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174-434: Animal testing , also known as animal experimentation , animal research , and in vivo testing , is the use of non-human animals , such as model organisms , in experiments that seek to control the variables that affect the behavior or biological system under study. This approach can be contrasted with field studies in which animals are observed in their natural environments or habitats. Experimental research with animals
348-452: A Soviet dog , Laika , became the first of many animals to orbit the Earth . In the 1970s, antibiotic treatments and vaccines for leprosy were developed using armadillos, then given to humans. The ability of humans to change the genetics of animals took an enormous step forward in 1974 when Rudolf Jaenisch could produce the first transgenic mammal , by integrating DNA from simians into
522-587: A 'mild' procedure would be something like a blood test or an MRI scan. The Three Rs (3Rs) are guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in testing. These were first described by W.M.S. Russell and R.L. Burch in 1959. The 3Rs state: The 3Rs have a broader scope than simply encouraging alternatives to animal testing, but aim to improve animal welfare and scientific quality where the use of animals can not be avoided. These 3Rs are now implemented in many testing establishments worldwide and have been adopted by various pieces of legislation and regulations. Despite
696-497: A broad number of 120 inspectors, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) oversees more than 12,000 facilities involved in research, exhibition, breeding, or dealing of animals. Others have criticized the composition of IACUCs, asserting that the committees are predominantly made up of animal researchers and university representatives who may be biased against animal welfare concerns. Larry Carbone,
870-472: A closely related parasite of raccoons , Dirofilaria tenuis . Several hundred cases of subcutaneous infections in humans have been reported in Europe, but these are almost always caused by another closely related parasite, Dirofilaria repens , rather than the dog heartworm. There are proven D. immitis infections, but humans rarely get infected with heartworms due to the larvae never fully maturing. When
1044-558: A course of action. As part of our "social contract" we expect that the typical person can make use of all four of these motivational perspectives. Individual persons will weigh these motives in a manner that reflects their personal characteristics. That life is lived in a "dramaturgical" pattern is to say that people make sense, that their lives have patterns of significance. The paradigm case allows for nonhuman persons, potential persons, nascent persons, manufactured persons, former persons, "deficit case" persons, and "primitive" persons. By using
1218-577: A cure for a disease. Examples of applied research include testing disease treatments, breeding, defense research, and toxicology , including cosmetics testing . In education, animal testing is sometimes a component of biology or psychology courses. Research using animal models has been central to most of the achievements of modern medicine. It has contributed to most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human physiology and biochemistry , and has played significant roles in fields such as neuroscience and infectious disease . The results have included
1392-436: A dog. The microfilariae circulate in the bloodstream for as long as two years, and are ingested by bloodsucking mosquitos, where development occurs and the cycle repeats. Hosts of Dirofilaria immitis include: Reservoir hosts for D. immitis are coyotes and stray dogs. Dogs show no indication of heartworm infection during the six-month prepatent period prior to the worms' maturation, and current diagnostic tests for
1566-593: A dozen stolen pets during a raid on a Class B dealer in Arkansas in 2003. Four states in the U.S.— Minnesota , Utah , Oklahoma , and Iowa —require their shelters to provide animals to research facilities. Fourteen states explicitly prohibit the practice, while the remainder either allow it or have no relevant legislation. In the European Union, animal sources are governed by Council Directive 86/609/EEC , which requires lab animals to be specially bred, unless
1740-681: A drug after they had prosecuted a company for selling products that harmed customers. However, in response to the Elixir Sulfanilamide disaster of 1937 in which the eponymous drug killed over 100 users, the US Congress passed laws that required safety testing of drugs on animals before they could be marketed. Other countries enacted similar legislation. In the 1960s, in reaction to the Thalidomide tragedy, further laws were passed requiring safety testing on pregnant animals before
1914-411: A drug can be sold. Although many more invertebrates than vertebrates are used in animal testing, these studies are largely unregulated by law. The most frequently used invertebrate species are Drosophila melanogaster , a fruit fly, and Caenorhabditis elegans , a nematode worm. In the case of C. elegans , the worm's body is completely transparent and the precise lineage of all the organism's cells
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#17327720643142088-463: A few main stock centers. For vertebrates, sources include breeders and dealers including Fortrea and Charles River Laboratories , which supply purpose-bred and wild-caught animals; businesses that trade in wild animals such as Nafovanny ; and dealers who supply animals sourced from pounds, auctions, and newspaper ads. Animal shelters also supply the laboratories directly. Large centers also exist to distribute strains of genetically modified animals ;
2262-445: A form of behavior in which a person (a) engages in an Intentional Action, (b) is cognizant of that, and (c) has chosen to do that. A person is not always engaged in a deliberate action but has the eligibility to do so. A human being is an individual who is both a person and a specimen of Homo sapiens. Since persons are deliberate actors, they also employ hedonic, prudent, aesthetic and ethical reasons when selecting, choosing or deciding on
2436-423: A heartworm infection, though the immune system response can cause many of the same symptoms. Also, even if the infection resolves, respiratory damage can cause some symptoms to persist beyond it. Diagnosis of heartworm infection in cats is problematic. Like in dogs, a positive ELISA test for heartworm antigen is a very strong indication of infection. However, the likelihood of a positive antigen test depends on
2610-504: A human exceptionalist understanding of personhood. Catechism 2270 reads: "Human life must be respected and protected absolutely from the moment of conception. From the first moment of his existence, a human being must be recognized as having the rights of a person – among which is the inviolable right of every innocent being to life." In the United States, the personhood of women has important legal consequences. Although in 1920
2784-591: A laboratory animal veterinarian, writes that, in his experience, IACUCs take their work very seriously regardless of the species involved, though the use of non-human primates always raises what he calls a "red flag of special concern". A study published in Science magazine in July 2001 confirmed the low reliability of IACUC reviews of animal experiments. Funded by the National Science Foundation,
2958-478: A lack of studies showing a clear benefit of treatment and the short lifespan of heartworms in cats, adulticide therapy is not recommended, and no drugs are approved in the US for this purpose in cats. Treatment typically consists of putting the cat on a monthly heartworm preventive and a short-term corticosteroid . Surgery has also been used successfully to remove adult worms. The prognosis for feline heartworm disease
3132-455: A lower degree of biological similarity with mammals for significant gains in experimental throughput. In the U.S., the numbers of rats and mice used is estimated to be from 11 million to between 20 and 100 million a year. Other rodents commonly used are guinea pigs, hamsters, and gerbils. Mice are the most commonly used vertebrate species because of their size, low cost, ease of handling, and fast reproduction rate. Mice are widely considered to be
3306-495: A medical procedure. It is to acknowledge that the government has the power to say who is a person and who is not. Who, then, is to limit the groups to whom it is applied? This is what makes "personhood" such an important public policy issue. In March 2007 Georgia became the first state in the nation to introduce a legislative resolution to amend the state constitution to define and recognize the personhood of fetuses. The Georgia Catholic Conference and National Right to Life supported
3480-474: A minimum "the fourteenth amendment was intended to prohibit some forms of sex discrimination – discrimination in basic civil rights against single women." Many local marriage laws at the time the 14th Amendment was ratified (as well as when the original Constitution was ratified) had concepts of coverture and "head-and-master", which meant that women legally lost rights upon marriage, including rights to ownership of property and other rights of adult participation in
3654-412: A negative connotation, implying torture, suffering, and death. The word "vivisection" is preferred by those opposed to this research, whereas scientists typically use the term "animal experimentation". The following text excludes as much as possible practices related to in vivo veterinary surgery , which is left to the discussion of vivisection . The earliest references to animal testing are found in
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#17327720643143828-510: A number of veterinary drugs. The drugs approved for use in the US are ivermectin (sold under the brand names Heartgard , Iverhart , and several other generic versions), milbemycin (Interceptor Flavor Tabs and Sentinel Flavor Tabs ) and moxidectin (Simparica Trio) administered as chewable tablets. Moxidectin is also available in both a six-month and 12-month sustained-release injection, ProHeart 6 and ProHeart 12 , respectively, administered by veterinarians. This injectable form of moxidectin
4002-430: A paradigm case methodology, different observers can point to where they agree and where they disagree about whether an entity qualifies as a person. As an application of social psychology and other disciplines, phenomena such as the perception and attribution of personhood have been scientifically studied. Typical questions addressed in social psychology are the accuracy of attribution, processes of perception and
4176-484: A performance criterion, nor assimilate animals to machines... [likewise] there are matters of significance for human beings which are peculiarly human, and have no analogue with animals. Relatedly, Martin Heidegger developed his understanding of the distinctive kind of being which a person is as Dasein . The term's literal means an existence as a "being-there" or "there-being." Heidegger writes that, "Dasein itself has
4350-403: A person is: In general usage, a human being (i.e. natural person), though by statute term may include a firm, labor organizations, partnerships, associations, corporations, legal representatives, trustees, trustees in bankruptcy, or receivers. In Federal law, the concept of legal personhood is formalized by statute (1 USC § 8) to include "every infant member of the species homo sapiens who
4524-550: A positive antigen test. An antibody test is also available for feline heartworm infection. It will be positive in the event of exposure to D. immitis , so a cat that has successfully eliminated an infection may still be positive for up to three months. The antibody test is more sensitive than the antigen test, but it does not provide direct evidence of adult infection. It can, however, be considered specific for diagnosing previous larval infections, and therefore fairly specific for heartworm-associated respiratory disease. X-rays of
4698-628: A practice known as bunching . It was in part out of public concern over the sale of pets to research facilities that the 1966 Laboratory Animal Welfare Act was ushered in—the Senate Committee on Commerce reported in 1966 that stolen pets had been retrieved from Veterans Administration facilities, the Mayo Institute, the University of Pennsylvania, Stanford University, and Harvard and Yale Medical Schools. The USDA recovered at least
4872-559: A reduction from a high of 50 million used in 1970. In 1986, the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment reported that estimates of the animals used in the U.S. range from 10 million to upwards of 100 million each year, and that their own best estimate was at least 17 million to 22 million. In 2016, the Department of Agriculture listed 60,979 dogs, 18,898 cats, 71,188 non-human primates, 183,237 guinea pigs, 102,633 hamsters, 139,391 rabbits, 83,059 farm animals, and 161,467 other mammals,
5046-411: A repellent and a heartworm preventive. The repellent, such as Vectra 3-D, keeps mosquitoes from feeding on the dog and transmitting the L 3 stage worms. If a dog is bitten, the heartworm preventive takes over when administered. If a mosquito feeds on a heartworm positive dog on a repellent, they do not live long enough for the microfilaria they ingested to molt into the infective L 3 larva. Vectra 3-D
5220-495: A result of secondary congestive heart failure . Although at one time confined to the southern United States, heartworm has now spread to nearly all locations where its mosquito vector is found. In the southeast region of the United States, veterinary clinics saw an average of more than 100 cases of heartworm each in 2016. Transmission of the parasite occurs in all of the United States (cases have even been reported in Alaska ), and
5394-421: A result, animals are not always receiving basic humane care and treatment and, in some cases, pain and distress are not minimized during and after experimental procedures". According to the report, within a three-year period, nearly half of all American laboratories with regulated species were cited for AWA violations relating to improper IACUC oversight. The USDA OIG made similar findings in a 2005 report. With only
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5568-401: A safer alternative for dogs with late-stage infections. After treatment, the dog must rest, and exercise is to be heavily reduced for several weeks so as to give its body sufficient time to absorb the dead worms without ill effect. Otherwise, if the dog is under exertion, dead worms may break loose and travel to the lungs, potentially causing respiratory failure and sudden death. According to
5742-468: A special distinctiveness as compared with other entities; [...] it is ontically distinguished by the fact that, in its very Being, that Being is an issue for it." For Heidegger, the way in which Being is an issue for a person as Dasein is their future oriented caring. This distinguishes Dasein from function or performance criteria of personhood. Others also dispute functional criteria of personhood, such as philosopher Francis J. Beckwith , who argues that it
5916-514: A super-majority (66%) of the vote in 158 of 159 counties. In the summer of 2008 a citizen initiated amendment was proposed for the Colorado constitution. Three attempts to enact the from-fertilization definition of personhood into U.S. state constitutions via referendums have failed. Following two attempts to enact similar changes in Colorado in 2008 and 2010 , a 2011 initiative to amend
6090-409: A topic of international debate and has been questioned critically during the abolition of human and nonhuman slavery , in debates about abortion and in fetal rights and/or reproductive rights , in animal rights activism, in theology and ontology , in ethical theory , and in debates about corporate personhood , and the beginning of human personhood . In the 21st century, corporate personhood
6264-619: A total of 820,812, a figure that includes all mammals except purpose-bred mice and rats. The use of dogs and cats in research in the U.S. decreased from 1973 to 2016 from 195,157 to 60,979, and from 66,165 to 18,898, respectively. In the UK, Home Office figures show that 3.79 million procedures were carried out in 2017. 2,960 procedures used non-human primates, down over 50% since 1988. A "procedure" refers here to an experiment that might last minutes, several months, or years. Most animals are used in only one procedure: animals are frequently euthanized after
6438-468: A typical infection in cats is two to five worms. The lifespan of heartworms is considerably shorter in cats, only two to three years, and most infections in cats do not have circulating microfilariae. Cats are also more likely to have aberrant migration of heartworm larvae, resulting in infections in the brain or body cavities. The infection rate in cats is 1–5% of that in dogs in endemic areas. Both indoor and outdoor cats are infected. The mosquito vector
6612-415: A way that is universally accepted, due to its historical and cultural variability and the controversies surrounding its use in some contexts. Capacities or attributes common to definitions of personhood can include human nature , agency , self-awareness , a notion of the past and future, and the possession of rights and duties , among others. Boethius , a philosopher of the early 6th century CE, gives
6786-525: Is a parasitic roundworm that is a type of filarial worm , a small thread-like worm, and which causes dirofilariasis . It is spread from host to host through the bites of mosquitoes . Four genera of mosquitoes transmit dirofilariasis, Aedes , Culex , Anopheles , and Mansonia . The definitive host is the dog , but it can also infect cats , wolves , coyotes , jackals , foxes , ferrets , bears , seals , sea lions and, under rare circumstances, humans . Adult heartworms often reside in
6960-504: Is a concept long debated by religion and philosophy. With respect to the abortion debate , personhood is the status of a human being having individual human rights. The term was used by Justice Blackmun in Roe v. Wade . A political movement in the United States seeks to define the beginning of human personhood as starting from the moment of fertilization with the result being that abortion, as well as forms of birth control that act to deprive
7134-420: Is an existing Western concept; granting non-human entities personhood, which has also been referred to a "personhood movement", can bridge Western and Indigenous legal systems. Processes through which personhood is recognized socially and legally vary cross-culturally, demonstrating that notions of personhood are not universal. Anthropologist Beth Conklin has shown how personhood is tied to social relations among
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7308-585: Is an intracellular bacterium that is an endosymbiont of D. immitis . All heartworms are thought to be infected with Wolbachia to some degree. The inflammation occurring at the die-off of adult heartworms or larvae is in part due to the release of Wolbachia bacteria or protein into the tissues. This may be particularly significant in cats, in which the disease seems to be more related to larval death than living adult heartworms. Treating heartworm-positive animals with an antibiotic such as doxycycline to remove Wolbachia may prove to be beneficial as it does for
7482-439: Is because an entity has an essence and falls within a natural kind that it can possess a unity of dispositions, capacities, parts and properties at a given time and can maintain identity through change. Harry Frankfurt writes that, in reference to a definition by P. F. Strawson , "What philosophers have lately come to accept as analysis of the concept of a person is not actually analysis of that concept at all." He suggests that
7656-517: Is born alive at any stage of development." That statute also states that "Nothing in this section shall be construed to affirm, deny, expand, or contract any legal status or legal right applicable to any member of the species homo sapiens at any point prior to being 'born alive' as defined in this section." According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, many US States have their own definition of personhood which expands upon
7830-448: Is close to 100%, and the sensitivity is more than 80%. A recent study demonstrated a sensitivity of only 64% for infections of only one female worm, but improved with increasing female worm burden (85%, 88%, and 89% for two, three, and four female worms, respectively). Specificity in this study was 97%. False-negative test results can be due to low worm counts, immature infections, and all-male infections. X-rays are used to evaluate
8004-423: Is eminently reasonable. And the alternative on offer – which severs humanity from personhood – is fraught with peril. If being human is not enough to entitle one to human rights , then the very concept of human rights loses meaning. And all of us – born and unborn, strong and weak, young and old – someday will find ourselves on the wrong end of that cruel measuring stick." Father Frank Pavone agrees, adding, "Nor
8178-480: Is guarded. Dirofilaria are important medical parasites, but diagnosis is unusual and is often only made after an infected person happens to have a chest X-ray following granuloma formation in the lung. The nodule itself may be large enough to resemble lung cancer on the X-ray, and requires a biopsy for a pathologic assessment. This has been shown to be the most significant medical consequence of human infection by
8352-538: Is highly recommended for pet owners who choose to use minimal dosing schedules. Testing a dog annually for heartworms and other internal parasites is a fundamental part of a complete heartworm prevention program, and is also recommended for dogs who are already on a monthly prevention program. While dogs are a natural host for D. immitis , cats are atypical hosts. Because of this, differences between canine and feline heartworm diseases are significant. The majority of heartworm larvae do not survive in cats, so unlike in dogs,
8526-429: Is important because the presence of the latter parasite does not pose a health risk to the host. D. immitis usually has stationary body movement, while A. reconditum has progressive movement. However, this method often misses light infections because only a small amount of blood sample is used. This method uses a microhematocrit (or capillary tube ) filled with a blood sample that has been centrifuged , separating
8700-574: Is known to enter homes. The vascular disease in cats that occurs when the L 5 larvae invade the pulmonary arteries is more severe than in dogs. A reaction has been identified in cats: heartworm-associated respiratory disease, which can occur three to four months after the initial infection, and is caused by the presence of the L 5 larvae in the vessels. The subsequent inflammation of the pulmonary vasculature and lungs can be easily misdiagnosed as feline asthma or allergic bronchitis. Obstruction of pulmonary arteries due to emboli from dying worms
8874-453: Is known, while studies in the fly D. melanogaster can use an amazing array of genetic tools. These invertebrates offer some advantages over vertebrates in animal testing, including their short life cycle and the ease with which large numbers may be housed and studied. However, the lack of an adaptive immune system and their simple organs prevent worms from being used in several aspects of medical research such as vaccine development. Similarly,
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#17327720643149048-533: Is less clear, however, legislation in several countries (e.g. U.K., New Zealand , Norway) protects some invertebrate species if they are being used in animal testing. In the U.S., the defining text on animal welfare regulation in animal testing is the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals . This defines the parameters that govern animal testing in the U.S. It states "The ability to experience and respond to pain
9222-428: Is limited to warm weather, and duration of the transmission season varies geographically. The period between the initial infection when the dog is bitten by a mosquito and the maturation of the worms into adults living in the pulmonary arteries takes six to seven months in dogs and is known as the " prepatent period ". The first larval stage (L 1 ) and second larval stage (L 2 ) of heartworm development occurs within
9396-430: Is more likely to be fatal in cats than dogs because of less collateral circulation and fewer vessels. Heartworms can live for 2 to 3 years in cats. Acute heartworm disease in cats can result in shock , vomiting, diarrhea, fainting, and sudden death. Chronic infection can cause loss of appetite, weight loss, lethargy, exercise intolerance, coughing, and difficulty breathing. Some cats' immune systems are able to clear
9570-521: Is more sensitive because it concentrates microfilariae, improving the chance of diagnosis. A blood sample is mixed with 2% formalin and centrifuged in a tube. The supernatant is removed and methylene blue stain is added to the pellet remaining in the tube for microscopic examination. It allows microfilariae species differentiation based on morphology. Microfilariae can be differentiated between D. immitis and Acanthocheilonema reconditum because of small differences in morphology. The Modified Knott's test
9744-511: Is no useful in vitro model system available. The annual use of vertebrate animals—from zebrafish to non-human primates —was estimated at 192 million as of 2015. In the European Union , vertebrate species represent 93% of animals used in research, and 11.5 million animals were used there in 2011. The mouse ( Mus musculus ) is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries, and by one estimate,
9918-468: Is precisely what is experimentally dramatized in the “science fiction” film, Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind , a far more philosophically sophisticated meditation on personal identity than is found in most of the contemporary literature on the topic. Mary Midgley defines a "person" as being a conscious, thinking being, which knows that it is a person ( self-awareness ). She also wrote that
10092-401: Is rather the underlying personal unity of the individual: What is crucial morally is the being of a person, not his or her functioning. A human person does not come into existence when human function arises, but rather, a human person is an entity who has the natural inherent capacity to give rise to human functions, whether or not those functions are ever attained. ...A human person who lacks
10266-816: Is regulated differently in different countries: in some cases it is strictly controlled while others have more relaxed regulations. There are ongoing debates about the ethics and necessity of animal testing. Proponents argue that it has led to significant advancements in medicine and other fields while opponents raise concerns about cruelty towards animals and question its effectiveness and reliability. There are efforts underway to find alternatives to animal testing such as computer simulation models , organs-on-chips technology that mimics human organs for lab tests, microdosing techniques which involve administering small doses of test compounds to human volunteers instead of non-human animals for safety tests or drug screenings; positron emission tomography (PET) scans which allow scanning of
10440-434: Is scientifically justified. Researchers are required to consult with the institution's veterinarian and its Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC), which every research facility is obliged to maintain. The IACUC must ensure that alternatives, including non-animal alternatives, have been considered, that the experiments are not unnecessarily duplicative, and that pain relief is given unless it would interfere with
10614-484: Is the best method of visual examination when determining presence of microfilaria because it preserves their morphology and size. It is easy to perform, quick, and inexpensive. The potential for a microfilaremic infection is 5 – 67%. The number of circulating microfilariae does not correlate with the number of adult heartworms, so is not an indicator of disease severity. In most practices, antigen testing has supplanted or supplemented microfilarial detection. Combining
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#173277206431410788-593: Is the current research. Zebrafish and humans share similar gastric cancer cells in the gastric cancer xenotransplantation model. This allowed researchers to find that Triphala could inhibit the growth and metastasis of gastric cancer cells. Since zebrafish liver cancer genes are related with humans they have become widely used in liver cancer search, as will as many other cancers. Non-human primates (NHPs) are used in toxicology tests, studies of AIDS and hepatitis, studies of neurology , behavior and cognition, reproduction, genetics , and xenotransplantation . They are caught in
10962-401: Is the status of being a person . Defining personhood is a controversial topic in philosophy and law and is closely tied with legal and political concepts of citizenship , equality , and liberty . According to law, only a legal person (either a natural or a juridical person ) has rights , protections, privileges, responsibilities, and legal liability . Personhood continues to be
11136-403: Is this a dispute about the state imposing a religious or philosophical view. After all, your life and mine are not protected because of some religious or philosophical belief that others are required to have about us. More accurately, the law protects us precisely in spite of the beliefs of others who, in their own worldview , may not value our lives. …To support Roe vs. Wade is not merely to allow
11310-402: Is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there is no useful in vitro model system available. Toxicology testing became important in the 20th century. In the 19th century, laws regulating drugs were more relaxed. For example, in the US, the government could only ban
11484-429: Is usually conducted in universities, medical schools, pharmaceutical companies, defense establishments, and commercial facilities that provide animal-testing services to the industry. The focus of animal testing varies on a continuum from pure research , focusing on developing fundamental knowledge of an organism, to applied research, which may focus on answering some questions of great practical importance, such as finding
11658-445: Is widespread in the animal kingdom...Pain is a stressor and, if not relieved, can lead to unacceptable levels of stress and distress in animals." The Guide states that the ability to recognize the symptoms of pain in different species is vital in efficiently applying pain relief and that it is essential for the people caring for and using animals to be entirely familiar with these symptoms. On the subject of analgesics used to relieve pain,
11832-571: The 19th Amendment guaranteed women in the right to vote, it was not until 1971 that the US Supreme Court ruled in Reed v. Reed that the law cannot discriminate between the sexes because the 14th amendment grants equal protection to all "persons". In 2011, Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia disputed the conclusion of Reed v. Reed, arguing that women do not have equal protection under
12006-523: The Alabama Constitution of 1901 , and gained relevance when the 2022 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization returned full control over regulation of abortion to the states. The concurring decision of Justice Tom Parker cited Christian theology to support the decision, raising complaints about separation of church and state The Vatican has advanced
12180-667: The FDA in July 2019. Topical treatments are available, as well. Advantage Multi (imidacloprid plus moxidectin) Topical Solution, uses moxidectin for control and prevention of roundworms , hookworms , heartworms, and whipworms , as well as imidacloprid to kill adult fleas . Selamectin ( Revolution ) is a topical preventive likewise administered monthly, and can also be used to control fleas, ticks , and mites . Preventive drugs are highly effective, and when regularly administered, have been shown to protect more than 99% of dogs and cats from heartworm. Most compromises in protection result from
12354-572: The Humane Society of the United States . The most common use of dogs is in the safety assessment of new medicines for human or veterinary use as a second species following testing in rodents, in accordance with the regulations set out in the International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use . One of the most significant advancements in medical science involves
12528-565: The International Knockout Mouse Consortium , for example, aims to provide knockout mice for every gene in the mouse genome. In the U.S., Class A breeders are licensed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to sell animals for research purposes, while Class B dealers are licensed to buy animals from "random sources" such as auctions, pound seizure, and newspaper ads. Some Class B dealers have been accused of kidnapping pets and illegally trapping strays,
12702-563: The Roe v. Wade U.S. Supreme Court decision, thus filling a legal void left by Justice Harry Blackmun in the majority opinion when he wrote: "If this suggestion of personhood is established, the appellant's case, of course, collapses, for the fetus' right to life would then be guaranteed specifically by the Amendment." Some medical organizations have described the potential effects of personhood legislation as potentially harmful to patients and
12876-552: The University Grants Commission to ban the use of live animals in universities and laboratories. Accurate global figures for animal testing are difficult to obtain; it has been estimated that 100 million vertebrates are experimented on around the world every year, 10–11 million of them in the EU. The Nuffield Council on Bioethics reports that global annual estimates range from 50 to 100 million animals. None of
13050-594: The Wari' people of Rondônia , Brazil. Bruce Knauft's studies of the Gebusi people of Papua New Guinea depict a context in which individuals become persons incrementally, again through social relations. Likewise, Jane C. Goodale has also examined the construction of personhood in Papua New Guinea. In philosophy, the word "person" may refer to various concepts. The concept of personhood is difficult to define in
13224-513: The diphtheria toxin and demonstrated its effects in guinea pigs. He went on to develop an antitoxin against diphtheria in animals and then in humans, which resulted in the modern methods of immunization and largely ended diphtheria as a threatening disease. The diphtheria antitoxin is famously commemorated in the Iditarod race, which is modeled after the delivery of antitoxin in the 1925 serum run to Nome . The success of animal studies in producing
13398-526: The dissection of live animals. The term is occasionally used to refer pejoratively to any experiment using living animals; for example, the Encyclopædia Britannica defines "vivisection" as: "Operation on a living animal for experimental rather than healing purposes; more broadly, all experimentation on live animals", although dictionaries point out that the broader definition is "used only by people who are opposed to such work". The word has
13572-708: The genome of mice. This genetic research progressed rapidly and, in 1996, Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell. Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include organ transplant techniques, the heart-lung machine, antibiotics , and the whooping cough vaccine. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for rabies , anthrax , glanders , feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), tuberculosis , Texas cattle fever, classical swine fever (hog cholera), heartworm , and other parasitic infections . Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and
13746-460: The plasma from the red blood cells. These layers are divided by the buffy coat . The buffy coat consists of the leukocytes and platelets that are in the sample. The tube is snapped at the buffy coat and added to a slide for microscopic examination. Adding methylene blue stain to the sample may allow greater visibility of any microfilariae. However, the hematocrit tube method will not allow for species differentiation. The modified Knott's test
13920-479: The 14th amendment as "persons" because the Constitution's use of the gender-neutral term "Person" means that the Constitution does not require discrimination on the basis of sex, but also does not prohibit such discrimination, adding "Nobody ever thought that that's what it meant. Nobody ever voted for that." Many others, including law professor Jack Balkin disagree with this assertion. Balkin states that, at
14094-462: The 17th and 18th Century Quaker concept of Personhood applied to women, and the prevalence of Quakers in the population of several colonies, such as New Jersey and Pennsylvania, at the time that the original Constitution was drafted and ratified likely influenced the choice of the term "Person" for the Constitution instead of the term "Man", which was used in the Declaration of Independence and in
14268-409: The 17th-century French philosopher, René Descartes , who argued that animals do not experience pain and suffering because they lack consciousness . Bernard Rollin of Colorado State University , the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals, writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and that veterinarians trained in
14442-527: The 18th and 19th centuries included Antoine Lavoisier 's use of a guinea pig in a calorimeter to prove that respiration was a form of combustion, and Louis Pasteur 's demonstration of the germ theory of disease in the 1880s using anthrax in sheep. Robert Koch used animal testing of mice and guinea pigs to discover the bacteria that cause anthrax and tuberculosis . In the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning . Research using animal models has been central to most of
14616-516: The American Heartworm Society, the administering of aspirin to dogs infected with heartworms is no longer recommended due to a lack of evidence of clinical benefit, and aspirin may be contraindicated in several cases. Aspirin had previously been recommended for its effects on platelet adhesion and the reduction of vascular damage caused by the heartworms. The course of treatment is not completed until several weeks later, when
14790-631: The Guide states "The selection of the most appropriate analgesic or anesthetic should reflect professional judgment as to which best meets clinical and humane requirements without compromising the scientific aspects of the research protocol". Accordingly, all issues of animal pain and distress, and their potential treatment with analgesia and anesthesia, are required regulatory issues in receiving animal protocol approval. Currently, traumatic methods of marking laboratory animals are being replaced with non-invasive alternatives. Non-human animals Personhood
14964-632: The Personhood Alliance after refusing to support National Right to Life's proposed legislation that included exceptions like the rape and incest exceptions. The Personhood Alliance describes itself as "a Christ-centered, biblically informed organization dedicated to the non-violent advancement of the recognition and protection of the God-given, inalienable right to life of all human beings as legal persons, at every stage of their biological development and in every circumstance." A precursor to
15138-465: The Personhood Alliance was Personhood USA, a Colorado -based umbrella group with a number of state-level affiliates, which describes itself as a nonprofit Christian ministry. and seeks to ban abortion. Personhood USA was co-founded by Cal Zastrow and Keith Mason in 2008 following the Colorado for Equal Rights campaign to enact a state constitutional personhood amendment. Proponents of the movement regard personhood as an attempt to directly challenge
15312-596: The U.S. Supreme Court's 1992 decision in Planned Parenthood v. Casey , ruled in April 2012 that the proposed amendment was unconstitutional under the federal Constitution and blocked inclusion of the referendum question on the ballot. In October 2012, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal of the state Supreme Court's ruling. In 2006, a 16-year-old girl was charged in Mississippi with murder for
15486-431: The U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain. In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, he was regularly asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" grounds for claiming that they feel pain. Carbone writes that the view that animals feel pain differently is now a minority view. Academic reviews of the topic are more equivocal, noting that although
15660-596: The U.S. in 2014 including 929 who were caught in the wild. Most of the NHPs used in experiments are macaques ; but marmosets , spider monkeys , and squirrel monkeys are also used, and baboons and chimpanzees are used in the US. As of 2015, there are approximately 730 chimpanzees in U.S. laboratories. In a survey in 2003, it was found that 89% of singly-housed primates exhibited self-injurious or abnormal stereotypyical behaviors including pacing, rocking, hair pulling, and biting among others. The first transgenic primate
15834-412: The UK in 2004. Albino rabbits are used in eye irritancy tests ( Draize test ) because rabbits have less tear flow than other animals, and the lack of eye pigment in albinos make the effects easier to visualize. The numbers of rabbits used for this purpose has fallen substantially over the past two decades. In 1996, there were 3,693 procedures on rabbits for eye irritation in the UK, and in 2017 this number
16008-583: The UK, just 198 procedures were carried out on cats in 2017. The number has been around 200 for most of the last decade. The regulations that apply to animals in laboratories vary across species. In the U.S., under the Animal Welfare Act and the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (the Guide ), published by the National Academy of Sciences, any procedure can be performed on an animal if it can be successfully argued that it
16182-560: The US in 2016. A 2015 article published in the Journal of Medical Ethics , argued that the use of animals in the US has dramatically increased in recent years. Researchers found this increase is largely the result of an increased reliance on genetically modified mice in animal studies. In 1995, researchers at Tufts University Center for Animals and Public Policy estimated that 14–21 million animals were used in American laboratories in 1992,
16356-509: The USDA, in 2016 501,560 animals (61%) (not including rats, mice, birds, or invertebrates) were used in procedures that did not include more than momentary pain or distress. 247,882 (31%) animals were used in procedures in which pain or distress was relieved by anesthesia, while 71,370 (9%) were used in studies that would cause pain or distress that would not be relieved. The idea that animals might not feel pain as human beings feel it traces back to
16530-504: The USDA, whereas Public Health Service regulations are enforced by OLAW and in many cases by AAALAC. According to the 2014 U.S. Department of Agriculture Office of the Inspector General (OIG) report—which looked at the oversight of animal use during a three-year period—"some Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees ...did not adequately approve, monitor, or report on experimental procedures on animals". The OIG found that "as
16704-442: The United States by 1965. It has been estimated that developing and producing the vaccines required the use of 100,000 rhesus monkeys, with 65 doses of vaccine produced from each monkey. Sabin wrote in 1992, "Without the use of animals and human beings, it would have been impossible to acquire the important knowledge needed to prevent much suffering and premature death not only among humans, but also among animals." On 3 November 1957,
16878-449: The ability to think rationally (either because she is too young or she suffers from a disability) is still a human person because of her nature. Consequently, it makes sense to speak of a human being’s lack if and only if she is an actual person. This belief in the underlying unity of an individual is a metaphysical and moral belief referred to as the substance view of personhood. Philosopher J. P. Moreland clarifies this point: It
17052-447: The achievements of modern medicine. It has contributed most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human physiology and biochemistry , and has played significant roles in fields such as neuroscience and infectious disease . For example, the results have included the near- eradication of polio and the development of organ transplantation , and have benefited both humans and animals. From 1910 to 1927, Thomas Hunt Morgan 's work with
17226-501: The animal has been lawfully imported and is not a wild animal or a stray. The latter requirement may also be exempted by special arrangement. In 2010 the Directive was revised with EU Directive 2010/63/EU . In the UK, most animals used in experiments are bred for the purpose under the 1988 Animal Protection Act, but wild-caught primates may be used if exceptional and specific justification can be established. The United States also allows
17400-435: The anticonvulsant properties of lithium salts, which revolutionized the treatment of bipolar disorder , replacing the previous treatments of lobotomy or electroconvulsive therapy. Modern general anaesthetics, such as halothane and related compounds, were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations. In the 1940s, Jonas Salk used rhesus monkey studies to isolate
17574-499: The argument that animals have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings has strong support, some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states can be determined. However, some canine experts are stating that, while intelligence does differ animal to animal, dogs have the intelligence of a two to two-and-a-half-year old. This does support the idea that dogs, at the very least, have some form of consciousness. The ability of invertebrates to experience pain and suffering
17748-841: The best model of inherited human disease and share 95% of their genes with humans. With the advent of genetic engineering technology, genetically modified mice can be generated to order and can provide models for a range of human diseases. Rats are also widely used for physiology, toxicology and cancer research, but genetic manipulation is much harder in rats than in mice, which limits the use of these rodents in basic science. Dogs are widely used in biomedical research, testing, and education—particularly beagles , because they are gentle and easy to handle, and to allow for comparisons with historical data from beagles (a Reduction technique). They are used as models for human and veterinary diseases in cardiology, endocrinology , and bone and joint studies, research that tends to be highly invasive, according to
17922-433: The bloodstream and are carried through the heart to reside in the pulmonary artery. Over the next three to four months, they increase greatly in size. The female adult worm is about 30 cm in length, and the male is about 23 cm, with a coiled tail. By seven months after infection, the adult worms have mated and the females begin giving birth to live young, called microfilariae . Heartworms can live for 5 to 7 years in
18096-514: The body of a mosquito. Once the larvae develop into the infective third larval stage (L 3 ), the mosquito locates and bites a host, depositing the larvae under the skin at the site of the bite. After a week or two of further growth, they molt into the fourth larval stage (L 4 ) . Then, they migrate to the muscles of the chest and abdomen , and 45 to 60 days after infection, molt to the fifth stage (L 5 , immature adult). Between 75 and 120 days after infection, these immature heartworms then enter
18270-413: The canine heartworm. Patients are infected with the parasite through the bite of an infected mosquito, which is the same mechanism that causes heartworm infection in dogs. D. immitis is one of many species that can cause infection in dogs and humans. It was thought to infect the human eye, with most cases reported from the southeastern United States. However, these cases are now thought to be caused by
18444-456: The capacity for what I shall call "first-order desires" or "desires of the first order," which are simply desires to do or not to do one thing or another. No animal other than man, however, appears to have the capacity for reflective self-evaluation that is manifested in the formation of second-order desires. The criteria for being a person... are designed to capture those attributes which are the subject of our most humane concern with ourselves and
18618-405: The chest of a heartworm-infected cat may show an increased width of the pulmonary arteries and focal or diffuse opacities in the lungs. Echocardiography is a fairly sensitive test in cats. Adult heartworms appear as double-lined hyperechoic structures within the heart or pulmonary arteries. Heartworm prevention for cats is available as ivermectin (Heartgard for Cats), milbemycin (Interceptor), or
18792-431: The concept of a person is intimately connected to free will , and describes the structure of human volition according to first- and second-order desires: Besides wanting and choosing and being moved to do this or that, [humans] may also want to have (or not to have) certain desires and motives. They are capable of wanting to be different, in their preferences and purposes, from what they are. Many animals appear to have
18966-459: The contemporaneously drafted French Constitution of 1791 . The personhood of women also has consequences for the ethics of abortion. For example, in " A Defense of Abortion ", Judith Jarvis Thomson argues that one person's right to bodily autonomy trumps another's right to life, and therefore abortion does not violate a fetus's right to life: Instead abortion should be understood as the pregnant women withdrawing her own body from use, which causes
19140-478: The definition of "person" as "an individual substance of a rational nature" (" Naturæ rationalis individua substantia "). According to the naturalist epistemological tradition, from Descartes through Locke and Hume , the term may designate any human or non-human agent who possesses continuous consciousness over time; and is therefore capable of framing representations about the world, formulating plans and acting on them. According to Charles Taylor ,
19314-563: The diphtheria antitoxin has also been attributed as a cause for the decline of the early 20th-century opposition to animal research in the United States. Subsequent research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as Frederick Banting 's research in dogs, which determined that the isolates of pancreatic secretion could be used to treat dogs with diabetes . This led to the 1922 discovery of insulin (with John Macleod ) and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death. John Cade 's research in guinea pigs discovered
19488-460: The disease process without the added risk of harming an actual human. The species of the model organism is usually chosen so that it reacts to disease or its treatment in a way that resembles human physiology as needed. Biological activity in a model organism does not ensure an effect in humans, and care must be taken when generalizing from one organism to another. However, many drugs, treatments and cures for human diseases are developed in part with
19662-402: The dog's heart, liver, and kidney function must be evaluated to determine the risks of treatment. Usually, the adult worms are killed with an arsenic -based compound. The currently approved drug in the US, melarsomine , is marketed under the brand name Immiticide. It has a greater efficacy and fewer side effects than the previously used drug thiacetarsamide , sold as Caparsolate, which makes it
19836-405: The effort. The resolution failed to attract the super majority in both chambers required for it to be placed on the ballot. Georgia legislators have filed a personhood resolution every session since 2007. In May 2008 Georgia Right to Life hosted the first nationwide Personhood Symposium targeting anti-abortion activists. This symposium was instrumental in spawning the group Personhood USA and
20010-409: The experiment; however death is the endpoint of some procedures. The procedures conducted on animals in the UK in 2017 were categorised as: 43% (1.61 million) sub-threshold, 4% (0.14 million) non-recovery, 36% (1.35 million) mild, 15% (0.55 million) moderate, and 4% (0.14 million) severe. A 'severe' procedure would be, for instance, any test where death is the end-point or fatalities are expected, whereas
20184-407: The failure to properly administer the drugs during seasonal transmission periods. In regions where the temperature is consistently above 14 °C (57 °F) year-round, a continuous prevention schedule is recommended. Due to newly emerging resistant strains of heartworms, which no macrocyclic lactone (heartworm prevention) can protect against, the American Heartworm Society recommends dogs be on
20358-586: The federal definition of personhood, and Webster v. Reproductive Health Services declined to overturn the state of Missouri's law stating that The life of each human being begins at conception ... Effective January 1, 1988, the laws of this state shall be interpreted and construed to acknowledge on behalf of the unborn child at every stage of development, all the rights, privileges, and immunities available to other persons, citizens, and residents of this state, unborn children have protectable interests in life, health, and well-being. The beginning of human personhood
20532-439: The fetus to die. Questions pertaining to the personhood of women and the personhood of fetuses have legal and ethical consequences for reproductive rights beyond abortion as well. For example, some fetal homicide laws have resulted in jail time for women suspected of drug use during a pregnancy that ended in a miscarriage, like one Alabama woman who was sentenced to ten years. In 1772, Somersett's Case determined that slavery
20706-491: The fetus, and the emergence of a father's-rights ideology" demonstrate "that the current terms of the abortion debate – as a contest between fetal claims to personhood and women's right to choose – are limited and misleading." Others, such as Colleen Carroll Campbell, say that the personhood movement is a natural progression of society in protecting the equal rights of all members of the human species. She writes, "The basic philosophical premise behind these [personhood] amendments
20880-640: The figures include invertebrates such as shrimp and fruit flies. The USDA/APHIS has published the 2016 animal research statistics. Overall, the number of animals (covered by the Animal Welfare Act) used in research in the US ;rose 6.9% from 767,622 (2015) to 820,812 (2016). This includes both public and private institutions. By comparing with EU data, where all vertebrate species are counted, Speaking of Research estimated that around 12 million vertebrates were used in research in
21054-435: The filariae that cause elephantiasis , but further studies are necessary. Microfilarial detection is accomplished by the using one of the following methods: A blood sample is collected and viewed under the microscope. The direct smear technique allows examination of larval motion, confirming the presence of microfilaria. It also helps in the distinction of D. immitis from Acanthocheilonema reconditum . This distinction
21228-518: The formation of bias. Various other scientific and medical disciplines address the myriad of issues in the development of personality . In 1983, the people of Ireland added the Eighth Amendment to their constitution that "acknowledges the right to life of the unborn and, with due regard to the equal right to life of the mother, guarantees in its laws to respect, and, as far as practicable, by its laws to defend and vindicate that right." This
21402-458: The four interrelated concepts of 1) The Individual Person, 2) Deliberate Action, 3) Reality and the Real World, and 4) Language or Verbal Behavior. All four concepts require full articulation for any one of them to be fully intelligible. More specifically, a Person is an individual whose history is, paradigmatically, a history of Deliberate Action in a Dramaturgical pattern. Deliberate Action is
21576-448: The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster identified chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes. Drosophila became one of the first, and for some time the most widely used, model organisms, and Eric Kandel wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science". D. melanogaster remains one of the most widely used eukaryotic model organisms. During the same time period, studies on mouse genetics in
21750-424: The fruit fly immune system differs greatly from that of humans, and diseases in insects can be different from diseases in vertebrates; however, fruit flies and waxworms can be useful in studies to identify novel virulence factors or pharmacologically active compounds. Several invertebrate systems are considered acceptable alternatives to vertebrates in early-stage discovery screens. Because of similarities between
21924-548: The guidance of animal models. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for rabies , anthrax , glanders , feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), tuberculosis , Texas cattle fever, classical swine fever (hog cholera), heartworm , and other parasitic infections . Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there
22098-482: The heart-lung machine, antibiotics , and the whooping cough vaccine. Animal testing is widely used to aid in research of human disease when human experimentation would be unfeasible or unethical . This strategy is made possible by the common descent of all living organisms, and the conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genetic material over the course of evolution . Performing experiments in model organisms allows for better understanding
22272-404: The heartworm infective larvae migrate through the skin, they often die since heartworms cannot survive in a human host, even if they make it into the bloodstream. Once the heartworms die, the immune system in the human body reacts to their tissue with inflammation as it tries to destroy the heartworms. When this happens, the condition is called pulmonary dirofilariasis. Heartworm infection in humans
22446-454: The host's blood are now regularly used. They can detect occult infections, or infections without the presence of circulating microfilariae. However, these tests are limited in that they only detect the antigens released from the sexually mature female worm's reproductive tract . Therefore, false-negative results may occur during the first five to eight months of infection when the worms are not yet sexually mature. The specificity of these tests
22620-460: The human brain without harming humans; comparative epidemiological studies among human populations; simulators and computer programs for teaching purposes; among others. The terms animal testing, animal experimentation, animal research , in vivo testing, and vivisection have similar denotations but different connotations . Literally, "vivisection" means "live sectioning" of an animal, and historically referred only to experiments that involved
22794-423: The human embryo of necessary sustenance in implantation , could become illegal. Supporters of the movement also state that it would have some effect on the practice of in-vitro fertilization (IVF), but would not lead to the practice being outlawed. Jonathan F. Will says that the personhood framework could produce significant restrictions on IVF to the extent that reproductive clinics find it impossible to provide
22968-510: The innate immune system of insects and mammals, insects can replace mammals in some types of studies. Drosophila melanogaster and the Galleria mellonella waxworm have been particularly important for analysis of virulent traits of mammalian pathogens. Waxworms and other insects have also proven valuable for the identification of pharmaceutical compounds with favorable bioavailability. The decision to adopt such models generally involves accepting
23142-476: The laboratory of William Ernest Castle in collaboration with Abbie Lathrop led to generation of the DBA ("dilute, brown and non-agouti") inbred mouse strain and the systematic generation of other inbred strains. The mouse has since been used extensively as a model organism and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries. In the late 19th century, Emil von Behring isolated
23316-693: The law can create persons . Philosopher Thomas I. White argues that the criteria for a person are: is alive, is aware, feels positive and negative sensations, has emotions, has a sense of self, (controls its own behaviour, recognises other persons and treats them appropriately, and has a variety of sophisticated cognitive abilities. While many of White's criteria are somewhat anthropocentric , some animals such as dolphins would still be considered persons. Some animal rights groups have also championed recognition for animals as "persons". Another approach to personhood, Paradigm Case Formulation, used in descriptive psychology and developed by Peter Ossorio , involves
23490-399: The microfilaria and adult antigen test is most useful in dogs receiving diethylcarbamazine or no preventive ( macrolides like ivermectin or moxidectin typically render the dog amicrofilaremic). Up to 1% of infected dogs are microfilaria-positive and antigen-negative. Immunodiagnostics ( ELISA , lateral flow immunoassay , rapid immunomigration techniques) to detect heartworm antigen in
23664-440: The microfilariae are dealt with in a separate course of treatment. Once heartworm tests are negative and no surviving worm is detected, the treatment is considered a success, and the patient is effectively cured. Surgical removal of the adult heartworms as a form of treatment may also be indicated, especially in advanced cases with substantial heart involvement and damage. Prevention of heartworm infection can be obtained through
23838-457: The monkey AIDS model, SIV . In 2008, a proposal to ban all primates experiments in the EU has sparked a vigorous debate. Over 500,000 fish and 9,000 amphibians were used in the UK in 2016. The main species used is the zebrafish, Danio rerio , which are translucent during their embryonic stage, and the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis . Over 20,000 rabbits were used for animal testing in
24012-495: The most virulent forms of the polio virus, which led to his creation of a polio vaccine . The vaccine, which was made publicly available in 1955, reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the United States over the following five years. Albert Sabin improved the vaccine by passing the polio virus through animal hosts, including monkeys; the Sabin vaccine was produced for mass consumption in 1963, and had virtually eradicated polio in
24186-458: The near- eradication of polio and the development of organ transplantation , and have benefited both humans and animals. From 1910 to 1927, Thomas Hunt Morgan 's work with the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster identified chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes, and Eric Kandel wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science". Research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as
24360-433: The number of adult female worms present. If only male worms are present, the test will be negative. Even with female worms, an antigen test usually only becomes positive seven to eight months after infection. Therefore, a cat may have significant clinical signs long before the development of a positive test. Heartworm-associated respiratory disease can be found in cats that never develop adult heartworms and therefore never have
24534-432: The number of mice and rats used in the United States alone in 2001 was 80 million. In 2013, it was reported that mammals (mice and rats), fish, amphibians, and reptiles together accounted for over 85% of research animals. In 2022, a law was passed in the United States that eliminated the FDA requirement that all drugs be tested on animals. Animal testing is regulated to varying degrees in different countries. Animal testing
24708-490: The political economy; single women retained these rights, however, and voted in some jurisdictions. Other commentators have noted that some of the ratifiers of the US Constitution (in 1787) also, in contemporaneous contexts, ratified state level Constitutions that saw women as Persons and required them to be treated as such, including granting women rights such as the right to vote. Professor Jane Calvert argues that
24882-440: The practice of medicine, particularly in the cases of ectopic and molar pregnancy . Susan Bordo has suggested that the focus on the issue of personhood in abortion debates has often been a means for depriving women of their rights. She writes that "the legal double standard concerning the bodily integrity of pregnant and nonpregnant bodies, the construction of women as fetal incubators, the bestowal of 'super-subject' status to
25056-464: The presence of microfilariae or antigens cannot detect prepatent infections. Rarely, migrating heartworm larvae get "lost" and end up in aberrant sites, such as the eye, brain, or an artery in the leg, which results in unusual symptoms such as blindness, seizures , and lameness , but normally, until the larvae mature and congregate inside the heart, they produce no symptoms or signs of illness. Many dogs show little or no sign of infection even after
25230-430: The problem with the naturalist view is that it depends solely on a "performance criterion" to determine what is an agent. Thus, other things (e.g. machines or animals) that exhibit "similarly complex adaptive behaviour" could not be distinguished from persons. Instead, Taylor proposes a significance-based view of personhood: What is crucial about agents is that things matter to them. We thus cannot simply identify agents by
25404-446: The production of the diphtheria antitoxin and the 1922 discovery of insulin and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death. Modern general anaesthetics such as halothane were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations. Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include organ transplant techniques,
25578-448: The pulmonary arterial system ( lung arteries ) as well as the heart, and a major health effect in the infected animal host is a manifestation of damage to its lung vessels and tissues. In cases involving advanced worm infestation, adult heartworms may migrate to the right heart and the pulmonary artery . Heartworm infection may result in serious complications for the infected host if left untreated, eventually leading to death, most often as
25752-405: The pulmonary artery of the host animal. The worms require the mosquito as an intermediate host to complete their lifecycles. The rate of development in the mosquito is temperature-dependent, requiring about two weeks of temperature at or above 27 °C (80 °F). Below a threshold temperature of 14 °C (57 °F), development cannot occur, and the cycle is halted. As a result, transmission
25926-584: The services. Currently, the personhood movement is led by the Personhood Alliance, a coalition of state and national personhood organizations headquartered in Washington DC. The Personhood Alliance was founded in 2014 and currently has 22 affiliated organizations. A significant number of the state affiliates of the Personhood Alliance were once affiliates of National Right to Life. Organizations like Georgia Right to Life, Cleveland Right to Life, and Alaska Right to Life left National Right to Life and joined
26100-411: The severity of the heartworm infection and develop a prognosis for the animal. Typically, the changes observed are enlargement of the main pulmonary artery, the right side of the heart, and the pulmonary arteries in the lobes of the lung. Inflammation of the lung tissue is also often observed. If an animal is diagnosed with heartworms, treatment may be indicated. Before the worms can be treated, however,
26274-462: The source of what we regard as most important and most problematical in our lives. According to Nikolas Kompridis , there might also be an intersubjective , or interpersonal, basis to personhood: What if personal identity is constituted in, and sustained through, our relations with others, such that were we to erase our relations with our significant others we would also erase the conditions of our self-intelligibility? As it turns out, this erasure...
26448-486: The state constitution by referendum in the state of Mississippi also failed to gain approval with around 58% of voters disapproving. In an interview after the referendum, Mason ascribed the failure of the initiative to a political campaign run by Planned Parenthood . Personhood proponents in Oklahoma sought to amend the state constitution to define personhood as beginning at conception. The state Supreme Court, citing
26622-557: The still-birth of her daughter on the basis that the girl had smoked cocaine while pregnant. These charges were later dismissed. In February 2024, the Supreme Court of Alabama ruled that frozen embryos were "extrauterine children" subject to the Wrongful Death of a Minor Act, based on protections for unborn children in the state constitution These protections were added in 2018 by ballot referendum, as Amendment 930 to
26796-934: The study. The IACUCs regulate all vertebrates in testing at institutions receiving federal funds in the USA. Although the Animal Welfare Act does not include purpose-bred rodents and birds, these species are equally regulated under Public Health Service policies that govern the IACUCs. The Public Health Service policy oversees the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The CDC conducts infectious disease research on nonhuman primates, rabbits, mice, and other animals, while FDA requirements cover use of animals in pharmaceutical research. Animal Welfare Act (AWA) regulations are enforced by
26970-456: The three-year study found that animal-use committees that do not know the specifics of the university and personnel do not make the same approval decisions as those made by animal-use committees that do know the university and personnel. Specifically, blinded committees more often ask for more information rather than approving studies. Scientists in India are protesting a recent guideline issued by
27144-490: The topical selamectin (Revolution for Cats) and Advantage Multi (imidacloprid + moxidectin) topical solution. Ivermectin, milbemycin, and selamectin are approved for use in cats in the US. Arsenic compounds have been used for heartworm adulticide treatment in cats, as well as dogs, but seem more likely to cause pulmonary reactions. A significant number of cats develop pulmonary embolisms a few days after treatment. The effects of melarsomine are poorly studied in cats. Due to
27318-478: The total number of procedures conducted on animals in the respective countries. Zebrafish are commonly used for the basic study and development of various cancers . Used to explore the immune system and genetic strains. They are low in cost, small size, fast reproduction rate, and able to observe cancer cells in real time. Humans and zebrafish share neoplasm similarities which is why they are used for research. The National Library of Medicine shows many examples of
27492-435: The types of cancer zebrafish are used in. The use of zebrafish have allowed them to find differences between MYC-driven pre-B vs T-ALL and be exploited to discover novel pre-B ALL therapies on acute lymphocytic leukemia . The National Library of Medicine also explains how a neoplasm is difficult to diagnose at an early stage. Understanding the molecular mechanism of digestive tract tumorigenesis and searching for new treatments
27666-636: The use of dogs has resulted in a definite improvement in the quality of life for both humans and animals. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal Welfare Report shows that 60,979 dogs were used in USDA-registered facilities in 2016. In the UK, according to the UK Home Office, there were 3,847 procedures on dogs in 2017. Of the other large EU users of dogs, Germany conducted 3,976 procedures on dogs in 2016 and France conducted 4,204 procedures in 2016. In both cases this represents under 0.2% of
27840-455: The use of dogs in developing the answers to insulin production in the body for diabetics and the role of the pancreas in this process. They found that the pancreas was responsible for producing insulin in the body and that removal of the pancreas, resulted in the development of diabetes in the dog. After re-injecting the pancreatic extract (insulin), the blood glucose levels were significantly lowered. The advancements made in this research involving
28014-430: The use of wild-caught primates; between 1995 and 1999, 1,580 wild baboons were imported into the U.S. Most of the primates imported are handled by Charles River Laboratories or by Fortrea , which are very active in the international primate trade . The extent to which animal testing causes pain and suffering , and the capacity of animals to experience and comprehend them, is the subject of much debate. According to
28188-415: The various state personhood efforts that followed. Voters in 46 Georgia counties approved personhood during the 2010 primary election with 75% in favor of a non-binding resolution declaring that the "right to life is vested in each human being from their earliest biological beginning until natural death". During the 2012 Republican primary a similar question was placed on the ballot statewide and passed with
28362-616: The warmer regions of Canada . The highest infection rates are found within 150 miles (240 km) of the coast from Texas to New Jersey , and along the Mississippi River and its major tributaries . It has also been found in South America , southern Europe , Southeast Asia , the Middle East , Australia , Korea, and Japan . Heartworms go through several life stages before they become adults infecting
28536-687: The widespread acceptance of the 3Rs, many countries—including Canada, Australia, Israel, South Korea, and Germany—have reported rising experimental use of animals in recent years with increased use of mice and, in some cases, fish while reporting declines in the use of cats, dogs, primates, rabbits, guinea pigs, and hamsters. Along with other countries, China has also escalated its use of GM animals , resulting in an increase in overall animal use. Animals used by laboratories are largely supplied by specialist dealers. Sources differ for vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Most laboratories breed and raise flies and worms themselves, using strains and mutants supplied from
28710-467: The wild or purpose-bred. In the United States and China, most primates are domestically purpose-bred, whereas in Europe the majority are imported purpose-bred. The European Commission reported that in 2011, 6,012 monkeys were experimented on in European laboratories. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture , there were 71,188 monkeys in U.S. laboratories in 2016. 23,465 monkeys were imported into
28884-586: The worms become adults. These animals usually have only a light infection and live a fairly sedentary lifestyle. However, active dogs and those with heavier infections may show the classic signs of heartworm disease. Early signs include a cough, especially during or after exercise, and exercise intolerance. In the most advanced cases where many adult worms have built up in the heart without treatment, signs progress to severe weight loss, fainting , coughing up blood, and finally, congestive heart failure. There are four different classes of symptoms: Wolbachia pipientis
29058-552: The writings of the Greeks in the 2nd and 4th centuries BCE. Aristotle and Erasistratus were among the first to perform experiments on living animals. Galen , a 2nd-century Roman physician, performed post-mortem dissections of pigs and goats. Avenzoar , a 12th-century Arabic physician in Moorish Spain introduced an experimental method of testing surgical procedures before applying them to human patients. Discoveries in
29232-466: Was infected with L 3 stage larvae that did not mature into adulthood due to the heartworm prevention. Using a repellent and a prevention is at least 95% effective. Ivermectin, even with lapses up to four months between doses, still provides 95% protection from adult worms. This period is called the reach-back effect. Since dogs are susceptible to heartworms, they should be tested annually before they start preventive treatment. Annual heartworm testing
29406-424: Was just 63. Rabbits are also frequently used for the production of polyclonal antibodies. Cats are most commonly used in neurological research. In 2016, 18,898 cats were used in the United States alone, around a third of which were used in experiments which have the potential to cause "pain and/or distress" though only 0.1% of cat experiments involved potential pain which was not relieved by anesthetics/analgesics. In
29580-490: Was produced in 2001, with the development of a method that could introduce new genes into a rhesus macaque . This transgenic technology is now being applied in the search for a treatment for the genetic disorder Huntington's disease . Notable studies on non-human primates have been part of the polio vaccine development, and development of Deep Brain Stimulation , and their current heaviest non-toxicological use occurs in
29754-518: Was repealed in 2018 by the Thirty-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland . A person is recognized by law as such, not because they are human, but because rights and duties are ascribed to them. The person is the legal subject or substance of which the rights and duties are attributes. An individual human being considered to be having such attributes is what lawyers call a " natural person ". According to Black's Law Dictionary,
29928-458: Was taken off the market in the United States due to safety concerns in 2004, but the FDA returned a newly formulated ProHeart 6 to the market in 2008. ProHeart 6 remains on the market in many other countries, including Canada and Japan. Its sister product, ProHeart 12 , is used extensively in Australia and Asia as a 12-month injectable preventive. It was approved for use in the United States by
30102-453: Was tested using thousands of mosquitoes infected with the resistant heartworm strain JYD34. In the control group that was given only a placebo, every dog contracted heartworms. In the experimental group that was given only Vectra 3-D, two of eight dogs contracted heartworms and had an average of 1.5 adult worms each. In the experimental group given both heartworm prevention and Vectra 3-D, one dog
30276-674: Was unsupported by law in England and Wales , but not elsewhere in the British Empire . In 1868, under the 14th Amendment, black men in the United States became citizens. In 1870, under the 15th Amendment , black men got the right to vote. In 1853, Sojourner Truth became famous for asking Ain't I a Woman? and after slavery was abolished, black men continued to fight for personhood by claiming, I Am A Man! . Heartworm Filaria immitis Leidy, 1856 Dirofilaria immitis , also known as heartworm or dog heartworm ,
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