production was not conducive to peace ; it allowed for specialization which included the formation of ever-larger militaries and improved weapon technology . This, combined with growth of population and political control, meant war became more widespread and destructive. Thus,
8103-456: The field but was killed between Duns and Kelso. Similarly, John Lesley adds that the body taken to England was "my lord Bonhard" and James was seen in Kelso after the battle and then went secretly on pilgrimage in far nations. George Buchanan reported a rumour that James IV had escaped the field, leaving his Squire of Attendance, Alexander Elphinstone, 1st Lord Elphinstone to fight on, and that
8214-406: The first decade of the 16th century James IV of Scotland and Henry VII of England were making overtures for lasting peace after aiding the latter, along with Scotland's ally France in the Battle of Bosworth . This broke down after the accession of the more overtly bellicose Henry VIII to the English throne and James IV's catastrophically misjudged incursion into Northumbria in 1513 ending in
8325-522: The government of Scotland and renewed the alliance with France, Henry reacted in 1544 by sending an army under the Earl of Hertford , Edward's uncle, to burn Edinburgh and cause devastation and slaughter throughout southern Scotland, as a means of inducing a change of heart. Campaigning continued the next year, but some Scottish factions reconciled and won a victory at the Battle of Ancrum Moor , which temporarily halted English attacks. Henry died in 1547. Hertford, now Protector and Duke of Somerset, renewed
8436-483: The gravity of his situation. In the meantime, he positioned his troops on the dead ground from where he hoped that the Scots could not assess the size of his force. James declined to attack the vulnerable vanguard, reportedly saying that he was "determined to have them all in front of me on one plain field and see what all of them can do against me". James' army, somewhat reduced from the original 42,000 by sickness and desertion, still amounted to about 34,000, outnumbering
8547-399: The hill is disputed; several antiquaries had mapped supposed ramparts and bastions there over the centuries, but excavations conducted between 2009 and 2015 found no trace of 16th century work and concluded that James may have reused some features of an Iron Age hill fort . The Earl of Surrey, writing at Wooler Haugh on Wednesday 7 September, compared this position to a fortress in
8658-436: The hill to attack the English on marshy ground from a favourable position, and credits the victory to Scottish inexperience rather than English valour. The letter also mentions that the Scots placed their officers in the front line in medieval style, where they were vulnerable, contrasting this loss of the nobility with the English great men who took their stand with the reserves and at the rear. The English generals stayed behind
8769-404: The houses. Surrey had taken the precaution of sending Sir William Bulmer north with 200 mounted archers, which Bulmer augmented with locally levied men to create a force approaching 1,000 in strength. On 13 August, they prepared an ambush for the Scots as they returned north laden with the spoils of their looting, by hiding in the broom bushes that grew shoulder-high on Milfield Plain . Surprising
8880-497: The intervention of Dacre's light horsemen, who were able to approach unobserved in the dead ground that had been exploited earlier by the vanguard. The eventual result was a stalemate in which both sides stood off from each other and played no further part in the battle. According to later accounts, when Huntly suggested that they rejoin the fighting, Home replied: "the man does well this day who saves himself: we fought those who were opposed to us and beat them; let our other companies do
8991-520: The king's. (Forman, the king's sergeant-porter, had been captured by Richard Assheton of Middleton. ) The body was then embalmed and taken to Newcastle upon Tyne . From York , a city that James had promised to capture before Michaelmas , the body was brought to Sheen Priory near London. A payment of £12-9s-10d was made for the "sertying ledying and sawdryng of the ded course of the King of Scottes" and carrying it York and to Windsor. James's banner, sword and his cuisses (thigh-armour), were taken to
9102-600: The later 16th century. The Anglo-Scottish Wars can be said to have formally ended with the Union of the Crowns in 1603, wherein England and Scotland entered a personal union under James VI and I , who inherited both crowns. Bloody conflict between the two states nevertheless continued to arise in different and more complex guise throughout the course of the 17th century. During the mid-15th century, there were many conflicts on
9213-484: The lines in the Renaissance style. The loss of so many Scottish officers meant there was no one to coordinate a retreat. However, according to contemporary English reports, Thomas Howard marched on foot leading the English vanguard to the foot of the hill. Howard was moved to dismount and do this by taunts of cowardice sent by James IV's heralds, apparently based on his role at sea and the death two years earlier of
9324-517: The loss of a large proportion of the nobility led to a political crisis in Scotland. British historians sometimes use the Battle of Flodden to mark the end of the Middle Ages in the British Isles ; another candidate is the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. Centuries of intermittent warfare between England and Scotland had been formally brought to an end by the Treaty of Perpetual Peace which
9435-516: The man vanished. David Lindsay of the Mount and John Inglis could find no trace of him. The historian R. L. Mackie wondered if the incident really happened as a masquerade orchestrated by an anti-war party: Norman Macdougall doubts if there was a significant anti-war faction. Three other portents of disaster were described by Paolo Giovio in 1549 and repeated in John Polemon's 1578 account of
9546-430: The monument to the 2nd Duke of Norfolk (as the Earl of Surrey became in 1514) at Thetford put the figure at 17,000. Edward Hall, thirty years after, wrote in his Chronicle that "12,000 at the least of the best gentlemen and flower of Scotland" were slain. As the nineteenth-century antiquarian John Riddell supposed, nearly every noble family in Scotland would have lost a member at Flodden. The dead are remembered by
9657-512: The north of England to counter the expected invasion. Some of the guns had been returned to use against the Scots by Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy . A year earlier, Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey , had been appointed Lieutenant-General of the army of the north and was issued with banners of the Cross of St George and the Red Dragon of Wales . Only a small number of the light horsemen of
9768-477: The opposite troops commanded by Edmund Howard. They advanced, according to the English, "in good order, after the Alamayns [i.e. German] manner, without speaking a word". The Scots had placed their most heavily armoured men in the front rank so that the English archers had little impact. The outnumbered English battle was forced back and elements of it began to run off. Surrey saved his son from disaster by ordering
9879-644: The other, siding on one side in the civil war, culminating in final capture for the English of the Scottish port by the Yorkist Richard, Duke of Gloucester in 1482. England's preoccupation with civil war during the Wars of the Roses and Scotland's aid to the Lancastrian cause may have been a component in the period of relative recovery for her northern neighbour during the course of the 15th century, and by
9990-485: The rear. The English infantry was equipped with traditional polearms , mostly bills which were their favoured weapon. There was also a large contingent of well-trained archers armed with the English longbow . The English artillery consisted of light field guns of rather old-fashioned design, typically firing a ball of only about 1 pound (0.45 kg), but they were easily handled and capable of rapid fire. At about 4 pm on Friday in wet and windy weather, James began
10101-526: The same difficulties as the previous attack, James's men nevertheless fought their way to Surrey's bodyguard but no further. The final uncommitted Scottish formation, Argyll and Lennox's Highlanders held back, perhaps awaiting orders. The last English formation to engage was Stanley's force which, after following a circuitous route from Barmoor, finally arrived on the right of the Scottish line. They loosed volleys of arrows into Argyll and Lennox's battle, whose men lacked armour or any other effective defence against
10212-405: The same!". In the meantime, James had observed Home and Huntly's initial success and ordered the advance of the next battle in line, commanded by Errol, Crawford and Montrose. At the foot of Branxton Hill, they encountered an unforeseen obstacle, an area of marshy ground, identified by modern hydrologists as a groundwater seepage zone, made worse by days of heavy rain. As they struggled to cross
10323-505: The shrine of Saint Cuthbert at Durham Cathedral. Much of the armour of the Scottish casualties was sold on the field, and 350 suits of armour were taken to Nottingham Castle . A list of horses taken at the field runs to 24 pages. Thomas Hawley, the Rouge Croix pursuivant, was first with news of the victory. He brought the "rent surcoat of the King of Scots stained with blood" to Catherine of Aragon at Woburn Abbey . She sent news of
10434-621: The song (and pipe tune) " Flowers of the Forest ": Contemporary English ballads also recalled the significance of the Scottish losses: A legend grew that while the artillery was being prepared in Edinburgh before the battle, a demon called Plotcock had read out the names of those who would be killed at the Mercat Cross on the Royal Mile . According to Pitscottie, a former Provost of Edinburgh , Richard Lawson, who lived nearby, threw
10545-589: The story that James wasted valuable time at Ford enjoying the company of Elizabeth, Lady Heron and her daughter. Edward Hall says that Lady Heron was a prisoner (in Scotland), and negotiated with James IV and the Earl of Surrey her own release and that Ford Castle would not be demolished for an exchange of prisoners. The English herald, Rouge Croix , came to Ford to appoint a place for battle on 4 September, with extra instructions that any Scottish heralds who were sent to Surrey were to be met where they could not view
10656-585: The unique "Flodden Window." It depicts and names the archers and their priest in stained glass. The window has been called the oldest known war memorial in the UK. The success of the Cheshire yeomanry, under the command of Richard Cholmeley , led to his later appointment as Lieutenant of the Tower of London . As a reward for his victory, Thomas Howard was subsequently restored to the title of Duke of Norfolk , lost by his father's support for Richard III . The arms of
10767-412: The victory to Henry VIII at Tournai with Hawley, and then sent John Glyn on 16 September with James's coat (and iron gauntlets ) and a detailed account of the battle written by Lord Howard. Brian Tuke mentioned in his letter to Cardinal Bainbridge that the coat was lacerated and chequered with blood. Catherine suggested Henry should use the coat as his battle-banner, and wrote she had thought to send him
10878-470: The war. He was overthrown and eventually executed. Pinkie Cleugh was the last pitched battle between England and Scotland prior to the Union of the Crowns in 1603. Beaton was murdered in 1546, and within a few years, Scotland underwent a major religious reformation which was, unlike most European countries, remarkably peaceful and was never seriously threatened by counter-reformation, though neighbouring England
10989-412: The waterlogged ground, the Scots lost the cohesion and momentum on which pike formations depended for success. Once the line was disrupted, the long pikes became an unwieldy encumbrance, and the Scots began to drop them "so that it seemed as if a wood were falling down" according to a later English poem. Reaching for their side-arms of swords and axes, they found themselves outreached by the English bills in
11100-588: Was excommunicated by Cardinal Christopher Bainbridge . James also summoned sailors and sent the Scottish navy, including the Great Michael , to join the ships of Louis XII of France. The fleet of twenty-two vessels commanded by James Hamilton, 1st Earl of Arran , departed from the Firth of Forth on 25 July accompanied by James as far as the Isle of May , intending to pass around the north of Scotland and create
11211-456: Was a battle composed of men from Cheshire, Lancashire and Yorkshire, commanded by Surrey's third son, Lord Edmund Howard . Of the central battles, one was commanded by the Lord Admiral and the other by Surrey himself. Sir Edward Stanley 's force of cavalry and archers had been the last to leave Barmoor and would not arrive on the left flank until later in the day. A reserve of mounted Borderers commanded by Thomas, Baron Dacre were positioned to
11322-426: Was actually intending to outflank the Scots and either attack or blockade them from the rear. At 5 am on the morning of Friday, 9 September, after a damp night on short rations and having to drink water from streams because the beer had run out, Surrey's men set off westwards to complete their manoeuvre. Their objective was Branxton Hill, lying less than 2 miles (3.2 km) north of James's camp at Flodden. To re-cross
11433-531: Was intended to rule in the name of Margaret Tudor and her son James V of Scotland . The full Parliament of Scotland met at Stirling Castle on 21 October, where the 17-month-old King was crowned in the Chapel Royal. The General Council of Lords made special provisions for the heirs of those killed at Flodden, following a declaration made by James IV at Twiselhaugh, and protection for their widows and daughters. Margaret Tudor remained guardian or 'tutrix' of
11544-586: Was killed in the final stage of the battle; his body was found surrounded by the corpses of his bodyguard of the Archers' Guard, recruited from the Forest of Ettrick and known as "the Flowers of the Forest". Despite having the finest armour available, the king's corpse was found to have two arrow wounds, one in the jaw, and wounds from bladed weapons to the neck and wrist. He was the last monarch to die in battle in
11655-645: Was married to his (Henry's) sister, Margaret . He declared: And now, for a conclusion, recommend me to your master and tell him if he be so hardy to invade my realm or cause to enter one foot of my ground I shall make him as weary of his part as ever was man that began any such business. And one thing I ensure him by the faith that I have to the Crown of England and by the word of a King, there shall never King nor Prince make peace with me that ever his part shall be in it. Moreover, fellow, I care for nothing but for misentreating of my sister, that would God she were in England on
11766-459: Was not present), this battle was one of the first major engagements in the British Isles where artillery was significantly deployed. John Lesley , writing sixty years later, noted that the Scottish bullets flew over the English heads while the English cannon was effective: the one army placed so high and the other so low. The Scots' advance down the hill was resisted by a hail of arrows, an incident celebrated in later English ballads. Hall says that
11877-480: Was regent in England. On 27 August, she issued warrants for the property of all Scotsmen in England to be seized. On hearing of the invasion on 3 September, she ordered Thomas Lovell to raise an army in the Midland counties . She prepared banners for an army, including her heraldry, in case she herself was called north. In keeping with his understanding of the medieval code of chivalry , King James sent notice to
11988-400: Was signed in 1502. However, relations were soon soured by repeated cross-border raids, rivalry at sea leading to the death of the Scottish privateer Andrew Barton and the capture of his ships in 1511, and increasingly bellicose rhetoric by King Henry VIII of England in claiming to be the overlord of Scotland. Conflict began when James IV, King of Scots , declared war on England to honour
12099-415: Was that the Scots were moving onto ground that had not been reconnoitred. The Lord Admiral, arriving with his vanguard at Branxton village, was unaware of the new Scottish position which was obscured by smoke from burning rubbish; when he finally caught sight of the Scottish army arrayed on Branxton Hill, he sent a messenger to his father urging him to hurry and also sending his Agnus Dei pendant to underline
12210-566: Was to be joined at Newcastle by 1,000 experienced soldiers and sailors with their artillery, who would arrive by sea under the command of Surrey's son, also called Thomas Howard , the Lord High Admiral of England . By 28 August, Surrey had arrived at Durham Cathedral where he was presented with the banner of Saint Cuthbert , which had been carried by the English in victories against the Scots in 1138 and 1346. On 3 September, Surrey moved his advanced guard to Alnwick while he awaited
12321-475: Was to undergo a counter-reformation under Queen Mary I . For a while, both countries were distracted by internal troubles. Eventually, Queen Elizabeth I came to rule England and restore stability. Scotland remained divided. The Catholic faction under the queen mother, Mary of Guise , held Leith and Edinburgh . Elizabeth was able to ensure victory for the Protestant faction by using her fleet to blockade
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