169-523: Anna Harriette Leonowens (born Ann Hariett Emma Edwards ; 5 November 1831 – 19 January 1915) was an Anglo-Indian or Indian -born British travel writer, educator, and social activist. She became well known with the publication of her memoirs, beginning with The English Governess at the Siamese Court (1870), which chronicled her experiences in Siam (modern Thailand ), as teacher to the children of
338-662: A "state of emergency" was declared. In 1964, Britain announced its intention to grant independence to the FSA in 1968, but that the British military would remain in Aden. The security situation deteriorated as NLF and FLOSY ( Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen ) vied for the upper hand. In January 1967, there were mass riots between the NLF and their rival FLOSY supporters in
507-639: A British-planned town; and Madinat ash-Sha'b (formerly Madinat al-Ittihad), the former capital of the South Arabian Federation , now housing a large power/ desalination facility and additional Aden University faculties. Aden encloses the eastern side of a vast, natural harbour that constitutes the modern port. A long time ago this necessitated the existence of Aden's reservoirs, the Cisterns of Tawila . As described by 14th century scholar Ibn Battuta , "These reservoirs accumulate rainwater for
676-749: A continuous element in the sub-continent. Their presence is not to be considered Anglo-Indian. Similarly, Indians who mixed with Europeans after the British Raj are also not to be considered Anglo-Indian. Historically, the term Anglo-Indian was also used in common parlance in the British Government and England during the colonial era to refer to those people (such as Rudyard Kipling , or the hunter-naturalist Jim Corbett ), who were of British descent but were born and raised in India, usually because their parents were serving in armed forces or one of
845-718: A cowboy"; this version was also banned by censors in Thailand. Leonowens appears as a character in Paul Marlowe 's novel Knights of the Sea , in which she travels from Halifax to Baddeck in 1887 to take part in a campaign to promote women's suffrage during a by-election . Leonowens kept the actual facts of her early life a closely guarded secret throughout her life, and never disclosed them to anybody, including her family. They were uncovered by researchers long after her death; their scrutiny began with her writings, especially following
1014-562: A cruel, wicked man". With her granddaughter Anna, Leonowens stayed in Leipzig , Germany, until 1901. She studied Sanskrit and classical Indian literature with the renowned Indology professor Ernst Windisch of Leipzig University , while her granddaughter studied piano at the Royal Conservatory of Music . In 1901, she moved to Montreal , Quebec, where she lectured Sanskrit at McGill University . She delivered her last lecture at
1183-622: A deep metaphor for the explorations of his family and community. The book received critical acclaim The narrative received grants from The Literature Board of Australia and The Victorian Premier's Department of the Arts. Anglo-Indians are adherents of Christianity . Along with their British heritage and English language, the Christian religious faith of Anglo-Indians is one of the things that distinguishes them from other ethnic groups. As such, Anglo-Indians have "been well-represented in all tiers of
1352-491: A distinctive part of Indian Christian culture. Over time Anglo-Indians were specifically recruited into the Customs and Excise, Post and Telegraphs, Forestry Department, the railways and teaching professions – but they were employed in many other fields as well. The Anglo-Indian community also had a role as go-betweens in the introduction of Western musical styles, harmonies and instruments in post-Independence India. During
1521-592: A factory in Crater and allocate a special cemetery for English subjects free of charge. The Abdali wanted English protection from the tribes. Sultan Fadl bin Ali was killed by Yafi’ gunmen, then one of the sheikhs of Al-Hujariya invaded Lahj and besieged it for five months. Al-Awaliq also besieged it with eight thousand fighters, and they did not leave until Sultan Ahmed bin Abdul Karim paid them seven thousand dollars. Then
1690-493: A few hundred soldiers in the mid-18th century to 18,000 in the Royal and Company armies of 1790. During this time the records of cohabitation and last testaments show that at least a third of all British men in India married an Indian woman or left their inheritance to their Anglo-Indian children. There were also many second generation British officers who were born and raised in India, such as Lieutenant-Colonel James Kirkpatrick who
1859-791: A few in Hospet and Hatti Gold Mines . Anglo-Indians also live in the towns of Alappuzha , Kozhikode , Cannanore ( Kannur ) in the South Indian state of Kerala also at Goa and Pondicherry and in some towns of Bihar such as Jamalpur , McCluskieganj and in Uttarakhand such as Dehradun , Jharkhand such as Ranchi , Dhanbad and West Bengal such as Asansol , Kharagpur , Kalimpong . A significant number of this population resides in Odisha 's Khurda and some in Cuttack . However,
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#17327877154582028-594: A historical link to both the British Isles and the Indian sub-continent . Anglo-Indians tend to identify as people of India, mostly in Kolkatta and Chennai , (or Bangladesh, Sri Lanka or Pakistan), rather than of a specific region such as Bengal. 2 August is celebrated as World Anglo Indian Day. During the period of British rule in India , children born to unions between British fathers and Indian mothers from
2197-527: A more solid form began, and ever since Aden became a popular city attracting sailors and merchants from Egypt , Sindh , Gujarat , East Africa and even China . According to Muqaddasi , Persians formed the majority of Aden's population in the 10th century. During the Ayyubid period in Yemen, Sana'a and its environs were more hostile to their presence than other regions. The Zaidi tribes were able to defeat
2366-666: A much older man. In 1847, Donohoe was seconded as assistant supervisor of public works in Aden , Yemen . Whether the rest of the family went with him or stayed in India is unsure. On 24 April 1845, Anna's 15-year-old sister, Eliza Julia Edwards, married James Millard, a sergeant-major with the 4th Troop Artillery, Indian Army in Deesa. Anna served as a witness to this marriage. Their daughter, Eliza Sarah Millard, born in 1848 in India, married on 7 October 1864 in Surat, Gujarat, India. Her husband
2535-692: A naval force was sent from Great Britain, with a detachment of troops from India, to occupy the island of Perim and prevent all communication of the French in Egypt with the Indian Ocean, by way of the Red Sea. The island of Perim was found unsuitable for troops, and the Sultan of Lahej, Ahmed bin Abdul Karim, received the detachment for some time at Aden. He proposed to enter into an alliance and to grant Aden as
2704-413: A neighbourhood of Mumbai) that admitted "mixed-race" children whose military fathers were either dead or absent. Leonowens later said she had attended a British boarding school and had arrived in India, a supposedly "strange land" to her, only at the age of 15. Anna's relationship with her stepfather, Donohoe, was not a happy one, and she later accused him of putting pressure on her, like her sister, to marry
2873-483: A new country with a collapsed economy. Civilian workers and businessmen left, and English support stopped. The closure of the Suez Canal in 1967 played an important role in the country’s economy, as it reduced the number of ships crossing Aden by 75%. The new state was divided into six governorates on December 11, 1967, in order to end the manifestations of tribalism in the state and ignore the tribal borders between
3042-481: A new identity as a Welsh-born lady and widow of a British army major. To support her surviving daughter Avis and son Louis, Leonowens again took up teaching and opened a school for the children of British officers in Singapore. While the enterprise was not a financial success, it established her reputation as an educator. In 1862, Leonowens accepted an offer made by the consul in Singapore, Tan Kim Ching , to teach
3211-594: A nominated Anglo-Indian member each in their respective State Legislative Assemblies . In January 2020, the Anglo-Indian reserved seats in the Parliament and State Legislatures of India were basically abolished by the 104th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019 , but this provision was extended to 2030. Anglo-Indian often only represents Indians mixed with British ancestry during the British Raj. There are many mixed Indians from other European countries during
3380-636: A permanent station, but the offer was declined. A Treaty was, however, concluded with the Sultan in 1802 by Admiral Sir Home Popham, who was instructed to enter into political and commercial alliances with the Chiefs oil the Arabian coast of the Red Sea. The situation was different in the north of the country, where the Zaidis did not recognize the authority of the Ottomans and revolted against them many times,
3549-422: A person whose father or any of whose other male progenitors in the male line is or was of European descent but who is domiciled within the territory of India and is or was born within such territory of parents habitually resident therein and not established there for temporary purposes only; Between 1952 and 2020, the Anglo-Indian community was the only community in India that had its own representatives nominated to
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#17327877154583718-520: A practical approach, so he communicated with the President of North Yemen, Ibrahim al-Hamdi, and he wanted normal relations with Western countries. During his reign, relations between South Yemen and Saudi Arabia were established in 1976. President Salmin, as he is known, coveted more Soviet support, so the contract with Saudi Arabia worried him. The Soviets pushed them to increase aid, but relations with Saudi Arabia became strained again in 1977 following
3887-414: A process he had begun in 1868, and which would end with its total abolition in 1915. Meanwhile, Louis had accumulated debts in the U.S. by 1874 and fled the country. He became estranged from his mother and did not see her for 19 years. In the summer of 1878, she taught Sanskrit at Amherst College . In 1878, Leonowens's daughter Avis Annie Crawford Connybeare married Thomas Fyshe, a Scottish banker and
4056-643: A report of his mission was read at a public meeting held in the Calcutta Town Hall. In April 1834, in obedience to an Act of Parliament passed in August 1833, the Indian government was forced to grant government jobs to Anglo-Indians. As British women began arriving in India in large numbers around the early to mid-19th century, mostly as family members of officers and soldiers, British men became less likely to marry Indian women. Intermarriage declined after
4225-525: A school for girls in the West New Brighton section of Staten Island , and she began contributing travel articles to a Boston journal, The Atlantic Monthly , including "The Favorite of the Harem", reviewed by The New York Times as "an Eastern love story, having apparently a strong basis of truth". She expanded her articles into two volumes of memoirs, beginning with The English Governess at
4394-564: A settlement in Madras. The community identified itself with and was accepted by the British until 1791, when Anglo-Indians were excluded from positions of authority in the civil, military and marine services in the East India Company. During the Indian rebellion of 1857, Anglo-Indians sided with the British and consequently received favoured treatment from the British government in preference to other Indians, serving in large numbers in
4563-745: A shock to the town that had long claimed her as one of its most famous natives. A few months after Anna's birth, her mother remarried. The stepfather was Patrick Donohoe, an Irish Catholic corporal of the Royal Engineers . The family relocated repeatedly within Western India, following the stepfather's regiment. In 1841, they settled in Deesa , Gujarat. Anna attended the Bombay Education Society's girls school in Byculla (now
4732-565: A small number of government officials and the East India Company officials thought that a British base in the area was necessary to prevent another French advance through Egypt or Russian expansion through Persia . The emergence of Muhammad Ali of Egypt as a strong local ruler only increased their concerns. The governor of Bombay from 1834 to 1838, Sir Robert Grant , was one of those who believed that India could only be protected by preemptively seizing "places of strength" to protect
4901-658: A special payment was made to each soldier who had his child baptised as a Protestant . The concern in London was that if the soldiers at Fort St. George lived with or married the many Portuguese women there the children would be brought up as Roman Catholics rather than Protestants. The Company's officials on the ground were less worried about the religious issue, but more concerned that soldiers should be married "to prevent wickedness". Married soldiers with family ties were thought more likely to be better behaved than bachelors. The British military population in India grew rapidly from
5070-573: A team of two to the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth, Western Australia . In order to stabilize Aden and the surrounding Aden Protectorate from the designs of the Egyptian backed republicans of North Yemen , the British attempted to gradually unite the disparate states of the region in preparation for eventual independence. On 18 January 1963, the Colony of Aden was incorporated into
5239-460: A three-year tour through Egypt and the Middle East with the orientalist Reverend George Percy Badger and his wife. However, recent biographies consider this episode to be fictitious. Anna may have met Badger in India and listened to or read reports about his travels. Anna Edwards's husband-to-be, Thomas Leon Owens, an Irish Protestant from Enniscorthy , County Wexford , went to India with
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5408-498: A way-station for seamen in the ancient world. There, supplies, particularly water, were replenished, so, in the mid-19th century, it became necessary to replenish coal and boiler water. Thus Aden acquired a coaling station at Steamer Point and Aden was to remain under British control until November 1967. Until 1937, Aden was governed as part of British India and was known as the Aden Settlement . Its original territory
5577-553: Is added to Abyan , which is the opposite of Aden in its entirety. Ibn Manzur said: “It is a country on the edge of the sea in the farthest part of Yemen.” Ibn Khaldun said: “This Aden is one of the most fortified cities in Yemen, and it is on the bank of the Indian Sea. It is still a country of trade from the time of the Trabaids, and most of them were built with stones, which is why silk merchants visit it often.” Aden
5746-490: Is an ancient port and was mentioned by the Greeks under the name ( Ancient Greek : Αραβία Εμπόριον , romanized : Arabia Emporion ), which means an Arabic trade port. The port's convenient position on the sea route between India and Europe has made Aden desirable to rulers who sought to possess it at various times throughout history. Known as Eudaemon ( Ancient Greek : Ευδαίμων , meaning "blissful, prosperous,") in
5915-510: Is dismissed as out of character for the king by some critics. A great-granddaughter, Princess Vudhichalerm Vudhijaya (b. 21 May 1934), stated in a 2001 interview, "King Mongkut was in the monk's hood for 27 years before he was king. He would never have ordered an execution. It is not the Buddhist way." She added that the same Tuptim was her grandmother and had married Chulalongkorn as one of his minor wives. Moreover, there were no dungeons below
6084-491: Is no mention of fortification at this stage, Aden was more an island than a peninsula as the isthmus (a tombolo ) was not then so developed as it is today. Aden was explicitly mentioned by this name in the Book of Ezekiel , which talks about Jerusalem, and it says: "The merchants of Sheba and Raamah are your merchants. They set up your markets with the finest perfumes and every precious stone and gold. Harran, Qena, and Aden are
6253-533: Is the critically acclaimed true account of a young Englishman's unexpected discovery of his Anglo-Indian relations in the Darjeeling district. The Hammarskjold Killing (2007) by William Higham, is a novel in which a London-born Anglo-Indian heroine is caught up in a terrorist crisis in Sri Lanka. Keith St Clair Butler wrote 'The Secret Vindaloo' (2014, reprint 2016) which used the signature dish of Vindaloo as
6422-468: The 2014 Coup d'état , hosting some members of the Cabinet of Yemen mainly in al-Maashiq Palace . It is also the seat of the secessionist Southern Transitional Council , which exercises control over the city. Aden is a home and a place for ships, and the word Aden means reside in the place, so the word “Aden” means resident, and it is said “Aden Al-Balad,” meaning the settlement of the country. Among
6591-543: The 28th Regiment of Foot in 1843. From a private, he rose to the position of paymaster's clerk (rather than the army officer suggested by her memoir) in 1844, serving first in Poona , and from December 1845 until 1847 in Deesa. Biographer Alfred Habegger characterises him as "well read and articulate, strongly opinionated, historically informed, and almost a gentleman". Anna Edwards, who was seven years his junior, fell in love with him. However, her mother and stepfather objected to
6760-593: The Bengal Army in 1784, there were only four Colonels amongst 931 officers. Few young officers in either army managed to avoid debt. It might have cost approximately £50 a year (Rs 24 to Rs 40 a month) to provide for the wants of an Indian companion and her attendants, compared with £600 to support a British wife with any degree of public style. 83 of 217 wills in Bengal between 1780 and 1785 contained bequests either to Indian companions or their natural children, who were
6929-573: The Bhojpur region , would go on to serve prominent roles in the Maratha Army and later Bengal Army where he raised his own regiment called Skinner's Horse . Many children were born to unofficial partnerships: 54% of the children baptised at St. John's, Calcutta between 1767 and 1782 were Anglo-Indian and illegitimate. British women of good social standing were scarce; in 1785 surgeon John Stewart wrote to his brother from Cawnpore : "Many of
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7098-694: The British . On 19 January 1839, the British East India Company landed Royal Marines at Aden to secure the territory and stop attacks by pirates against British shipping to India. In 1850 it was declared a free trade port, with the liquor, salt, arms, and opium trades developing duties as it won all the coffee trade from Mokha . The port lies about equidistant from the Suez Canal , Bombay , and Zanzibar , which were all important British possessions . Aden had been an entrepôt and
7267-510: The FSA 1963–1967 [REDACTED] South Yemen 1967–1990 [REDACTED] Republic of Yemen 1990–1994 [REDACTED] Democratic Republic of Yemen 1994 [REDACTED] Republic of Yemen 1994–present Aden ( Arabic : عَدَنْ , romanized : ʿAdan , Old South Arabian : 𐩲𐩵𐩬) is a port city located in Yemen in the southern part of the Arabian peninsula, positioned near
7436-809: The Federation of Arab Emirates of the South against the wishes of North Yemen. The city became the State of Aden and the Federation was renamed the Federation of South Arabia (FSA). An insurgency against British administration known as the Aden Emergency began with a grenade attack by the communist National Liberation Front (NLF), against the British High Commissioner on 10 December 1963, killing one person and injuring fifty, and
7605-715: The Hadhramaut make it clear that both the Himyar and the Sabean cultures were well capable of it. Thus, watchtowers, since destroyed, are possible. However, the Arab historians Ibn al Mujawir and Abu Makhramah attribute the first fortification of Aden to Beni Zuree'a. Abu Makhramah has also included a detailed biography of Muhammad Azim Sultan Qamarbandi Naqsh in his work, Tarikh ul-Yemen. The aim seems to have been twofold: to keep hostile forces out and to maintain revenue by controlling
7774-519: The Indian Ocean and Europe. Thus, a ship passing from Suez to Bombay could leave mail for Mombasa at Aden for collection (See Postage stamps and postal history of Aden ). The 1947 Aden riots saw more than 80 Jews killed, their property looted and schools burned by a Muslim mob. After the Suez Crisis in 1956, Aden became the main location in the region for the British. Aden sent
7943-686: The Lok Sabha ( lower house ) in Parliament of India . These two members were nominated by the President of India on the advice of the Government of India . This right was secured from Jawaharlal Nehru by Frank Anthony , the first and longtime president of the All India Anglo-Indian Association . The community was represented by two members. This was done because the community had no native state of its own. Fourteen states out of twenty-eight states in India; Andhra Pradesh , Bihar , Chhattisgarh , Gujarat , Jharkhand , Karnataka , Kerala , Madhya Pradesh , Maharashtra , Tamil Nadu , Telangana , Uttar Pradesh , Uttarakhand and West Bengal also had
8112-439: The Nang Harm , or royal harem . She emphasised that although Mongkut had been a forward-looking ruler, he had desired to preserve customs such as prostration and sexual slavery that seemed unenlightened and degrading. The sequel, Romance of the Harem (1873), incorporates tales based on palace gossip, including the king's alleged torture and execution of one of his concubines, Tuptim. The story lacks independent corroboration and
8281-541: The Suez Canal was opened and many British women came to India in quick transit. Before the British Raj, the Company, with some reluctance, endorsed a policy of local marriage for its soldiers. The board of directors wrote in 1688 to its Council at Fort St. George : "Induce by all meanes you can invent our Souldiers (sic) to marry with the Native women, because it will be impossible to get ordinary young women, as we have before directed, to pay their own passages, although Gentlewomen sufficient do offer themselves." Until 1741,
8450-547: The Yafi tribes to rebel against the Zaidi imams and monopolize Aden's revenues equally among them. The Sultan of Lahej got rid of the imams, but he did not fulfill his promise to Yafa. The Zaidi imams did not recognize inheritance and saw fighting for the imamate, so the war between Al-Nasir Muhammad bin Ishaq and Al-Mansur Al-Hussein bin Al-Mutawakkil prolonged, so Al-Abdali took the opportunity to declare his independence in Lahej and Aden. The English had been visiting Aden and Mocha from 1609, led by Sir Henry Middleton , who
8619-415: The "East Indian Committee" with a view to send a petition to the British parliament for the redress of their grievances. John William Ricketts, a pioneer in the Eurasian cause, volunteered to proceed to England. His mission was successful, and on his return to India, by way of Madras , he received a standing ovation from his countrymen in that presidency; and was afterwards warmly welcomed in Calcutta, where
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#17327877154588788-419: The 1780s, the opportunities for Company servants to make a fortune through trade had gone forever. Most had to live on their Company salaries and few could afford to support a wife. Company officers were paid less than their counterparts in the British Army and promotion might take twice as long, perhaps 25 years to reach the rank of Major in the Company compared to between 12 and 17 years in the Royal Army; and in
8957-442: The 17th century onwards formed the basis of the Anglo-Indian community. This new ethnic group formed a small yet significant portion of the population and became well represented in certain administrative roles. As Anglo-Indians were mostly isolated from both British and Indian society, their documented numbers dwindled from roughly 300,000 at the time of independence in 1947 to about 125,000–150,000 in modern day India. During much of
9126-596: The 1860's; and... re-write it with a wealth of circumstantial detail". Moffat noted in his biography of King Mongkut that Leonowens "carelessly leaves proof of her transposed plagiarism". The fact that Leonowens's claimed birth in Caernarfon was fabricated was first uncovered by W. S. Bristowe , an arachnologist and frequent visitor to Thailand, who was researching a biography of her son Louis. Bristowe failed to locate Louis's certificate of birth in London (as claimed by Anna), prompting further research that led to him identifying her origins in India. His findings were published in
9295-424: The 1976 book Louis and the King of Siam , and later writers have expanded on this line of research, including Leslie Smith Dow in Anna Leonowens: A Life Beyond The King and I (1991) and Susan Kepner in her 1996 paper "Anna (and Margaret) and the King of Siam". More recent full-length scholarly biographies by Susan Morgan ( Bombay Anna , 2008) and Alfred Habegger ( Masked: The Life of Anna Leonowens, Schoolmistress at
9464-402: The 1st century BC, it was a transshipping point for the Red Sea trade, but fell on hard times when new shipping practices by-passed it and made the daring direct crossing to India in the 1st century AD, according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea . The same work describes Aden as "a village by the shore," which would well describe the town of Crater while it was still little-developed. There
9633-437: The 20th century. They felt insecure in an India that put a premium on participation in the independence movement as a prerequisite for important government positions. Many Anglo-Indians left the country in 1947, hoping to make a new life in the United Kingdom or elsewhere in the British Commonwealth , such as Australia or Canada . The exodus continued through the 1950s and 1960s and by the late 1990s most had left with many of
9802-441: The Al Buraiqa District. Before gaining independence, Aden comprised distinct sub-centers: Crater, the original port; Ma'alla, the modern port; Tawahi, formerly "Steamer Point"; and Gold Mohur resorts. Khormaksar, on the isthmus connecting Aden to the mainland, hosts diplomatic missions, Aden University's main offices, and Aden International Airport. On the mainland, sub-centers include Sheikh Othman, an old oasis area; Al-Mansura,
9971-597: The Anglo-Indian population has dwindled over the years with most people migrating abroad or to other parts of the country. Tangasseri in Kollam city is the only place in Kerala State where Anglo-Indian tradition is maintained. However, almost all the colonial structures there have disappeared, except the Tangasseri Lighthouse built by the British in 1902. Most of the Anglo-Indians overseas are concentrated in Britain, Australia , Canada , United States , and New Zealand , while some have settled in European countries like Switzerland , Germany , and France . According to
10140-465: The Anglo-Indians who have settled in Australia, integration for the most part has not been difficult. The community in Burma frequently intermarried with the local Anglo-Burmese community but both communities suffered from adverse discrimination since Burma's military took over the government in 1962, with most having now left the country to settle overseas. Article 366(2) of the Indian Constitution defines Anglo-Indian as: (2) an Anglo Indian means
10309-445: The Ayyubids in 1226, but Omar bin Rasul, the founder of the Rasulid state , was able to repel them, so he tightened his control over Aden. The city regained its position during the days of the Rasulids, so they dug wells and built schools, and Aden flourished commercially. The kings of Bani Rasul were also merchants and enacted a number of laws and regulations to codify trade in the city. The Banu Tahir were able to control Aden after
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#173278771545810478-475: The Ayyubids’ control of the city. A major battle took place between Turan Shah bin Ayyub and Yasser bin Bilal al-Muhammadi, Minister of State, and the Zurayiyyah were defeated and al-Muhammadi fled to Taiz. One of the most important reasons that contributed to the defeat of the Zurayids was their ongoing wars with the Bani Mahdi in Tihama and the departure of their army to confront the Ayyubids instead of fortifying themselves in Aden. After 1175, rebuilding in
10647-436: The Banu Rasool, and the Italian traveler Lodovico di Verthama describes it as one of the most powerful cities seen on Earth during the days of the Tahirids . The Portuguese began expanding into the Indian Ocean and by 1498 they realized that Aden was their key to entering the Red Sea. The Mamluks in Egypt sensed the danger and sent a force led by Hussein al-Kurdi. The victorious King Amer bin Abdul Wahhab provided great aid to
10816-522: The British merchants and traders of the area. In 1868, Leonowens was on leave for her health in England and had been negotiating a return to the court on better terms when Mongkut fell ill and died . The King mentioned Leonowens and her son in his will, though they did not receive a legacy. The new monarch, fifteen-year-old Chulalongkorn , who succeeded his father, wrote Leonowens a warm letter of thanks for her services. He did not invite her to resume her post, but they corresponded amicably for many years. At
10985-414: The British-run administrations, such as its main government; "Anglo-Indian", in this sense, was a geographically-specific subset of overseas or non-domiciled British. There is a significant population of Anglo-Indians in Bangladesh . Anglo-Indians have been present in Bangladesh since the colonial period. Their population decreased to 4,000 in 1947 during the Partition of India . Most of them migrated to
11154-511: The Christians of Najran. The fleet entered through Aden. Byzantine sources indicate that the Sasanian Empire took control of the city in 671 AD. A local legend in Yemen states that Aden may be as old as human history itself. Some also believe that Cain and Abel are buried somewhere in the city. Although the pre-Islamic Himyar civilization was capable of building large structures, there seems to have been little fortification at this stage. Fortifications at Mareb and other places in Yemen and
11323-476: The Commissariat in Perth. The Leonowens family left Australia abruptly in April 1857, sailing to Singapore, and then moving to Penang , where Thomas found work as a hotel keeper. In or before the first week of May 1859, Thomas Leonowens died of " apoplexy " and was buried (7 May 1859) in the Protestant Cemetery in Penang. His death left Anna Leonowens an impoverished widow. Of their four children, two had died in infancy. She returned to Singapore, where she created
11492-421: The Court of Siam , 2014) brought widespread attention to Leonowens's actual life story. Chakri dynasty Kings Viceroys Deputy Viceroy Crown Prince Hereditary Prince Royalty Siamese Foreigners Key events Anglo-Indian Anglo-Indian people are a distinct minority community of mixed-race British and Indian ancestry. During the colonial period, their ancestry
11661-453: The Fadl family attacked Aden in 1836. In 1609 The Ascension was the first English ship to visit Aden, before sailing on to Mocha during the fourth voyage of the East India Company . British interests in Aden began in 1796 with Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, after which a British fleet docked at Aden for several months at the invitation of the sultan. The French were defeated in Egypt in 1801, and their privateers were tracked down over
11830-411: The Grand Palace or anywhere else in Bangkok as the high ground-water level would not allow this. Nor are there any accounts of a public burning by other foreigners staying in Siam during the same period as Leonowens. While in the United States, Leonowens also earned much-needed money through popular lecture tours. At venues such as the house of Mrs. Sylvanus Reed in Fifty-third Street, New York City , in
11999-411: The Hyderabadi elite. Other officials such as William Fraser would similarly assimilate themselves into local Indian culture, even patronizing artists and poets such as Ghalib , and going on to have dozens of children with many women, both Hindu and Muslim. Notable children of these unions such as James Skinner , also named Sikandar Sahib, the son of a Scottish Company officer and an Indian noblewoman of
12168-619: The Indian Ocean. The Red Sea increased in importance after the steamship Hugh Lindsay sailed from Bombay to the Suez isthmus in 1830, stopping at Aden with the sultan's consent to resupply with coal. Although cargo was still carried around the Cape of Good Hope in sailing ships, a steam route to the Suez could provide a much quicker option for transporting officials and important communications. Grant felt that armed ships steaming regularly between Bombay and Suez would help secure British interests in
12337-581: The Indian Ocean. The Roman governor of Egypt, Aelius Gallus, was sent in 25 BC. The campaign ended with disastrous results and the annihilation of the Roman army in front of the walls of Ma'rib. The Himyarites overthrew the Kingdom of Sheba in 275 AD and took control of Aden. Recent incomplete archaeological studies suggest that the Himyarites were the ones who built the huge water cisterns currently known as
12506-806: The Indian mother rather than the European father. There was growing disapproval of marriages amongst the Company elite and Anglo-Indian women. The public dances for the female wards of the Upper Military Academy, Calcutta, which had been attended so eagerly fifty years earlier had been discontinued by the 1830s. Public argument against marriages to Indian and Anglo-Indian women skirted the question of race and focused on their social consequences: they did not mix well in British society, lacked education, were reluctant to leave India when their men retired, and - probably most important of all - would handicap
12675-616: The King of Siam (1961). Moffat donated the Pramoj brothers' manuscript to the Library of Congress in 1961. Landon had, however, created the iconic image of Leonowens, and "in the mid-20th century she came to personify the eccentric Victorian female traveler". The novel was adapted as a hit musical by Rodgers and Hammerstein , The King and I (1951), starring Gertrude Lawrence and Yul Brynner , which ran 1,246 performances on Broadway and
12844-651: The Kingdom of Sheba, launched a campaign against Osan during which, according to the Sabaean texts, sixteen thousand people were killed, forty thousand people were enslaved, and the kings of Awsan made offerings to the god. al-Maqah , according to the inscription that Karbiel Watar I left in Sirwah , commemorating his victory. In the second half of the first century BC, the Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar determined to control Arabia Felix and reach
13013-802: The Kurds, but he suffered a heavy defeat in the Battle of Diu. The Mamluks sent a second fleet, but the victorious king refused to cooperate with the Mamluks because he had succeeded in repelling the Portuguese from Aden without their help. Hussein al-Kurdi became angry and allied with the Zaidi Imam, who was opposed to the Tahirids, al-Mutawakkil Sharaf al-Din, and the Tahirid cities fell successively, with
13182-536: The National Front with the Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen , where the leftist section was more numerous than the supporters of the popular Qahtan. They wanted a regime that would lead the masses and face the great challenges facing the new state, the most important of which was the bankruptcy of the treasury. Qahtan al-Shaabi dismissed Interior Minister Muhammad Ali Haitham on June 16, 1969, but
13351-712: The Palestinians and the Dhofar Revolution, and strengthening its relationship with the Soviet Union. West Germany severed its relationship with the state due to its recognition of East Germany, and the United States also severed its relationship in October 1969. The new powers issued a new constitution, nationalized foreign banks and insurance companies, and changed the name of the country. The state
13520-513: The Rodgers and Hammerstein film and musical were banned by the government. The 1946 film version of Anna and the King of Siam , starring Rex Harrison as Mongkut and Irene Dunne as Anna, was allowed to be shown in Thailand, although it was banned in newly independent India as an inaccurate insult by Westerners to an Eastern king. In 1950, the Thai government did not permit the film to be shown for
13689-688: The Siamese King Mongkut . Leonowens's own account was fictionalised in Margaret Landon 's best-selling novel Anna and the King of Siam (1944), as well as adaptations for other media such as Rodgers and Hammerstein 's 1951 musical The King and I . During the course of her life, Leonowens also lived in Western Australia , Singapore and Penang , the United States , Canada and Germany . In later life, she
13858-472: The Siamese court . Leonowens served at court until 1867, a period of nearly six years, first as a teacher and later as language secretary for the King. Although her position carried great respect and even a degree of political influence, she did not find the terms and conditions of her employment to her satisfaction. And, despite her position at the king's court, she was never invited into the social circle of
14027-457: The Siamese Court (1870), which earned her immediate fame but also brought charges of sensationalism . In her writing, she casts a critical eye over court life; the account is not always a flattering one, and has become the subject of controversy in Thailand , and she has also been accused of exaggerating her influence with the king. There have also been claims of fabrication: the likelihood of
14196-562: The Siamese royal cavalry and a teak trader. From his marriage to Caroline Knox—a daughter of Sir Thomas George Knox , the British consul-general in Bangkok, and his Thai wife, Prang Yen—he had two children, aged two and five years. After the death of his wife, he entrusted them to his mother's care, who took them with her to Canada, while Louis returned to Siam. Anna Leonowens met Chulalongkorn again when both visited London in 1897, thirty years after she had left Siam. During this audience,
14365-630: The United Kingdom, United States, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. In 1970, however, almost 9,000 Anglo-Indians had come from India. During the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War , almost 1,500 Anglo-Indians died. After the independence of Bangladesh, during 1974–1976 almost 2,800 Anglo-Indians arrived in Bangladesh from India. In 1980, there were 3,750 reported births of Anglo-Indian children in Bangladesh. By 1993, there were 10,371 Anglo-Indians living in Bangladesh. The Anglo-Indian population in
14534-602: The Western Australian coast, the Alibi was almost wrecked on a reef. Ten days later, Anna, Thomas, their newborn son and Glasscott arrived in Perth . Glasscott and Thomas Leonowens quickly found employment as clerks in the colonial administration. Later in 1853, Glasscott accepted a position as government commissariat storekeeper at Lynton , a small and remote settlement that was the site of Lynton Convict Depot . Glasscott became involved in frequent disagreements with
14703-417: The abrasive resident magistrate , William Burges . Within three years, Glasscott had returned to India and taken up a career in teaching, before dying suddenly in 1856. Anna Leonowens – using her middle name of Harriett – tried to establish a school for young ladies. In March 1854, the infant Thomas died at the age of 13 months, and, later that year, a daughter, Avis Annie, was born. In 1855, Thomas Leonowens
14872-555: The age of 27, Louis Leonowens returned to Siam and was granted a commission of Captain in the Royal Cavalry. Chulalongkorn made reforms for which his former tutor claimed some of the credit, including the abolition of the practice of prostration before the royal person. However, many of those same reforms were goals that had been established by his father. By 1869, Leonowens was in New York City, where she briefly opened
15041-544: The age of 78. Anna Leonowens died on 19 January 1915, at 83 years of age. She was interred in Mount Royal Cemetery in Montreal . The headstone identifies her as the "Beloved Wife of Major Thomas Lorne Leonowens", despite her husband never having risen beyond the rank of paymaster sergeant. Margaret Landon 's novel Anna and the King of Siam (1944) provides a fictionalised look at Anna Leonowens's years at
15210-489: The air with no survivors. The increased violence was a determining factor in the British ensuring all families were evacuated more quickly than initially intended, as recorded in From Barren Rocks to Living Stones . On 30 November 1967, British troops were evacuated, leaving Aden and the rest of the FSA under NLF control. The Royal Marines , who had been the first British troops to arrive in Aden in 1839, were
15379-414: The argument over slavery, for example, when King Mongkut was for 27 years a Buddhist monk and later abbot, before ascending to the throne. It is thought that his religious training and vocation would never have permitted the views expressed by Leonowens's cruel, eccentric and self-indulgent monarch. Even the title of her memoir is inaccurate, as she was neither English nor did she work as a governess: Her task
15548-401: The assassination of North Yemeni President Ibrahim al-Hamdi. It is believed that Salem Rabie Ali orchestrated the assassination of Ahmed Hussein al-Ghashmi in revenge for Ibrahim al-Hamdi. Salem Rabie Ali was subjected to a quick trial that ended with his execution and Abdel Fattah Ismail assuming the presidency of South Yemen. Relations with North Yemen became tense, due to Fattah’s support for
15717-562: The better part of half a century. Most Anglo-Indians, even those without much formal education, find that gaining employment in schools is fairly easy because of their fluency in English. Norman Pritchard became India's first ever Olympic medallist, winning two silver medals at the 1900 Olympic Games in Paris, France. In cricket Roger Binny was the leading wicket-taker during the Indian cricket team's 1983 World Cup triumph. Wilson Jones
15886-487: The career of an ambitious husband. By 1830, the proportion of illegitimate births registered in the Bengal Presidency had fallen to 10%, and British wills in Bengal in 1830-2 record less than one in four bequests to Indian women and their children compared with almost two in five fifty years earlier. For all the social disapproval, however, officers and Company servants continued to marry Anglo-Indian girls, and it
16055-570: The cashier (general manager) of the Bank of Nova Scotia in Halifax , where she resided for nineteen years as she continued to travel the world. This marriage ended the family's money worries. Leonowens resumed her teaching career and taught daily from 9 am to 12 noon for an autumn half at the Berkeley School of New York at 252 Madison Avenue, Manhattan , beginning on 5 October 1880; this
16224-414: The churches, from cardinals, archbishops, bishops, priests and ministers, and fill a number of educational roles." India constitutionally guarantees of the rights of communities and religious and linguistic minorities, and thus permits Anglo-Indians to maintain their own schools and to use English as the medium of instruction. In order to encourage the integration of the community into the larger society,
16393-546: The colonial era, genres including ragtime and jazz were played by bands for the social elites, and these bands often contained Anglo-Indian members. Around the time of the Indian independence movement , the All-India Anglo-Indian Association was opposed to the partition of India ; its then president Frank Anthony criticized the colonial authorities for "racial discrimination in matters of pay and allowances, and for failing to acknowledge
16562-636: The colonial era. For example, the definition rarely embraces the descendants of the Indians from the old Portuguese colonies of both the Coromandel and Malabar Coasts , who joined the East India Company as mercenaries and brought their families with them. The definition has many extensions, for example, Luso-Indian (mixed Portuguese and Indian) of Goa and Kochi , people of Indo-French descent, and Indo-Dutch descent. Indians have encountered Europeans since their earliest civilization. They have been
16731-1114: The country reached 20,000 in 2016. Aden English (Widely used) [REDACTED] Kingdom of Awsan [REDACTED] Himyarite Kingdom [REDACTED] Kingdom of Aksum [REDACTED] Sasanian Yemen [REDACTED] First Islamic state [REDACTED] Rashidun Caliphate [REDACTED] Umayyad Caliphate [REDACTED] Abbasid Caliphate [REDACTED] Ziyadid dynasty [REDACTED] Najahid dynasty [REDACTED] Sulayhid dynasty [REDACTED] Zurayid dynasty [REDACTED] Ayyubid dynasty [REDACTED] Rasulid dynasty [REDACTED] Tahirid Sultanate [REDACTED] Mamluk Sultanate [REDACTED] Portuguese Aden [REDACTED] Yemen Eyalet [REDACTED] Qasimid State [REDACTED] Yemen Vilayet [REDACTED] Qasimid State [REDACTED] Sultanate of Lahej 1728–1839 [REDACTED] Aden Province 1839–1937 [REDACTED] Aden Colony 1937–1963 [REDACTED] Aden protectorate 1937–1963 [REDACTED] [REDACTED] State of Aden within
16900-736: The death of Ali bin Muhammad Al-Sulayhi , his son took charge of Zurayids , and Aden continued to pay the annual royalty until Queen Arwa bint Ahmed Al-Sulayhi reduced it. After the fall of the Sulayhid state, the Banu Zurayi became independent in Aden, taking advantage of the Sulayhids’ preoccupation with the Khawlan tribes. The Zurayites continued to rule Aden, Lahj, and Abyan for less than forty years until they fell under
17069-541: The defunct sheikhdoms. On March 20, 1968, Qahtan dismissed all leftist leaders from the government and party membership. He was able to put down a rebellion led by leftist factions in the army in May of the same year, and faced new rebellions from leftist parties in July, August and December of 1968. This is because all Arab countries welcomed the front. National Liberation received a cold reception. Regimes like Egypt wanted to merge
17238-497: The destiny of Asiatic women." She joined the literary circles of New York and Boston and made the acquaintance of local lights on the lecture circuit, such as Oliver Wendell Holmes , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Harriet Beecher Stowe , author of Uncle Tom's Cabin , a book whose anti-slavery message Leonowens had brought to the attention of the royal household. She said the book influenced Chulalongkorn's reform of slavery in Siam,
17407-727: The eastern approach to the Red Sea . It is situated approximately 170 km (110 mi) east of the Bab-el-Mandeb strait and north of the Gulf of Aden . With its strategic location on the coastline, Aden serves as a gateway between the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea, making it a crucial maritime hub connecting Africa , Asia , and the Middle East . As of 2023, Aden City has a population of approximately 1,080,000 residents, making it one of
17576-526: The events of the Rebellion of 1857 , after which several anti-miscegenation laws were implemented. As a result, Eurasians were neglected by both the British and Indian populations in India. Over generations, Anglo-Indians intermarried with other Anglo-Indians to form a community that developed a culture of its own. Their cuisine , dress, speech (use of English as their mother tongue ), and religion ( Christianity ) all served to further separate them from
17745-447: The exception of Aden. The Ottoman Empire took control of the city in 1538. The Ottomans' goal was to prevent the Portuguese from controlling Aden, so the city witnessed difficult days, in addition to the fact that the port of Mocha gained greater importance at the expense of Aden during the sixteenth century. The city's population declined and it turned into a small village with a population of no more than 600 people. While its population
17914-530: The expense of the Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen, whose members were divided between joining the National Front or leaving for North Yemen, so Abdullah Al-Asanj and Muhammad Basindwa left for North Yemen. Qahtan al-Sha'bi assumed the presidency of the new state, and the sheikhdoms of the Eastern Protectorate of Hadramaut and Al-Mahra were annexed to the new state. Al-Shaabi took over
18083-483: The factions opposing Ali Abdullah Saleh, who was more fanatical than his predecessors. Relations with the Soviet Union became active in an unprecedented way, so the Front War broke out in 1978, in which the Soviet Union and the United States intervened. Ali Nasser Muhammad was able to force Abd al-Fattah Ismail al-Jawfi to resign for “health reasons,” and Ismail was exiled to Moscow less than two years after he assumed
18252-585: The government stipulates that a certain percentage of the student body come from other Indian communities. In a 2013 BBC News feature on Anglo-Indians, journalist Kris Griffiths wrote: "It has been noted in recent years that the number of Anglo-Indians who have succeeded in certain fields is remarkably disproportionate to the community's size. For example, in the music industry there are Engelbert Humperdinck (born Madras ), Peter Sarstedt ( Delhi ) and Cliff Richard ( Lucknow ). The looser definition of Anglo-Indian (any mixed British-Indian parentage) encompasses
18421-545: The king took the opportunity to express his thanks in person, but he also voiced his dismay at the inaccuracies in Leonowens's books. According to Leonowens' granddaughter Anna Fyshe, who had accompanied her, the king asked: "why did you write such a wicked book about my father King Mongkut? You know that you have made him utterly ridiculous". In response, according to Fyshe, Leonowens insisted that she had written "the whole truth" and that Mongkut had indeed been "a ridiculous and
18590-465: The ladies' seminaries in Presidency towns and to England to be 'finished'; and when they returned, they were married off to fellow officers. Some daughters of senior officers became substantial heiresses whose wealth was a marked marital attraction, but many more daughters of impoverished officers, raised in military orphanages after the deaths of their fathers, hoped only to find a suitable husband at
18759-497: The largest cities in Yemen. Aden is divided into eight districts: Tawahi , Mualla , Crater , Khur Maksar , Al Mansura , Dar Sad , Sheikh Othman , and Al Buraiqa . These form today's Aden Governorate. During British Colonialism, Aden referred to the area along the north coast of the Gulf of Aden, encompassing Tawahi, Mualla, Crater, and much of Khur Maksar District. The western harbor peninsula, known as Little Aden, now falls within
18928-478: The last to leave – with the exception of a Royal Engineer detachment ( 10 Airfields Squadron left Aden on 13 December 1967). As part of a larger Royal Navy task force , HMS Albion 's helicopters lifted off remaining Royal Marine commandos left to secure the airfield. The last British soldier left Aden on November 30, 1967, and the National Liberation Front had the upper hand at
19097-588: The latest being held in 2015 in Kolkata . Several narratives and novels have been published recently. The Leopard's Call: An Anglo-Indian Love Story (2005) by Reginald Shires, tells of the life of two teachers at the small Bengali town of Falakata , down from Bhutan ; At the Age for Love: A Novel of Bangalore during World War II (2006) is by the same author. In the Shadow of Crows (2009) by David Charles Manners ,
19266-506: The latter, with his ties to the tribes and the army, reassembled the leftist forces that had been dispersed by President Qahtan al-Shaabi, and they were able to arrest him and place him under house arrest on June 22 of the same year. A presidential committee was formed from Five people: Salem Rabie Ali, who became president, Muhammad Saleh Al-Awlaki, Ali Antar, Abdel Fattah Ismail, and Muhammad Ali Haitham, who became prime minister. This group took an extreme leftist line, declaring its support for
19435-405: The likes of cricketer Nasser Hussain , footballer Michael Chopra and actor Ben Kingsley ." Air Vice-Marshal Maurice Barker was India's first Anglo-Indian Air Marshal. At least seven other Anglo-Indians subsequently reached that post, a notable achievement for a small community. A number of others have been decorated for military achievements. Air Marshal Malcolm Wollen is often considered
19604-567: The man who won India's 1971 war fighting alongside Bangladesh . Anglo-Indians made similarly significant contributions to the Indian Navy and Army. One of the most respected matriculation qualifications in India, the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education , was started and built by some of the community's best known educationalists, including Frank Anthony , who served as its president, and A.E.T. Barrow , its secretary for
19773-463: The marriage. She gave birth to her first daughter, Selina, in December 1850. The girl died at just seventeen months. In 1852, the young couple, accompanied by Anna's uncle, W. V. Glasscott, sailed to Australia via Singapore , where they boarded the barque Alibi . The journey from Singapore was long and, while on board, Anna gave birth to a son, also named Thomas. On 8 March 1853, nearing
19942-415: The merchants of Sheba, and Assyria and Kilmud are your merchants." At its beginning, the city was a small peninsula with no significant natural resources, but its location between Egypt and India made it important in the ancient global trade route. The city was the home of the ancient Kingdom of Osan from the eighth to seventh centuries BC. In the beginning of the seventh century BC, Karbil Watar I , king of
20111-470: The monthly public dances. Save in very few cases, when British men returned home, the Indian companion and any children stayed in India: British soldiers were not permitted to bring them, and many officers and civil servants feared the social and cultural consequences. Originally, under Regulation VIII of 1813, Anglo-Indians were excluded from the British legal system and in Bengal became subject to
20280-577: The most recent of which was the revolution of Imam Al-Mansur Billah Al-Qasim bin Muhammad bin Al-Qasim , who and his son Al-Mu'ayyad Billah Muhammad were able to unite the tribes and expel the Ottomans. The imams relied on the revenues from the port of Mocha , and Aden was not as important as the Abadlahs were. At the end of the eighteenth century, Sultan Fadl al-Abdali concluded an alliance with
20449-466: The movement of goods, thereby preventing smuggling. In its original form, some of this work was relatively feeble. With the introduction of Islam to Yemen in the seventh century AD, Aden experienced a period of stagnation that lasted until the ninth century AD. In the early years of Islam, Aden belonged to the province of Jund (Taiz). It was controlled by the state of Ziyadid and the Sulayhid . After
20618-455: The native population. A number of factors fostered a strong sense of community among Anglo-Indians. Their English language school system, their strongly Anglo-influenced culture, and their Christian beliefs in particular helped bind them together. They formed social clubs and associations to run functions, including regular dances on occasions such as Christmas and Easter . Indeed, their Christmas balls , held in most major cities, still form
20787-463: The offspring of high and low in British society, and gentlemen of wealth often left substantial bequests and annuities to their Indian partners and children. When Major Thomas Naylor in 1782 bequeathed to his companion Muckmul Patna Rs 4000, a bungalow and a garden at Berhampore , a hackery, bullocks, her jewels, clothes, and all their male and female slaves, he treated her as he might a wife. Where they could, gentlemen sent their Anglo-Indian daughters to
20956-560: The old Arab quarter of Aden town. This conflict continued until mid February, despite the intervention of British troops. On 20 June 1967, 23 British Army soldiers were ambushed and shot dead by members of Aden Police during the Aden Mutiny in the Crater District. During the period there were as many attacks on the British troops by both sides as against each other culminating in the destruction of an Aden Airways DC3 plane in
21125-473: The popularity of the musical's 1956 film adaptation. D. G. E. Hall , writing in his 1955 book A History of South-East Asia , commented that Leonowens "was gifted with more imagination than insight", and from 1957 to 1961 A. B. Griswold published several articles and a monograph sharply criticizing her depictions of King Mongkut and Siam, writing that "she would seize on a lurid story that appealed to her... remove it from its context and transpose it to Bangkok in
21294-495: The presidency. Despite the approach of the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen and its removal of tribal aspects, the tribe remained alive among politicians and the public despite the exposure of its sheikhs. Tribes from their authorities. Tribal and regional favoritism and nepotism remained in southern Yemen, as political forces called on their tribal and regional affiliations during crises. By January 1986, Aden
21463-577: The region and did all he could to progress his vision. After lengthy negotiations due to the costs of investing in the new technology, the government agreed to pay half the costs for six voyages per year and the East India Company board approved the purchase of two new steamers in 1837. Grant immediately announced that monthly voyages to Suez would take place, despite the fact that no secure coaling station had been found. In 1838, under Muhsin bin Fadl, Lahej ceded 194 km (75 sq mi) including Aden to
21632-624: The regular members' course at Association Hall, or under the auspices of bodies such as the Long Island Historical Society , she lectured on subjects including "Christian Missions to Pagan Lands" and "The Empire of Siam, and the City of the Veiled Women". The New York Times reported: "Mrs. Leonowens' purpose is to awaken an interest, and enlist sympathies, in behalf of missionary labors, particularly in their relation to
21801-529: The relationship, as the suitor had poor prospects for gainful employment, and had been temporarily downgraded from sergeant to private for an unspecified offense. Nevertheless, Anna and Thomas Leon Owens married on Christmas Day 1849 in the Anglican church of Poona. In the marriage certificate, Thomas merged his second and last names to 'LeonOwens'. Patrick Donohoe signed the document as well, contradicting Leonowens's account that her stepfather had violently opposed
21970-658: The remaining Anglo-Indians still aspiring to leave. Like the Parsi community, the Anglo-Indians were essentially urban dwellers. Unlike the Parsis, the mass migrations saw more of the better educated and financially secure Anglo-Indians depart for other Commonwealth nations. There has been a resurgence in celebrating Anglo-Indian culture in the twenty-first century, in the form of International Anglo-Indian Reunions and in publishing books. There have been nine reunions, with
22139-527: The reviews of the musical, the characterisation of Mongkut seemed "90 percent exaggerated. My great-grandfather was really quite a mild and nice man." Years later, during her 1985 visit to New York, Bhumibol's wife, Queen Sirikit , went to see the Broadway musical at the invitation of Yul Brynner. The then ambassador of Thailand to the U.S. gave another reason for Thailand's disapproval of The King and I : its ethno-centric attitude and its barely hidden insult to
22308-466: The royal court and develops the abolitionist theme that resonated with her American readership. In 1946, Talbot Jennings and Sally Benson adapted it into the screenplay for a dramatic film of the same name , starring Irene Dunne and Rex Harrison . In response, Thai authors Seni and Kukrit Pramoj wrote their own account in 1948 and sent it to American politician and diplomat Abbot Low Moffat (1901–1996), who drew on it for his biography Mongkut,
22477-421: The rule of Islamic law outside Calcutta , and yet found themselves without any caste or status amongst those who were to judge them. This coincided with the Company officially allowing Christian missionaries into India; and evangelical organisations and popular writers of the time like Mary Sherwood routinely blamed the alleged moral shortcomings or personality defects of the growing Anglo-Indian population upon
22646-421: The sayings of geographers about the city: Yaqut al-Hamwi said: "It is a famous city on the coast of the Indian Sea, towards the Yemen, and it is poor, with no water or pasture. They drink from a spring between it and Aden, about a distance of about today, and despite that, it is bad, except that this place is the port for Indian ships, and merchants gather there for that reason, as it is a town of trade." And it
22815-409: The second time in Thailand. The books Romance in the Harem and An English Governess at the Siamese Court were not banned in Thailand. There were even Thai translations of these books by Ob Chaivasu, a Thai humor writer. During a visit to the United States in 1960, the monarch of Thailand, King Bhumibol (a great-grandson of Mongkut), and his entourage explained that from what they could gather from
22984-418: The sole purpose of drinking for the city's citizens." Little Aden became the site of the oil refinery and tanker port. Both were established and operated by British Petroleum until they were turned over to South Yemeni government ownership and control in 1978. Aden used to be the capital of South Yemen until its unity with North Yemen in 22 May 1990. It is currently the temporary capital of Yemen since
23153-471: The sterling military and civil contributions made by Anglo-Indians to the Raj". Their position at the time of independence of India was difficult. Given their English ancestry, many felt a loyalty to a British "home" that most had never seen and where they would gain little social acceptance. Bhowani Junction touches on the identity crisis faced by the Anglo-Indian community during the independence movement of
23322-409: The strategic services of the railways, the postal and telegraph services, and customs. In 1919, the Anglo-Indian community was given one reserved seat in the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi. The English-speaking Anglo-Indians identified themselves with the British against the nationalist Congress Party. During the East India Company 's rule in India in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, it
23491-409: The subsequent decade. By 1800, Aden was a small village with a population of 600 Arabs, Somalis , Jews, and Indians—housed for the most part in huts of reed matting erected among ruins recalling a vanished era of wealth and prosperity. As there was little British trade in the Red Sea, most British politicians until the 1830s had no further interest in the area beyond the suppression of piracy. However,
23660-467: The time that Britain ruled India (the Raj ), British-Indian relationships faced stigma, which meant that the ethnicity of some Anglo-Indians was undocumented or identified incorrectly. As such, many have adapted to local communities in India or emigrated to the United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , the United States , South Africa and New Zealand , where they form part of the Indian diaspora . Similar communities can also be seen in other parts of
23829-465: The whole Siamese nation by portraying its people as childish and inferior to the Westerners. In 1972, Twentieth Century Fox produced a non-musical American TV series for CBS , Anna and the King , with Samantha Eggar taking the part of Leonowens and Brynner reprising his role as the king. Margaret Landon charged the makers with "inaccurate and mutilated portrayals" of her literary property and sued unsuccessfully for copyright infringement. The series
23998-414: The wives and children of Mongkut , King of Siam . The king wished to give his 39 wives and concubines and 82 children a modern Western education on scientific secular lines, which earlier missionaries' wives had not provided. Leonowens sent her daughter Avis to school in England, and took her son Louis with her to Bangkok . She succeeded Dan Beach Bradley , an American missionary, as teacher to
24167-438: The women here are mere adventuresses from Milliners shops on Ludgate Hill and some even from Covent Garden and Old Drury [well known areas of prostitution in late 18th century London]. They possess neither sentiment nor education, and are so intoxicated by their sudden elevation, that a sensible man can only regard them with indignation and outrage." The reforming zeal of Governor-General Lord Cornwallis had ensured that by
24336-438: The world, although in smaller numbers, such as Anglo-Burmese in Myanmar and Burghers in Sri Lanka. The first use of "Anglo-Indian" was to describe all British people who lived in India. People of mixed British and Indian descent were referred to as "Eurasians". Terminology has changed and the latter group are now called "Anglo-Indians". The community originated soon after 1639 when the British East India Company established
24505-403: The “Cisterns of Aden,” which stored approximately 136,382,757 liters of water. The Himyarite Kingdom fell in the first quarter of the sixth century AD. Yusuf Dhu Nuwas mentioned Bab al-Mandab in one of his writings. The forces of the Kingdom of Aksum were entering Yemen through it. The Byzantine Emperor Justinian I sent a fleet to fight the Himyarite Jews and support the Kingdom of Aksum and
24674-618: Was "most likely ... Anglo-Indian (of mixed race ) born in India." Anna's mother, Mary Anne Glascott, was born in 1815 or 1816. For most of her adult life, Anna Leonowens had no contact with her family and took pains to disguise her origins by claiming that she had been born with the surname "Crawford" in Caernarfon , Wales, and giving her father's rank as captain . By doing so, she protected not only herself but her children, who would have had greater opportunities if their possibly mixed-race heritage remained unknown. Investigations uncovered no record of her birth at Caernarfon, news which came as
24843-519: Was Edward John Pratt, a 38-year-old British civil servant . One of their sons, William Henry Pratt, born 23 November 1887 upon their return to London, was better known by his stage name of Boris Karloff ; Anna was thus his great-aunt. Anna Edwards never approved of her sister's marriage, and her self-imposed separation from the family was so complete that, a decade later, when Eliza contacted her during her stay in Siam, she replied by threatening suicide if she persisted. Leonowens later said she had gone on
25012-466: Was India's first ever World Professional Billiards Champion. Today, there are estimated to be 350,000-400,000 Anglo-Indians living in India, most of whom are based in the cities of Kolkata , Chennai , Bangalore , Mumbai , Delhi , Hyderabad , Ratlam , Kochi , Pune , Kollam , Secunderabad , Mysuru , Mangaluru , Kolar Gold Fields , Kanpur , Lucknow , Agra , Varanasi , Madurai , Coimbatore , Pothanur , Tiruchirapalli , The Nilgiris , and
25181-498: Was a suffragist . She initiated a reading circle and a Shakespeare club, was one of the founders of the Local Council of Women of Halifax and the Victoria School of Art and Design (now the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design ). From 1888 to 1893, Anna Leonowens lived with her daughter Avis and her grandchildren in Kassel , Germany. On her way back to Canada, she met her son Louis again, after nineteen years of separation. He had returned to Siam in 1881, had become an officer in
25350-404: Was a lecturer of Indology and a suffragist. Among other achievements, she co-founded the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design . Anna Leonowens's mother, Mary Ann Glascott, married her father, Sergeant Thomas Edwards, a non-commissioned officer in the East India Company 's Corps of Sappers and Miners, on 15 March 1829 in St James's Church, Tannah , Bombay Presidency, British India. Edwards
25519-474: Was a new preparatory school for colleges and schools of science and her presence was advertised in the press. On behalf of The Youth's Companion magazine, Leonowens visited Russia in 1881, shortly after the assassination of Tsar Alexander II , and other European countries, and continued to publish travel articles and books. This established her position as an orientalist scholar. Having returned to Halifax, she again became involved in women's education, and
25688-461: Was a step towards the change in monetary units seen in the stamps illustrating this article. When British India became independent in 1947, Indian rupees (divided into annas ) were replaced in Aden by East African shillings . The hinterland of Aden and Hadhramaut were also loosely tied to Britain as the Aden Protectorate , which was overseen from Aden. Aden's location also made it a useful entrepôt for mail passing between places around
25857-425: Was also a hit in London and on tour. In 1956, a film version was released, with Deborah Kerr starring in the role of Leonowens and Brynner reprising his role as the king. Brynner starred in many revivals until his death in 1985. The humorous depiction of Mongkut as a polka -dancing despot , as well as the king's and Anna's apparent romantic feelings for each other, is condemned as disrespectful in Thailand, where
26026-450: Was an English-born commissioned officer of the 4th Regiment, Bombay Native Infantry , in the Bombay Army . Glascott arrived in India in 1810, and was apparently married in 1815, although his wife's name is not known. According to biographer Susan Morgan, the only viable explanation for the complete and deliberate lack of information regarding Glascott's wife in official British records is that she "was not European". Morgan suggests that she
26195-414: Was appointed to Glasscott's former position with the commissariat at Lynton, and the family moved there. At Lynton, Anna Leonowens gave birth to a son, Louis . During late 1856, Thomas Leonowens also served briefly as magistrate's clerk under William Burges. Like Glasscott, Thomas clashed with Burges but survived until the Convict Depot was closed in 1857, and he was transferred to a more senior position with
26364-399: Was approximately eighty thousand people during the days of the Rasulid state. In 1421, China's Ming dynasty Yongle Emperor ordered principal envoy grand eunuch Li Xing and grand eunuch Zhou Man of Zheng He 's fleet to convey an imperial edict with hats and robes to bestow on the king of Aden. The envoys boarded three treasure ships and set sail from Sumatra to the port of Aden . This event
26533-489: Was born in Madras in 1764, wore Mughal style clothing, and spoke Tamil as a first language. Left with a strong affinity for the cultural practices of their childhood homeland, many although nominally Christian would adopt local Hindu and Muslim customs such as shunning pork, beef, and even becoming vegetarians. Kirkpatrick would even go on to converting to Islam in order to marry a Sayyida noblewoman named Khair-un-Nissa in 1800, having two children together, and assimilating into
26702-425: Was common for British officers and soldiers to take local wives and start families, owing to an initial lack of British women in India. Looking at the records of wills from the early 1780s, a third of all British men in India named their Indian wives and children as their inheritors. By the mid-19th century, there were around 40,000 British soldiers, but fewer than 2,000 British officials present in India but by then
26871-553: Was defined as British paternal and Indian maternal heritage; post-independence, "Anglo-Indian" has also encompassed other European and Indian ancestries. Anglo-Indians' first language is usually English . Prior to 1911, various designations like "Eurasian" or "Indo-Briton" were used to describe this community. The All India Anglo-Indian Association , founded in 1926, has long represented the interests of this ethnic group; it holds that Anglo-Indians are unique in that they are Christians , speak English as their mother tongue, and have
27040-417: Was enlarged in 1857 by the 13 km (5.0 sq mi) island of Perim , in 1868 by the 73 km (28 sq mi) Khuriya Muriya Islands , and in 1915 by the 108 km (42 sq mi) island of Kamaran . The settlement would become Aden Province in 1935. In 1937, the settlement was detached from India and became the Colony of Aden , a British Crown colony . The change in government
27209-402: Was followed by systematic killings and liquidations against the people of Abyan Governorate, on charges that they were collaborating with Ali Nasser Muhammad. Nearly ten thousand people were killed and thousands migrated towards North Yemen, most of whom were from Abyan and Shabwa. With the unification of northern and southern Yemen in 1990, Aden was no longer a national capital but remained
27378-428: Was from London and a former cabinetmaker . Anna was born in Ahmednagar in the Bombay Presidency of Company-ruled India , on 5 November 1831, three months after the death of her father. While she was christened Ann Hariett Emma Edwards, Leonowens later changed Ann to "Anna" and Hariett to "Harriette" and ceased using her third given name (Emma). Leonowens's maternal grandfather, William Vawdrey (or Vaudrey) Glascott,
27547-431: Was imprisoned, his ships confiscated, and eight of his men killed. The British tried to conclude treaties with the Zaidi imams after the Ottomans were expelled from Aden. They visited Sana'a and Mokha, but they treated the British ambassador poorly and rejected his offer. Things were different when the Abdali gained independence from Lahj and Medina. They signed a treaty with the British in 1802, stipulating that they build
27716-400: Was not a success and was cancelled after only 13 episodes. In 1999 an animated film using the songs of the musical was released by Warner Bros. Animation . In the same year, Jodie Foster and Chow Yun-fat starred in a new feature-length cinematic adaptation of Leonowens's books, also titled Anna and the King . One Thai critic complained that the filmmakers had made Mongkut "appear like
27885-411: Was recorded in the book Yingyai Shenglan by Ma Huan who accompanied the imperial envoy. In 1513, the Portuguese, led by Afonso de Albuquerque , launched an unsuccessful four-day naval siege of Aden . After Ottoman rule, Aden was ruled by the Sultanate of Lahej , under suzerainty of the Zaidi imams of Yemen. The first political intercourse between Lahej and the British took place in 1799, when
28054-522: Was thought that in Calcutta alone there were more than 500 marriageable Anglo-Indian girls in the 1820s, compared to 250 Englishwomen in the whole of Bengal. In 1821, a pamphlet entitled "Thoughts on how to better the condition of Indo-Britons" by a "Practical Reformer", was written to promote the removal of prejudices existing in the minds of young Eurasians against engaging in trades. This was followed up by another pamphlet, entitled "An Appeal on behalf of Indo-Britons". Prominent Eurasians in Calcutta formed
28223-419: Was to teach English, not to educate and care for the royal children comprehensively. Leonowens claimed to have spoken Thai fluently, but the examples of that language presented in her books are unintelligible, even if one allows for clumsy transcription. Leonowens was a feminist , and in her writings she tended to focus on what she saw as the subjugated status of Siamese women, including those sequestered within
28392-665: Was torn apart by the rivalry of two factions in the ruling Socialist Party, when President Ali Nasser Muhammad's guards launched a surprise attack on the political party's office in Aden on January 13, 1986. This was the beginning of the 1986 civil war in South Yemen. The basis of the war was regional. Ali Nasser Muhammad was from Abyan Governorate, while most of those killed in the political party office were from Al-Dhalea and Lahj. Military brigades from those areas bombed Aden from land and sea, forcing Ali Nasser Muhammad to flee and hundreds of thousands of civilians and soldiers to flee to northern Yemen, including Abd Rabbuh Mansour Hadi . This
28561-411: Was transferred to the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen in line with the Marxist-Leninist approach they followed. A centrally planned economy was established. The port of Aden was the largest source of national income for the Republic of South Yemen, but the closure of the Suez Canal by egypt between the years 1967 and 1975 - reduced commercial activities in the port. Salem Rabie Ali wanted to adopt
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