205-521: Anselm of Canterbury OSB ( / ˈ æ n s ɛ l m / ; 1033/4–1109), also called Anselm of Aosta (French: Anselme d'Aoste , Italian: Anselmo d'Aosta ) after his birthplace and Anselm of Bec (French: Anselme du Bec ) after his monastery , was an Italian Benedictine monk , abbot , philosopher , and theologian of the Catholic Church , who held the office of Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109. After his death, he
410-721: A Germanic people who conquered most of the Italian Peninsula between 568 and 774. The medieval Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the History of the Lombards (written between 787 and 796) that the Lombards descended from a small tribe called the Winnili, who dwelt in northern Germany before migrating to seek new lands. Earlier Roman-era historians wrote of the Lombards in the first century AD as being one of
615-630: A Lombard Kingdom in north and central Italy, which reached its zenith under the eighth-century ruler Liutprand . In 774, the kingdom was conquered by the Frankish king Charlemagne and integrated into the Frankish Empire . However, Lombard nobles continued to rule southern parts of the Italian peninsula well into the eleventh century, when they were conquered by the Normans and added to
820-436: A revealed truth, as a rational system. Anselm also studiously analyzed the language used in his subjects, carefully distinguishing the meaning of the terms employed from the verbal forms, which he found at times wholly inadequate. His worldview was broadly Neoplatonic , as it was reconciled with Christianity in the works of St Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius , with his understanding of Aristotelian logic gathered from
1025-862: A shrine and its contents "disposed of" during the Reformation . The ambassador's own investigation was of the opinion that Anselm's body had been confused with Archbishop Theobald 's and likely remained entombed near the altar of the Virgin Mary , but in the uncertainty nothing further seems to have been done then or when inquiries were renewed in 1841. Anselm has been called "the most luminous and penetrating intellect between St Augustine and St Thomas Aquinas " and "the father of scholasticism ", Scotus Erigena having employed more mysticism in his arguments. Anselm's works are considered philosophical as well as theological since they endeavour to render Christian tenets of faith, traditionally taken as
1230-530: A "Superior General". Each Benedictine congregation is autonomous and governed by an abbot or abbess. The autonomous houses are characterised by their chosen charism or specific dedication to a particular devotion. For example, In 1313 Bernardo Tolomei established the Order of Our Lady of Mount Olivet . The community adopted the Rule of Saint Benedict and received canonical approval in 1344. The Olivetans are part of
1435-477: A 6th-century Italian monk who laid the foundations of Benedictine monasticism through the formulation of his Rule. Benedict's sister, Scholastica , possibly his twin, also became a religious from an early age, but chose to live as a hermit . They retained a close relationship until her death. Despite being called an order, the Benedictines do not operate under a single hierarchy but are instead organized as
1640-486: A being's attributes did not include existence, a still greater being could be imagined: one with all of the attributes of the first and existence. Therefore, the truly greatest possible being must necessarily exist. Further, this necessarily-existing greatest being must be God, who therefore necessarily exists. This reasoning was known to the Scholastics as "Anselm's argument" ( ratio Anselmi ) but it became known as
1845-590: A betrayal, Thurisind made an alliance with the Kutrigurs who devastated Moesia before end of the armistice. The Langobard and Roman army joined together and defeated the Gepids in 551. In the battle, Audoin 's son, Alboin killed Thurisind 's son, Turismod . In 552, the Byzantines, aided by a large contingent of Foederati , notably Lombards, Heruls and Bulgars, defeated the last Ostrogoths led by Teia in
2050-410: A capacity to sin but a capacity to do good for its own sake (as opposed to owing to coercion or for self-interest). God and the good angels therefore have free will despite being incapable of sinning; similarly, the non-coercive aspect of free will enabled man and the rebel angels to sin, despite this not being a necessary element of free will itself. In De Casu Diaboli , Anselm further considers
2255-504: A champion of freedom. In 47, a struggle ensued amongst the Cherusci and they expelled their new leader, the nephew of Arminius, from their country. The Lombards appeared on the scene with sufficient power to control the destiny of the tribe that had been the leader in the struggle for independence thirty-eight years earlier, for they restored the deposed leader to sovereignty. To the south, in 166 Cassius Dio reported that just before
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#17327977189902460-561: A collection of autonomous monasteries and convents, some known as abbeys . The order is represented internationally by the Benedictine Confederation , an organization set up in 1893 to represent the order's shared interests. They do not have a superior general or motherhouse with universal jurisdiction but elect an Abbot Primate to represent themselves to the Vatican and to the world. Benedictine nuns are given
2665-655: A cult of Odin, thus creating a conscious tribal tradition. Fröhlich inverts the order of events in Priester and states that with the Odin cult, the Lombards grew their beards in resemblance of the Odin of tradition and their new name reflected this. Bruckner remarks that the name of the Lombards stands in close relation to the worship of Odin, whose many names include "the Long-bearded" or "the Grey-bearded", and that
2870-658: A deeper knowledge of God." Once the faith is held fast, however, he argued an attempt must be made to demonstrate its truth by means of reason: "To me, it seems to be negligence if, after confirmation in the faith, we do not study to understand that which we believe." Merely rational proofs are always, however, to be tested by scripture and he employs Biblical passages and "what we believe" ( quod credimus ) at times to raise problems or to present erroneous understandings, whose inconsistencies are then resolved by reason. Stylistically, Anselm's treatises take two basic forms, dialogues and sustained meditations. In both, he strove to state
3075-567: A few different places, namely the sacristy , which contained books for the choir and other liturgical books, the rectory , which housed books for public reading such as sermons and lives of the saints, and the library , which contained the largest collection of books and was typically in the cloister. The first record of a monastic library in England is in Canterbury . To assist with Augustine of Canterbury 's English mission , Pope Gregory
3280-515: A hunting lodge, was officially returned to the Benedictines four hundred years later, in 1928. During the next few years, so-called Prinknash Park was used as a home until it was returned to the order. St. Lawrence's Abbey in Ampleforth, Yorkshire was founded in 1802. In 1955, Ampleforth set up a daughter house, a priory at St. Louis, Missouri which became independent in 1973 and became Saint Louis Abbey in its own right in 1989. As of 2015,
3485-657: A life of exploitation, others dedicated to the Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament such as the one established by Catherine de Bar (1614–1698). In 1688 Dame Mechtilde de Bar assisted Marie Casimire Louise de La Grange d'Arquien , queen consort of Poland, to establish a Benedictine foundation in Warsaw . Abbeys were among the institutions of the Catholic Church swept away during
3690-439: A monastery but, failing to obtain his father's consent, he was refused by the abbot. The illness he then suffered has been considered by some a psychosomatic effect of his disappointment, but upon his recovery he gave up his studies and for a time lived a carefree life. Following the death of his mother, probably at the birth of his sister Richera, Anselm's father repented his own earlier lifestyle but professed his new faith with
3895-490: A monastic manner of life, drawing on the Vulgate 's use of conversatio as indicating "citizenship" or "local customs", see Philippians 3:20. The Rule enjoins monks and nuns "to live in this place as a religious, in obedience to its rule and to the abbot or abbess." Benedictine abbots and abbesses have jurisdiction over their abbey and thus canonical authority over the monks or nuns who are resident. This authority includes
4100-423: A particular foundation in a particular location. Not being bound by location, the mendicants were better able to respond to an increasingly "urban" environment. This decline was further exacerbated by the practice of appointing a commendatory abbot, a lay person, appointed by a noble to oversee and to protect the assets of the monastery. Often, however, this resulted in the appropriation of the assets of monasteries at
4305-546: A policy of internal reconciliation and tried to reorganize royal administration. The dukes yielded half their estates for the maintenance of the king and his court in Pavia. On the foreign affairs side, Authari managed to thwart the dangerous alliance between the Byzantines and the Franks. Authari died in 591 and was succeeded by Agilulf , the duke of Turin , who also married Theodelinda in the same year. Agilulf successfully fought
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#17327977189904510-650: A port in the northern languages ; consequently, Skiæren-Heal is the port of the Skiæren, a name well adapted to the port of Stockholm , in the Upplandske Skiæren, and the country may be justly called Scorung or Skiærunga. The legendary king Sceafa of Scandza was an ancient Lombardic king in Anglo-Saxon legend . The Old English poem Widsith , in a listing of famous kings and their countries, has Sceafa [weold] Longbeardum, so naming Sceafa as ruler of
4715-425: A posteriori evidence and inductive reasoning . The Proslogion ( Latin : Proslogium , "Discourse"), originally entitled Faith Seeking Understanding ( Fides Quaerens Intellectum ) and then An Address on God's Existence ( Alloquium de Dei Existentia ), was written over the next two years (1077–1078). It is written in the form of an extended direct address to God. It grew out of his dissatisfaction with
4920-528: A rational and philosophical approach, which have sometimes caused him to be credited as the founder of Scholasticism . Despite his lack of recognition in this field in his own time, Anselm is now famous as the originator of the ontological argument for the existence of God and of the satisfaction theory of atonement . Anselm was born in or around Aosta in Upper Burgundy sometime between April 1033 and April 1034. The area now forms part of
5125-401: A reference to ritual purification , which is inspired by Benedict's encouragement of bathing . Benedictine monks have played a role in the development and promotion of spas . Benedictine monasticism differs from other Christian religious orders in that as congregations sometimes with several houses, some of them in other countries, they are not bound into a unified religious order headed by
5330-527: A resolution against the British slave trade . Henry supported Anselm's reforms and his authority over the English Church but continued to assert his own authority over Anselm. Upon their return, the three bishops he had dispatched on his second delegation to the pope claimed—in defiance of Paschal's sealed letter to Anselm, his public acts, and the testimony of the two monks who had accompanied them—that
5535-423: A semicircular ambulatory opening into three chapels . Anselm's vision was of a Catholic Church with its own internal authority, which clashed with William II's desire for royal control over both church and State. One of Anselm's first conflicts with William came in the month he was consecrated. William II was preparing to wrest Normandy from his elder brother, Robert II , and needed funds. Anselm
5740-554: A series of dialogues on the nature of truth , free will , and the fall of Satan . When the nominalist Roscelin attempted to appeal to the authority of Lanfranc and Anselm at his trial for the heresy of tritheism at Soissons in 1092, Anselm composed the first draft of De Fide Trinitatis as a rebuttal and as a defence of Trinitarianism and universals . The fame of the monastery grew not only from his intellectual achievements, however, but also from his good example and his loving, kindly method of discipline, particularly with
5945-669: A severity that the boy found likewise unbearable. When Gundulph entered a monastery, Anselm, at age 23, left home with a single attendant, crossed the Alps , and wandered through Burgundy and France for three years. His countryman Lanfranc of Pavia was then prior of the Benedictine abbey of Bec in Normandy. Attracted by Lanfranc's reputation, Anselm reached Normandy in 1059. After spending some time in Avranches , he returned
6150-454: A side and maintained his right to prevent the acknowledgement of either pope by an English subject prior to his choice. In the end, a ceremony was held to consecrate Anselm as archbishop on 4 December, without the pallium. As archbishop, Anselm maintained his monastic ideals, including stewardship, prudence, and proper instruction, prayer and contemplation. Anselm advocated for reform and interests of Canterbury. As such, he repeatedly pressed
6355-421: A single attribute of goodness. He then argues that goodness is itself very good and, further, is good through itself. As such, it must be the highest good and, further, "that which is supremely good is also supremely great. There is, therefore, some one thing that is supremely good and supremely great—in other words, supreme among all existing things." Chapter 2 follows a similar argument, while Chapter 3 argues that
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6560-620: A template for explaining child deaths. According to historian Joe Hillaby, the blood libel of Harold was crucially important because for the first time an unexplained child death occurring near the Easter festival was arbitrarily linked to Jews in the vicinity by local Christian churchmen: "they established a pattern quickly taken up elsewhere. Within three years the first ritual murder charge was made in France." The forty-eighth Rule of Saint Benedict prescribes extensive and habitual "holy reading" for
6765-517: A treatise in mind on the origin of the soul and did not know, once he was gone, if another was likely to compose it. He died on Holy Wednesday , 21 April 1109. His remains were translated to Canterbury Cathedral and laid at the head of Lanfranc at his initial resting place to the south of the Altar of the Holy Trinity (now St Thomas 's Chapel). During the church's reconstruction after
6970-506: A treatment of Latin paradoxes called the Grammarian . Over the next decade, the Rule of Saint Benedict reshaped his thought. Three years later, in 1063, Duke William II summoned Lanfranc to serve as the abbot of his new abbey of St Stephen at Caen and the monks of Bec, despite the initial hesitation of some on account of his youth, elected Anselm prior. A notable opponent was
7175-628: A woollen pallium given or sent by the pope himself. Anselm insisted that he journey to Rome for this purpose but William would not permit it. Amid the Investiture Controversy , Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV had deposed each other twice; bishops loyal to Henry finally elected Guibert, archbishop of Ravenna , as a second pope. In France, Philip I had recognized Gregory and his successors Victor III and Urban II , but Guibert (as "Clement III") held Rome after 1084. William had not chosen
7380-461: A young monk named Osborne. Anselm overcame his hostility first by praising, indulging, and privileging him in all things despite his hostility and then, when his affection and trust were gained, gradually withdrawing all preference until he upheld the strictest obedience. Along similar lines, he remonstrated with a neighbouring abbot who complained that his charges were incorrigible despite being beaten "night and day". After fifteen years, in 1078, Anselm
7585-428: Is Ora et Labora "pray and work". Although Benedictines do not take a vow of silence, hours of strict silence are set, and at other times silence is maintained as much as is practically possible. Social conversations tend to be limited to communal recreation times. Such details, like other aspects of the daily routine of a Benedictine house are left to the discretion of the superior, and are set out in its customary ,
7790-562: Is a parody of Anselm's argument involving an island greater than which nothing can be conceived. Since we can conceive of such an island, it exists in our understanding and so must exist in reality. This is, however, absurd, since its shore might arbitrarily be increased and in any case varies with the tide. Anselm's reply ( Responsio ) or apology ( Liber Apologeticus ) does not address this argument directly, which has led Klima , Grzesik, and others to construct replies for him and led Wolterstorff and others to conclude that Gaunilo's attack
7995-527: Is a purely rational argument for the necessity of the Christian mystery of atonement , the belief that Jesus's crucifixion was necessary to atone for mankind's sin. Anselm argues that, owing to the Fall and mankind's fallen nature ever since, humanity has offended God. Divine justice demands restitution for sin but human beings are incapable of providing it, as all the actions of men are already obligated to
8200-440: Is better to be than not to be". Chapter 6 specifically enumerates the additional qualities of awareness, omnipotence, mercifulness, impassibility (inability to suffer), and immateriality; Chapter 11, self-existent, wisdom, goodness, happiness, and permanence; and Chapter 18, unity. Anselm addresses the question-begging nature of "greatness" in this formula partially by appeal to intuition and partially by independent consideration of
8405-514: Is better to maintain liberty by arms than to stain it by the payment of tribute." The Vandals prepared for war and consulted Godan (the god Odin ), who answered that he would give victory to those whom he would see first at sunrise. The Winnili were fewer in number and Gambara sought help from Frea (the goddess Frigg ), who advised that all Winnili women should tie their hair in front of their faces like beards and march in line with their husbands. At sunrise, Frea turned her husband's bed so that he
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8610-448: Is definitive. Anselm, however, considered that Gaunilo had misunderstood his argument. In each of Gaunilo's four arguments, he takes Anselm's description of "that than which nothing greater can be thought" to be equivalent to "that which is greater than everything else that can be thought". Anselm countered that anything which does not actually exist is necessarily excluded from his reasoning and anything which might or probably does not exist
8815-423: Is good or great or anything at all; and who is the supreme good, the supreme great thing, the supreme being or subsistent, that is, supreme among all existing things." The remaining chapters of the book are devoted to consideration of the attributes necessary to such a being. The Euthyphro dilemma , although not addressed by that name, is dealt with as a false dichotomy . God is taken to neither conform to nor invent
9020-622: Is known. However, in 1094, the Welsh had begun to recover their lands from the Marcher Lords and William's 1095 invasion had accomplished little; two larger forays were made in 1097 against Cadwgan in Powys and Gruffudd in Gwynedd . These were also unsuccessful and William was compelled to erect a series of border fortresses. He charged Anselm with having given him insufficient knights for
9225-517: Is likewise aside the point. The Proslogion had already stated "anything else whatsoever other than [God] can be thought not to exist". The Proslogion' s argument concerns and can only concern the single greatest entity out of all existing things. That entity both must exist and must be God. All of Anselm's dialogues take the form of a lesson between a gifted and inquisitive student and a knowledgeable teacher. Except for in Cur Deus Homo ,
9430-591: Is possibly drawn from Tractate XXIX of St Augustine 's Ten Homilies on the First Epistle of John : regarding John 7 :14–18, Augustine counseled "Do not seek to understand in order to believe but believe that thou may understand". Anselm rephrased the idea repeatedly and Thomas Williams ( SEP 2007 ) considered that his aptest motto was the original title of the Proslogion , "faith seeking understanding", which intended "an active love of God seeking
9635-550: Is such that all of his attributes are to be understood as facets of a single nature: "all of them are one and each of them is entirely what [God is] and what the other[s] are". This is then used to argue for the triune nature of the God, Jesus , and "the one love common to [God] and [his] Son, that is, the Holy Spirit who proceeds from both". The last three chapters are a digression on what God's goodness might entail. Extracts from
9840-412: Is that it was proper that Mary should be so pure that—apart from God—no purer being could be imagined. The second was his treatment of original sin. Earlier theologians had held that it was transmitted from generation to generation by the sinful nature of sex . As in his earlier works, Anselm instead held that Adam 's sin was borne by his descendants through the change in human nature which occurred during
10045-758: Is the seventh-century Origo Gentis Langobardorum ( Origin of the Lombard People ). The Origo Gentis Langobardorum tells the story of a small tribe called the Winnili dwelling in Northern Germany/Denmark zone (the Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani writes that the Winnili first dwelt near a river called Vindilicus on the extreme boundary of Gaul ). The Winnili were split into three groups and one part left their native land to seek foreign fields. The reason for
10250-511: The Cur Deus Homo . Upon William's return, Anselm insisted that he travel to the court of Urban II to secure the pallium that legitimized his office. On 25 February 1095, the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of England met in a council at Rockingham to discuss the issue. The next day, William ordered the bishops not to treat Anselm as their primate or as Canterbury's archbishop, as he openly adhered to Urban. The bishops sided with
10455-580: The Avars and then to the Franks. Grimoald managed to regain control over the duchies and deflected the late attempt of the Byzantine emperor Constans II to conquer southern Italy. He also defeated the Franks. At Grimoald's death in 671 Perctarit returned and promoted tolerance between Arians and Catholics, but he could not defeat the Arian party, led by Arachi, duke of Trento , who submitted only to his son,
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#173279771899010660-572: The Battle of Taginae . In approximately 560, Audoin was succeeded by his son Alboin , a young and energetic leader who defeated the neighboring Gepidae and made them his subjects; in 566, he married Rosamund , daughter of the Gepid king Cunimund . In the same year, he made a pact with Khagan Bayan . Next year the Lombards and the Avars destroyed the Gepid kingdom in the Lombard–Gepid War ,
10865-580: The Benedictine Confederation . Although Benedictines are traditionally Catholic, there are also other communities that follow the Rule of Saint Benedict. For example, of an estimated 2,400 celibate Anglican religious (1,080 men and 1,320 women) in the Anglican Communion as a whole, some have adopted the Rule of Benedict. Likewise, such communities can be found in Eastern Orthodox Church , and Lutheran Church . Members of
11070-483: The Benedictine Rule . Rule 38 states that 'these brothers' meals should usually be accompanied by reading, and that they were to eat and drink in silence while one read out loud. Benedictine monks were not allowed worldly possessions, thus necessitating the preservation and collection of sacred texts in monastic libraries for communal use. For the sake of convenience, the books in the monastery were housed in
11275-524: The Camaldolese community. The Cistercians branched off from the Benedictines in 1098; they are often called the "White monks". The dominance of the Benedictine monastic way of life began to decline towards the end of the twelfth century, which saw the rise of the mendicant Franciscans and nomadic Dominicans . Benedictines by contrast, took a vow of "stability", which professed loyalty to
11480-677: The Catholic Church for men and for women who follow the Rule of Saint Benedict . Initiated in 529 they are the oldest of all the religious orders in the Latin Church . The male religious are also sometimes called the Black Monks , especially in English speaking countries, after the colour of their habits . Not all Benedictines wear black, however, with some like the Olivetans wearing white. They were founded by Benedict of Nursia ,
11685-496: The Congregation of Saint Maur , a prerevolutionary French congregation of Benedictines known for their scholarship: Benedictine Oblates endeavor to embrace the spirit of the Benedictine vow in their own life in the world. Oblates are affiliated with a particular monastery. Lombards The Lombards ( / ˈ l ɒ m b ər d z , - b ɑːr d z , ˈ l ʌ m -/ ) or Longobards ( Latin : Longobardi ) were
11890-525: The County of Sicily . In this period, the southern part of Italy still under Lombard domination was known to the Norse as Langbarðaland ('land of the Lombards'), as inscribed in the Norse runestones . Their legacy is also apparent in the name of the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. According to their traditions, the Lombards initially called themselves the Winnili . After a reported major victory against
12095-579: The Early Christian Church . Gradually, they adopted Roman or Romanized titles, names, and traditions, and partially converted to orthodoxy (in the seventh century), though not without a long series of religious and ethnic conflicts. By the time Paul the Deacon was writing, the Lombard language, dress and even hairstyles had nearly all disappeared in toto . The whole Lombard territory was divided into 36 duchies, whose leaders settled in
12300-828: The Elbe shortly after the beginning of the Christian era, next to the Chauci . Strabo states that the Lombards dwelt on both sides of the Elbe. He treats them as a branch of the Suebi , and states that: Now as for the tribe of the Suebi, it is the largest, for it extends from the Rhenus to the Albis; and a part of them even dwells on the far side of the Albis, as, for instance, the Hermondori and
12505-1182: The English Reformation . A stone's throw from Marble Arch , the Tyburn Convent is now the Mother House of the Congregation. Benedictines are thought to have arrived in the Kingdom of Poland in the 11th-century. One of the earliest foundations is Tyniec Abbey on a promontory by the Vistula river. The Tyniec monks led the translation of the Bible into Polish vernacular. Other surviving Benedictine houses can be found in Stary Kraków Village , Biskupów , Lubiń . Older foundations are in Mogilno , Trzemeszno , Łęczyca , Łysa Góra and in Opactwo , among others. In
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#173279771899012710-506: The French Revolution . Monasteries and convents were again allowed to form in the 19th century under the Bourbon Restoration . Later that century, under the Third French Republic , laws were enacted preventing religious teaching. The original intent was to allow secular schools. Thus in 1880 and 1882, Benedictine teaching monks were effectively exiled; this was not completed until 1901. In 1898 Marie-Adèle Garnier, in religion, Mother Marie de Saint-Pierre, founded in Montmartre ( Mount of
12915-407: The Greek Church . Anselm arrived in Rome by April and, according to his biographer Eadmer , lived beside the pope during the Siege of Capua in May. Count Roger 's Saracen troops supposedly offered him food and other gifts but the count actively resisted the clerics' attempts to convert them to Catholicism. At the Council of Bari in October, Anselm delivered his defence of the Filioque and
13120-463: The Historia between 787 and 796 he was a Catholic monk and devoted Christian . He thought the pagan stories of his people "silly" and "laughable". Paul explained that the name "Langobard" came from the length of their beards. A modern theory suggests that the name "Langobard" comes from Langbarðr , a name of Odin . Priester states that when the Winnili changed their name to "Lombards", they also changed their old agricultural fertility cult to
13325-454: The Holy Face of Lucca that neither Anselm nor any other would sit at Canterbury while he lived but in March he fell seriously ill at Alveston . Believing his sinful behavior was responsible, he summoned Anselm to hear his confession and administer last rites . He published a proclamation releasing his captives, discharging his debts, and promising to henceforth govern according to the law. On 6 March 1093, he further nominated Anselm to fill
13530-461: The Lower Elbe as Langobardic . The burial sites are crematorial and are usually dated from the sixth century BC through the third century AD, so a settlement breakoff seems unlikely. The lands of the lower Elbe fall into the zone of the Jastorf Culture and became Elbe-Germanic , differing from the lands between Rhine , Weser , and the North Sea . Archaeological finds show that the Lombards were an agricultural people. Tacitus also counted
13735-401: The Marcomannic Wars , 6,000 Lombards and Obii (sometimes thought to be Ubii ) crossed the Danube and invaded Pannonia . The two tribes were defeated, whereupon they ceased their invasion and sent Ballomar, King of the Marcomanni, as ambassador to Aelius Bassus , who was then administering Pannonia. Peace was made and the two tribes returned to their homes, which in the case of the Lombards
13940-406: The Middle Ages the city of Płock , also on the Vistula, had a successful monastery, which played a significant role in the local economy. In the 18th-century benedictine convents were opened for women, notably in Warsaw's New Town. A 15th-century Benedictine foundation can be found in Senieji Trakai , a village in Eastern Lithuania . Kloster Rheinau was a Benedictine monastery in Rheinau in
14145-442: The Monologion 's interlinking and contingent arguments. His "single argument that needed nothing but itself alone for proof, that would by itself be enough to show that God really exists" is commonly taken to be merely the second chapter of the work. In it, Anselm reasoned that even atheists can imagine the greatest being, having such attributes that nothing greater could exist ( id quo nihil maius cogitari possit ). However, if such
14350-437: The Ravenna Cosmography , Mauringa was the land east of the Elbe. The crossing into Mauringa was very difficult. The Assipitti (possibly the Usipetes ) denied them passage through their lands and a fight was arranged for the strongest man of each tribe. The Lombard was victorious, passage was granted, and the Lombards reached Mauringa. The Lombards departed from Mauringa and reached Golanda. Scholar Ludwig Schmidt thinks this
14555-439: The Republic of Italy , but Aosta had been part of the post- Carolingian Kingdom of Burgundy until the death of the childless Rudolph III in 1032. The Emperor Conrad II and Odo II, Count of Blois then went to war over the succession. Humbert the White-Handed , Count of Maurienne , so distinguished himself that he was granted a new county carved out of the secular holdings of the bishop of Aosta . Humbert's son Otto
14760-678: The Suebian peoples, also from what is now northern Germany, near the Elbe river. They migrated south, and by the end of the fifth century, the Lombards had moved into the area roughly coinciding with modern Austria and Slovakia north of the Danube . Here they subdued the Heruls and later fought frequent wars with the Gepids . The Lombard king Audoin defeated the Gepid leader Thurisind in 551 or 552, and Audoin's successor Alboin eventually destroyed
14965-712: The Treaty of Alton instead, renouncing his claims for an annual payment of 3000 marks . Anselm held a council at Lambeth Palace which found that Henry's beloved Matilda had not technically become a nun and was thus eligible to wed and become queen. On Michaelmas in 1102, Anselm was finally able to convene a general church council at London , establishing the Gregorian Reform within England. The council prohibited marriage, concubinage , and drunkenness to all those in holy orders, condemned sodomy and simony , and regulated clerical dress . Anselm also obtained
15170-606: The Vandals in the first century, they changed their name to Lombards . The name Winnili is generally translated as 'the wolves', related to the Proto-Germanic root *wulfaz 'wolf'. The name Lombard was reportedly derived from the distinctively long beards of the Lombards. It is probably a compound of the Proto-Germanic elements * langaz (long) and * bardaz (beard). According to their own legends,
15375-723: The Vatican and to the world. The headquarters of the Benedictine Confederation and the Abbot Primate is the Primatial Abbey of Sant'Anselmo built by Pope Leo XIII in Rome . The Rule of Saint Benedict is also used by a number of religious orders that began as reforms of the Benedictine tradition such as the Cistercians and Trappists . These groups are separate congregations and not members of
15580-534: The diocese of Lyon .) Ermenberge appears to have been the wealthier partner in the marriage. Gundulph moved to his wife's town, where she held a palace, most likely near the cathedral, along with a villa in the valley . Anselm's father is sometimes described as having a harsh and violent temper but contemporary accounts merely portray him as having been overgenerous or careless with his wealth; Meanwhile, Anselm's mother Ermenberge, patient and devoutly religious, made up for her husband's faults by her prudent management of
15785-412: The kingdoms of Sardinia and Italy . Records during this period are scanty, but both sides of Anselm's immediate family appear to have been dispossessed by these decisions in favour of their extended relations. His father Gundulph or Gundulf or Gondulphe was a Lombard noble, probably one of Adelaide's Arduinici uncles or cousins; his mother Ermenberge was almost certainly the granddaughter of Conrad
15990-439: The ontological argument for the existence of God following Kant 's treatment of it. More probably, Anselm intended his "single argument" to include most of the rest of the work as well, wherein he establishes the attributes of God and their compatibility with one another. Continuing to construct a being greater than which nothing else can be conceived, Anselm proposes such a being must be "just, truthful, happy, and whatever it
16195-431: The "best and greatest and supreme among all existing things" must be responsible for the existence of all other things. Chapter 4 argues that there must be the highest level of dignity among existing things and that the highest level must have a single member. "Therefore, there is a certain nature or substance or essence who through himself is good and great and through himself is what he is; through whom exists whatever truly
16400-746: The Benedictine Confederation. Other specialisms, such as Gregorian chant as at Solesmes in France, or Perpetual Adoration of the Holy Sacrament have been adopted by different houses, as at the Warsaw Convent, or the Adorers of the Sacred Heart of Montmartre at Tyburn Convent in London. Other houses have dedicated themselves to books, reading, writing and printing them as at Stanbrook Abbey in England. Others still are associated with
16605-552: The Bishop of Durham. The king agreed to publicly support Urban's cause in exchange for acknowledgement of his rights to accept no legates without invitation and to block clerics from receiving or obeying papal letters without his approval. William's greatest desire was for Anselm to be removed from office. Walter said that "there was good reason to expect a successful issue in accordance with the king's wishes" but, upon William's open acknowledgement of Urban as pope, Walter refused to depose
16810-632: The Canton of Zürich, Switzerland, founded in about 778. The abbey of Our Lady of the Angels was founded in 1120. The English Benedictine Congregation is the oldest of the nineteen Benedictine congregations. Through the influence of Wilfrid , Benedict Biscop , and Dunstan , the Benedictine Rule spread rapidly, and in the North it was adopted in most of the monasteries that had been founded by
17015-458: The Celtic missionaries from Iona. Many of the episcopal sees of England were founded and governed by the Benedictines, and no fewer than nine of the old cathedrals were served by the black monks of the priories attached to them. Monasteries served as hospitals and places of refuge for the weak and homeless. The monks studied the healing properties of plants and minerals to alleviate the sufferings of
17220-534: The Dukes ") during which the dukes did not elect any king, a period regarded as a time of violence and disorder. In 586, threatened by a Frankish invasion, the dukes elected Cleph's son, Authari , as king. In 589, he married Theodelinda , daughter of Garibald I of Bavaria , the Duke of Bavaria . The Catholic Theodelinda was a friend of Pope Gregory I and pushed for Christianization. In the meantime, Authari embarked on
17425-762: The English Congregation consists of three abbeys of nuns and ten abbeys of monks. Members of the congregation are found in England, Wales, the United States of America, Peru and Zimbabwe. In England there are also houses of the Subiaco Cassinese Congregation : Farnborough, Prinknash, and Chilworth: the Solesmes Congregation , Quarr and St Cecilia's on the Isle of Wight, as well as a diocesan monastery following
17630-409: The English monarchy for support of the reform agenda. His principled opposition to royal prerogatives over the Catholic Church, meanwhile, twice led to his exile from England. The traditional view of historians has been to see Anselm as aligned with the papacy against lay authority and Anselm's term in office as the English theatre of the Investiture Controversy begun by Pope Gregory VII and
17835-480: The Fall. Parents were unable to establish a just nature in their children which they had never had themselves. This would subsequently be addressed in Mary's case by dogma surrounding the circumstances of her own birth. Benedictines The Benedictines , officially the Order of Saint Benedict ( Latin : Ordo Sancti Benedicti , abbreviated as O.S.B. or OSB ), are a mainly contemplative monastic order of
18040-546: The Gepids in 567. The Lombards also settled in Pannonia (modern-day Hungary). Near Szólád , archaeologists have unearthed burial sites of Lombard men and women buried together as families, unusual among Germanic peoples at the time. Contemporary traces have also been discovered of Mediterranean Greeks and a possible migrant from France. Following Alboin's victory over the Gepids, he led his people into northeastern Italy , which had become severely depopulated and devastated after
18245-690: The Great gave him nine books which included the Gregorian Bible in two volumes, the Psalter of Augustine, two copies of the Gospels , two martyrologies , an Exposition of the Gospels and Epistles, and a Psalter . Theodore of Tarsus brought Greek books to Canterbury more than seventy years later, when he founded a school for the study of Greek. The first Benedictine to live in the United States
18450-546: The Greek Catholic bishops of southern Italy to adopt Roman rites at the Council of Bari . He worked for the primacy of Canterbury over the archbishop of York and over the bishops of Wales but, though at his death he appeared to have been successful, Pope Paschal II later reversed papal decisions on the matter and restored York's earlier status. Beginning at Bec , Anselm composed dialogues and treatises with
18655-500: The Langobardi; and at the present time these latter, at least, have, to the last man, been driven in flight out of their country into the land on the far side of the river. Consistent with this, Suetonius wrote that Roman general Nero Claudius Drusus defeated a large force of Germans and drove some "to the farther side of the Albis (Elbe)" river. The German archaeologist Willi Wegewitz defined several Iron Age burial sites at
18860-844: The Lombard given name Ansegranus ("he with the beard of the gods") shows that the Lombards had this idea of their chief deity. The same Old Norse root Barth or Barði, meaning "beard", is shared with the Heaðobards mentioned in both Beowulf and in Widsith , where they conflict with the Danes . They were possibly a branch of the Langobards . Alternatively, some etymological sources suggest an Old High German root, barta, meaning "axe" (and related to English halberd), while Edward Gibbon puts forth an alternative suggestion which argues that: ...Börde (or Börd) still signifies "a fertile plain by
19065-428: The Lombards about the year 580, the monks fled to Rome, and it seems probable that this constituted an important factor in the diffusion of a knowledge of Benedictine monasticism. Copies of Benedict's Rule survived; around 594 Pope Gregory I spoke favorably of it. The rule is subsequently found in some monasteries in southern Gaul along with other rules used by abbots. Gregory of Tours says that at Ainay Abbey , in
19270-546: The Lombards as a remote and aggressive Suebian tribe, listing them between the Semnones on the Elbe, and the Nerthus -worshipping tribes whose land of rivers and forest stretched to the sea. Writing in the late first century AD, he described the Langobardi in his Germania saying that "their scanty numbers are a distinction" because "surrounded by a host of most powerful tribes, they are safe, not by submitting, but by daring
19475-505: The Lombards occurred between AD 9 and 16, by the Roman court historian Velleius Paterculus , who accompanied a Roman expedition as prefect of the cavalry. Paterculus says that under Tiberius the "power of the Langobardi was broken, a race surpassing even the Germans in savagery". From the combined testimony of Strabo (AD 20) and Tacitus (AD 117), the Lombards dwelt near the mouth of
19680-656: The Lombards or Winnili lived originally in the Vinuiloth (Vinovilith) mentioned by Jordanes , in his masterpiece Getica , to the north of Uppsala , Sweden. Scoringa was near the province of Uppland , so just north of Östergötland . The footnote then explains the etymology of the name Scoringa: The shores of Uppland and Östergötland are covered with small rocks and rocky islands , which are called in German Schæren and in Swedish Skiaeren. Heal signifies
19885-517: The Lombards originated in Northern Germany/Denmark zone including modern-day Denmark. The Germanic origins of the Lombards is supported by genetic, anthropological, archaeological and earlier literary evidence. A legendary account of Lombard origins, history, and practices is the Historia Langobardorum ( History of the Lombards ) of Paul the Deacon , written in the eighth century. Paul's chief source for Lombard origins, however,
20090-495: The Lombards, who could retain their own laws. Rothari's son Rodoald succeeded him in 652, still very young, and was killed by his opponents. At the death of King Aripert I in 661, the kingdom was split between his children Perctarit , who set his capital in Milan, and Godepert , who reigned from Pavia ( Ticinum ). Perctarit was overthrown by Grimoald , son of Gisulf, duke of Friuli and Benevento since 647. Perctarit fled to
20295-565: The Lombards. From the second century onwards, many of the Germanic tribes recorded as active during the Principate started to unite into bigger tribal unions, such as the Franks , Alamanni , Bavarii , and Saxons . The Lombards are not mentioned at first, perhaps because they were not initially on the border of Rome, or perhaps because they were subjected to a larger tribal union, like
20500-566: The Lombards. Similarities between Langobardic and Gothic migration traditions have been noted among scholars. These early migration legends suggest that a major shifting of tribes occurred sometime between the first and second century BC, which would coincide with the time that the Teutoni and Cimbri left their homelands in Northern Germany and migrated through central Germany, eventually invading Roman Italy. The first mention of
20705-625: The Martyr ), Paris a Benedictine house. However, the Waldeck-Rousseau 's Law of Associations , passed in 1901, placed severe restrictions on religious bodies which were obliged to leave France. Garnier and her community relocated to another place associated with executions, this time it was in London , near the site of Tyburn tree where 105 Catholic martyrs—including Saint Oliver Plunkett and Saint Edmund Campion had been executed during
20910-538: The Peaceful , related both to the Anselmid bishops of Aosta and to the heirs of Henry II who had been passed over in favour of Conrad. The marriage was thus probably arranged for political reasons but proved ineffective in opposing Conrad after his successful annexation of Burgundy on 1 August 1034. ( Bishop Burchard subsequently revolted against imperial control but was defeated and was ultimately translated to
21115-551: The Pope, who was supporting the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento against him, and entered Rome in 772, the first Lombard king to do so. But when Pope Hadrian I called for help from the powerful Frankish king Charlemagne , Desiderius was defeated at Susa and besieged in Pavia , while his son Adelchis was forced to open the gates of Verona to Frankish troops. Desiderius surrendered in 774, and Charlemagne, in an utterly novel decision, took
21320-657: The Reason for Faith ( Exemplum Meditandi de Ratione Fidei ), was written in 1075 and 1076. It follows St Augustine to such an extent that Gibson argues neither Boethius nor Anselm state anything which was not already dealt with in greater detail by Augustine's De Trinitate ; Anselm even acknowledges his debt to that work in the Monologion' s prologue. However, he takes pains to present his reasons for belief in God without appeal to scriptural or patristic authority, using new and bold arguments. He attributes this style—and
21525-453: The Red—refused the appointment of any successor and appropriated the see's lands and revenues for himself. Fearing the difficulties that would attend being named to the position in opposition to the king, Anselm avoided journeying to England during this time. The gravely ill Hugh, Earl of Chester , finally lured him over with three pressing messages in 1092, seeking advice on how best to handle
21730-711: The Rule of Saint Benedict: The Community of Our Lady of Glastonbury. Since the Oxford Movement , there has also been a modest flourishing of Benedictine monasticism in the Anglican Church and Protestant Churches. Anglican Benedictine Abbots are invited guests of the Benedictine Abbot Primate in Rome at Abbatial gatherings at Sant'Anselmo. In 1168 local Benedictine monks instigated the anti-semitic blood libel of Harold of Gloucester as
21935-568: The Saxons. It is, however, highly probable that, when the bulk of the Lombards migrated, a considerable part remained behind and afterwards became absorbed by the Saxon tribes in the Elbe region, while the emigrants alone retained the name of Lombards. However, the Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani states that the Lombards were subjected by the Saxons around 300 but rose up against them under their first king, Agelmund, who ruled for 30 years. In
22140-763: The Trinity and on the Incarnation of the Word Against the Blasphemies of Roscelin"), also known as Epistolae de Incarnatione Verbi ("Letters on the Incarnation of the Word"), was written in two drafts in 1092 and 1094. It defended Lanfranc and Anselm from association with the supposedly tritheist heresy espoused by Roscelin of Compiègne , as well as arguing in favour of Trinitarianism and universals . De Conceptu Virginali et de Originali Peccato ("On
22345-533: The Virgin Conception and Original Sin") was written in 1099. He claimed to have written it out of a desire to expand on an aspect of Cur Deus Homo for his student and friend Boso and takes the form of Anselm's half of a conversation with him. Although Anselm denied belief in Mary 's Immaculate Conception , his thinking laid two principles which formed the groundwork for that dogma's development. The first
22550-483: The abbeys of Alpirsbach (1099), Ettenheimm ünster (1124) and Sulzburg ( c. 1125 ), and the priories of Weitenau (now part of Steinen , c. 1100 ), Bürgel (before 1130) and Sitzenkirch ( c. 1130 ). Fleury Abbey in Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire , Loiret was founded in about 640. It is one of the most celebrated Benedictine monasteries of Western Europe, and possesses
22755-577: The above-mentioned Suebic territories, east of the Angrivarii on the Weser , and south of the Chauci on the coast, probably indicating a Lombard expansion from the Elbe to the Rhine. This double mention has been interpreted as an editorial error by Gudmund Schütte, in his analysis of Ptolemy. However, the Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani also mentions Patespruna ( Paderborn ) in connection with
22960-738: The allies halved the prize of war and the nomads settled in Transylvania . In the spring of 568, Alboin, now fearing the aggressive Avars, led the Lombard migration into Italy , which he planned for years. According to the History of the Lombards, "Then the Langobards, having left Pannonia , hastened to take possession of Italy with their wives and children and all their goods." The Avars have agreed to shelter them if they wish to come back. Various other peoples who either voluntarily joined or were subjects of King Alboin were also part of
23165-417: The archbishop. William then tried to sell the pallium to others, failed, tried to extract a payment from Anselm for the pallium, but was again refused. William then tried to personally bestow the pallium to Anselm, an act connoting the church's subservience to the throne, and was again refused. In the end, the pallium was laid on the altar at Canterbury, whence Anselm took it on 10 June 1095. The First Crusade
23370-452: The attributes being examined. The incompatibility of, e.g., omnipotence, justness, and mercifulness are addressed in the abstract by reason, although Anselm concedes that specific acts of God are a matter of revelation beyond the scope of reasoning. At one point during the 15th chapter, he reaches the conclusion that God is "not only that than which nothing greater can be thought but something greater than can be thought". In any case, God's unity
23575-480: The bishops' vestments , but Anselm later collected his arguments on the topic as De Processione Spiritus Sancti . Under pressure from their Norman lords , the Italian Greeks seem to have accepted papal supremacy and Anselm's theology. The council also condemned William II. Eadmer credited Anselm with restraining the pope from excommunicating him, although others attribute Urban's politic nature. Anselm
23780-557: The book's existence—to the requests of his fellow monks that "nothing whatsoever in these matters should be made convincing by the authority of Scripture, but whatsoever... the necessity of reason would concisely prove". In the first chapter, Anselm begins with a statement that anyone should be able to convince themselves of the existence of God through reason alone "if he is even moderately intelligent". He argues that many different things are known as "good", in many varying kinds and degrees. These must be understood as being judged relative to
23985-508: The bounds of justice. Humans, meanwhile, retain the theoretical capacity to will justly but, owing to the Fall , they are incapable of doing so in practice except by divine grace. Cur Deus Homo ("Why God was a Man") was written from 1095 to 1098 once Anselm was already archbishop of Canterbury as a response for requests to discuss the Incarnation . It takes the form of a dialogue between Anselm and Boso, one of his students. Its core
24190-405: The brethren. Three primary types of reading were done by the monks in medieval times. Monks would read privately during their personal time, as well as publicly during services and at mealtimes. In addition to these three mentioned in the Rule, monks would also read in the infirmary. Monasteries were thriving centers of education, with monks and nuns actively encouraged to learn and pray according to
24395-574: The campaign and tried to fine him. In the face of William's refusal to fulfill his promise of church reform, Anselm resolved to proceed to Rome—where an army of French crusaders had finally installed Urban—in order to seek the counsel of the pope. William again denied him permission. The negotiations ended with Anselm being "given the choice of exile or total submission": if he left, William declared he would seize Canterbury and never again receive Anselm as archbishop; if he were to stay, William would impose his fine and force him to swear never again to appeal to
24600-694: The case of the fallen angels, which serves to discuss the case of rational agents in general. The teacher argues that there are two forms of good—justice ( justicia ) and benefit ( commodum )—and two forms of evil: injustice and harm ( incommodum ). All rational beings seek benefit and shun harm on their own account but independent choice permits them to abandon bounds imposed by justice. Some angels chose their own happiness in preference to justice and were punished by God for their injustice with less happiness. The angels who upheld justice were rewarded with such happiness that they are now incapable of sin, there being no happiness left for them to seek in opposition to
24805-416: The code adopted by a particular Benedictine house by adapting the Rule to local conditions. According to the norms of the 1983 Code of Canon Law , a Benedictine abbey is a " religious institute " and its members therefore participate in consecrated life which Canon 588 §1 explains is intrinsically "neither clerical nor lay." Males in consecrated life, however, may be ordained. Benedictines' rules contain
25010-541: The conditions under which he would accept the position, which amounted to the agenda of the Gregorian Reform : the king would have to return the Catholic Church lands which had been seized, accept his spiritual counsel, and forswear Antipope Clement III in favour of Urban II . William Rufus was exceedingly reluctant to accept these conditions: he consented only to the first and, a few days afterwards, reneged on that, suspending preparations for Anselm's investiture . Public pressure forced William to return to Anselm and in
25215-638: The daughter of the first Christian King of Kent . Currently the priory is home to a community of Benedictine nuns. Five of the most notable English abbeys are the Basilica of St Gregory the Great at Downside, commonly known as Downside Abbey , The Abbey of St Edmund, King and Martyr commonly known as Douai Abbey in Upper Woolhampton, Reading, Berkshire, Ealing Abbey in Ealing, West London, and Worth Abbey . Prinknash Abbey , used by Henry VIII as
25420-498: The day of a medieval monk. In the Middle Ages monasteries were often founded by the nobility. Cluny Abbey was founded by William I, Duke of Aquitaine in 910. The abbey was noted for its strict adherence to the Rule of Saint Benedict. The abbot of Cluny was the superior of all the daughter houses, through appointed priors. One of the earliest reforms of Benedictine practice was that initiated in 980 by Romuald , who founded
25625-526: The dialogues De Veritate ("On Truth"), De Libertate Arbitrii ("On the Freedom of Choice"), and De Casu Diaboli ("On the Devil's Fall"). De Veritate is concerned not merely with the truth of statements but with correctness in will, action, and essence as well. Correctness in such matters is understood as doing what a thing ought or was designed to do. Anselm employs Aristotelian logic to affirm
25830-634: The disagreements between the Pope and Byzantium concerning the reverence of icons , he annexed the Exarchate of Ravenna and the duchy of Rome . He also helped the Frankish marshal Charles Martel drive back the Arabs . The Slavs were defeated in the Battle of Lavariano , when they tried to conquer the Friulian Plain in 720. Liutprand's successor Aistulf conquered Ravenna for the Lombards for
26035-406: The disastrous fire of the 1170s, his remains were relocated, although it is now uncertain where. On 23 December 1752, Archbishop Herring was contacted by Count Perron , the Sardinian ambassador , on behalf of King Charles Emmanuel , who requested permission to translate Anselm's relics to Italy. (Charles had been duke of Aosta during his minority.) Herring ordered his dean to look into
26240-436: The earlier codes. By the ninth century, however, the Benedictine had become the standard form of monastic life throughout the whole of Western Europe, excepting Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, where the Celtic observance still prevailed for another century or two. Largely through the work of Benedict of Aniane , it became the rule of choice for monasteries throughout the Carolingian empire. Monastic scriptoria flourished from
26445-543: The earlier theory developed by Origen and Gregory of Nyssa that had focused primarily on Satan 's power over fallen man . Cur Deus Homo is often accounted Anselm's greatest work, but the legalist and amoral nature of the argument, along with its neglect of the individuals actually being redeemed, has been criticized both by comparison with the treatment by Abelard and for its subsequent development in Protestant theology. Anselm's De Fide Trinitatis et de Incarnatione Verbi Contra Blasphemias Ruzelini ("On Faith in
26650-439: The emperor Henry IV. By the end of his life, he had proven successful, having freed Canterbury from submission to the English king, received papal recognition of the submission of wayward York and the Welsh bishops , and gained strong authority over the Irish bishops. He died before the Canterbury–York dispute was definitively settled, however, and Pope Honorius II finally found in favour of York instead. Although
26855-423: The end they settled on a partial return of Canterbury's lands as his own concession. Anselm received dispensation from his duties in Normandy, did homage to William, and—on 25 September 1093—was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral . The same day, William II finally returned the lands of the see. From the mid-8th century, it had become the custom that metropolitan bishops could not be consecrated without
27060-427: The establishment of a new monastery at St Werburgh's . Hugh was recovered by the time of Anselm's arrival, but he was occupied four or five months by his assistance. He then travelled to his former pupil Gilbert Crispin , abbot of Westminster , and waited, apparently delayed by the need to assemble the donors of Bec's new lands in order to obtain royal approval of the grants. At Christmas, William II pledged by
27265-427: The existence of an absolute truth of which all other truth forms separate kinds. He identifies this absolute truth with God, who therefore forms the fundamental principle both in the existence of things and the correctness of thought. As a corollary, he affirms that "everything that is, is rightly". De Libertate Arbitrii elaborates Anselm's reasoning on correctness with regard to free will . He does not consider this
27470-446: The exodus was probably overpopulation . The departing people were led by Gambara and her sons Ybor and Aio and arrived in the lands of Scoringa , perhaps the Baltic coast or the Bardengau on the banks of the Elbe . Scoringa was ruled by the Vandals and their chieftains, the brothers Ambri and Assi, who granted the Winnili a choice between tribute or war. The Winnili were young and brave and refused to pay tribute, saying "It
27675-412: The expense of the community which they were intended to support. Saint Blaise Abbey in the Black Forest of Baden-Württemberg is believed to have been founded around the latter part of the tenth century. Between 1070 and 1073 there seem to have been contacts between St. Blaise and the Cluniac Abbey of Fruttuaria in Italy, which led to St. Blaise following the Fruttuarian reforms. The Empress Agnes
27880-403: The family estates. In later life, there are records of three relations who visited Bec: Folceraldus, Haimo, and Rainaldus. The first repeatedly attempted to exploit Anselm's renown, but was rebuffed since he already had his ties to another monastery, whereas Anselm's attempts to persuade the other two to join the Bec community were unsuccessful. At the age of fifteen, Anselm felt the call to enter
28085-454: The figure of Jesus , as a sinless being both fully divine and fully human. Taking it upon himself to offer his own life on our behalf, his crucifixion accrues infinite worth, more than redeeming mankind and permitting it to enjoy a just will in accord with its intended nature. This interpretation is notable for permitting divine justice and mercy to be entirely compatible and has exercised immense influence over church doctrine, largely supplanting
28290-488: The first Lombard duchy, which he entrusted to his nephew Gisulf . Soon Vicenza , Verona and Brescia fell into Germanic hands. In the summer of 569, the Lombards conquered the main Roman centre of northern Italy , Milan . The area was then recovering from the terrible Gothic Wars , and the small Byzantine army left for its defence could do almost nothing. Longinus, the Exarch sent to Italy by Emperor Justin II , could only defend coastal cities that could be supplied by
28495-446: The first time but had to relinquish it when he was subsequently defeated by the king of the Franks, Pippin III , who was called by the Pope. After the death of Aistulf, Ratchis attempted to become king of Lombardy, but he was deposed by Desiderius , duke of Tuscany , the last Lombard to rule as king. Desiderius managed to take Ravenna definitively, ending the Byzantine presence in northern Italy. He decided to reopen struggles against
28700-448: The furtherance of God's glory. Further, God's infinite justice demands infinite restitution for the impairment of his infinite dignity. The enormity of the offence led Anselm to reject personal acts of atonement, even Peter Damian 's flagellation , as inadequate and ultimately vain. Instead, full recompense could only be made by God, which His infinite mercy inclines Him to provide. Atonement for humanity, however, could only be made through
28905-422: The increasing power of the Franks. In response, the kings tried to centralize power over time, but they definitively lost control over Spoleto and Benevento in the attempt. In 572, Alboin was murdered in Verona in a plot led by his wife, Rosamund, who later fled to Ravenna . His successor, Cleph , was also assassinated, after a ruthless reign of 18 months. His death began an interregnum of years (the " Rule of
29110-507: The king directly and through his sister Adela expressing his own willingness to excommunicate Henry. This was probably a negotiation tactic but it came at a critical period in Henry's reign and it worked: a meeting was arranged and a compromise concluded at L'Aigle on 22 July 1105. Henry would forsake lay investiture if Anselm obtained Paschal's permission for clerics to do homage for their lands; Henry's bishops' and counsellors' excommunications were to be lifted provided they advise him to obey
29315-410: The king himself. After this ruling, Anselm received a letter forbidding his return and withdrew to Lyon to await Paschal's response. On 26 March 1105, Paschal again excommunicated prelates who had accepted investment from Henry and the advisors responsible, this time including Robert de Beaumont , Henry's chief advisor. He further finally threatened Henry with the same; in April, Anselm sent messages to
29520-457: The king, the Bishop of Durham presenting his case and even advising William to depose and exile Anselm. The nobles siding with Anselm, the conference ended in deadlock and the matter was postponed. Immediately following this, William secretly sent William Warelwast and Gerard to Italy, prevailing on Urban to send a legate bearing Canterbury's pallium. Walter, bishop of Albano , was chosen and negotiated in secret with William's representative,
29725-441: The land to the west of the Soča River, namely the Gorizia Hills and the Venetian Slovenia . A new ethnic border was established that has lasted for over 1200 years up until the present time. The Lombard reign began to recover only with Liutprand the Lombard (king from 712), son of Ansprand and successor of the brutal Aripert II . He managed to regain a certain control over Spoleto and Benevento, and, taking advantage of
29930-475: The long Gothic War (535–554) between the Byzantine Empire and the Ostrogothic Kingdom . The Lombards were joined by numerous Saxons , Heruls , Gepids, Bulgars , Thuringians and Ostrogoths , and their invasion of Italy was almost unopposed. By late 569, they had conquered all of northern Italy and the principal cities north of the Po River except Pavia , which fell in 572. At the same time, they occupied areas in central and southern Italy. They established
30135-413: The main cities. The king ruled over them and administered the land through emissaries called gastaldi . This subdivision, however, together with the independent indocility of the duchies, deprived the kingdom of unity, making it weak even when compared to the Byzantines, especially since these had begun to recover from the initial invasion. This weakness became even more evident when the Lombards had to face
30340-406: The matter, saying that while "the parting with the rotten Remains of a Rebel to his King, a Slave to the Popedom, and an Enemy to the married Clergy (all this Anselm was)" would be no great matter, he likewise "should make no Conscience of palming on the Simpletons any other old Bishop with the Name of Anselm". The ambassador insisted on witnessing the excavation, however, and resistance on the part of
30545-438: The migration. Whence, even until today, we call the villages in which they dwell Gepidan , Bulgarian , Sarmatian , Pannonian , Suabian , Norican , or by other names of this kind." At least 20,000 Saxon warriors, old allies of the Lombards, and their families joined them in their new migration. The first important city to fall was Forum Iulii ( Cividale del Friuli ) in northeastern Italy , in 569. There, Alboin created
30750-459: The monastery's property, to wait upon his sovereign William I of England (formerly Duke William II of Normandy), and to visit Lanfranc, who had been installed as archbishop of Canterbury in 1070. He was respected by William I and the good impression he made while in Canterbury made him the favourite of its cathedral chapter as a future successor to Lanfranc. Instead, upon the archbishop's death in 1089, King William II —William Rufus or William
30955-418: The moral order but to embody it: in each case of his attributes, "God having that attribute is precisely that attribute itself". A letter survives of Anselm responding to Lanfranc's criticism of the work. The elder cleric took exception to its lack of appeals to scripture and authority. The preface of the Proslogion records his own dissatisfaction with the Monologion' s arguments, since they are rooted in
31160-412: The most energetic of all Lombard kings. He extended his dominions, conquering Liguria in 643 and the remaining part of the Byzantine territories of inner Veneto , including the Roman city of Opitergium ( Oderzo ). Rothari also made the famous edict bearing his name, the Edictum Rothari , which established the laws and the customs of his people in Latin : the edict did not apply to the tributaries of
31365-476: The next year. His father having died, he consulted with Lanfranc as to whether to return to his estates and employ their income in providing alms for the poor or to renounce them, becoming a hermit or a monk at Bec or Cluny . Given what he saw as his own conflict of interest, Lanfranc sent Anselm to Maurilius , the archbishop of Rouen , who convinced him to enter Bec as a novice at the age of 27. Probably in his first year, he wrote his first work on philosophy,
31570-410: The ninth through the twelfth centuries. Sacred Scripture was always at the heart of every monastic scriptorium. As a general rule those of the monks who possessed skill as writers made this their chief, if not their sole, active work. An anonymous writer of the ninth or tenth century speaks of six hours a day as the usual task of a scribe, which would absorb almost all the time available for active work in
31775-467: The old lands of the Burgundes . In Vurgundaib, the Lombards were stormed in camp by " Bulgars " (probably Huns ) and were defeated; King Agelmund was killed and Laimicho was made king. He was in his youth and desired to avenge the slaughter of Agelmund. The Lombards themselves were probably made subjects of the Huns after the defeat but rose up and defeated them with great slaughter, gaining great booty and confidence as they "became bolder in undertaking
31980-495: The one that followed it. Meanwhile, Anselm publicly supported Henry against the claims and threatened invasion of his brother Robert Curthose . Anselm wooed wavering barons to the king's cause, emphasizing the religious nature of their oaths and duty of loyalty; he supported the deposition of Ranulf Flambard , the disloyal new bishop of Durham ; and he threatened Robert with excommunication. The lack of popular support greeting his invasion near Portsmouth compelled Robert to accept
32185-538: The pallium for the archbishop of York to Canterbury so that future archbishops-elect would have to profess obedience before receiving it. The incumbent archbishop Thomas II had received his own pallium directly and insisted on York 's independence. From his deathbed, Anselm anathematized all who failed to recognize Canterbury's primacy over all the English Church. This ultimately forced Henry to order Thomas to confess his obedience to Anselm's successor. On his deathbed, he announced himself content, except that he had
32390-417: The papacy (Anselm performed this act on his own authority and later had to answer for it to Paschal); the revenues of Canterbury would be returned to the archbishop; and priests would no longer be permitted to marry. Anselm insisted on the agreement's ratification by the pope before he would consent to return to England, but wrote to Paschal in favour of the deal, arguing that Henry's forsaking of lay investiture
32595-421: The papacy. Anselm chose to depart in October 1097. Although Anselm retained his nominal title, William immediately seized the revenues of his bishopric and retained them til death. From Lyon , Anselm wrote to Urban, requesting that he be permitted to resign his office. Urban refused but commissioned him to prepare a defence of the Western doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit against representatives from
32800-414: The perils of war". Tacitus also noted that the Lombards were subjects of Marobod the King of the Marcomanni , who was allied with Rome when Arminius and his allies won the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. However, after the outbreak of war between Arminius and Marobod in 17 AD the Lombards and Semnones switched to the alliance of Arminius. They detested Marobod's title of king, and saw Arminius as
33005-404: The philo-Catholic Cunincpert . The Lombards engaged in fierce battles with Slavic peoples during these years: from 623 to 626 the Lombards unsuccessfully attacked the Carantanians , and, in 663–64, the Slavs raided the Vipava Valley and the Friuli . Religious strife and the Slavic raids remained a source of struggle in the following years. In 705, the Friuli Lombards were defeated and lost
33210-418: The places where they were founded or their founders centuries ago, hence Cassinese , Subiaco , Camaldolese or Sylvestrines . All Benedictine houses became federated in the Benedictine Confederation brought into existence by Pope Leo XIII 's Apostolic Brief " Summum semper " on 12 July 1893. Pope Leo also established the office of Abbot Primate as the abbot elected to represent this Confederation at
33415-434: The pontiff had been receptive to Henry's counsel and secretly approved of Anselm's submission to the crown. In 1103, then, Anselm consented to journey himself to Rome, along with the king's envoy William Warelwast . Anselm supposedly travelled in order to argue the king's case for a dispensation but, in response to this third mission, Paschal fully excommunicated the bishops who had accepted investment from Henry, though sparing
33620-454: The power to assign duties, to decide which books may or may not be read, to regulate comings and goings, and to punish and to excommunicate , in the sense of an enforced isolation from the monastic community. A tight communal timetable – the horarium – is meant to ensure that the time given by God is not wasted but used in God's service, whether for prayer, work, meals, spiritual reading or sleep. The order's motto
33825-401: The powerful Byzantine fleet. Pavia fell after a siege of three years, in 572, becoming the first capital city of the new Lombard kingdom of Italy. In the following years, the Lombards penetrated further south, conquering Tuscany and establishing two duchies, Spoleto and Benevento under Zotto , which soon became semi-independent and even outlasted the northern kingdom, surviving well into
34030-431: The prebendaries seems to have quieted the matter. They considered the state of the cathedral's crypts would have offended the sensibilities of a Catholic and that it was probable that Anselm had been removed to near the altar of SS Peter and Paul , whose side chapel to the right (i.e., south) of the high altar took Anselm's name following his canonization. At that time, his relics would presumably have been placed in
34235-434: The rational grounds for central aspects of Christian doctrines as a pedagogical exercise for his initial audience of fellow monks and correspondents. The subjects of Anselm's works were sometimes dictated by contemporary events, such as his speech at the Council of Bari or the need to refute his association with the thinking of Roscelin , but he intended for his books to form a unity, with his letters and latter works advising
34440-513: The reader to consult his other books for the arguments supporting various points in his reasoning. It seems to have been a recurring problem that early drafts of his works were copied and circulated without his permission. While at Bec, Anselm composed: While archbishop of Canterbury, he composed: The Monologion ( Latin : Monologium , "Monologue"), originally entitled A Monologue on the Reason for Faith ( Monoloquium de Ratione Fidei ) and sometimes also known as An Example of Meditation on
34645-428: The rebel dukes of northern Italy, conquering Padua in 601, Cremona and Mantua in 603, and forcing the Exarch of Ravenna to pay tribute. Agilulf died in 616; Theodelinda reigned alone until 628 when she was succeeded by Adaloald . Arioald , the head of the Arian opposition who had married Theodelinda's daughter Gundeperga, later deposed Adaloald. Arioald was succeeded by Rothari , regarded by many authorities as
34850-409: The relics of St. Benedict. Like many Benedictine abbeys it was located on the banks of a river, here the Loire . Ainey Abbey is a ninth century foundation on the Lyon peninsula. In the twelfth century on the current site there was a romanesque monastery , subsequently rebuilt. The seventeenth century saw a number of Benedictine foundations for women, some dedicated to the indigent to save them from
35055-405: The rights of the church against the king. Anselm returned to England before the new year. In 1107, the Concordat of London formalized the agreements between the king and archbishop, Henry formally renounced the right of English kings to invest the bishops of the church. The remaining two years of Anselm's life were spent in the duties of his archbishopric. He succeeded in getting Paschal to send
35260-408: The same community), and to adopt a "conversion of habits", in Latin, conversatio morum and obedience to the community's superior. The "Benedictine vows" are equivalent to the evangelical counsels accepted by all candidates entering a religious order . The interpretation of conversatio morum understood as "conversion of the habits of life" has generally been replaced by notions such as adoption of
35465-416: The same lineage. For instance the American-Cassinese congregation included the 22 monasteries descended from Boniface Wimmer. A sense of community has been the defining characteristic of the order since the beginning. To that end, section 17 in chapter 58 of the Rule of Saint Benedict specifies the solemn vows candidates joining a Benedictine community are required to make: a vow of stability, to remain in
35670-399: The second half of the fourth century, the Lombards left their homes, probably due to bad harvests, and embarked on their migration. The migration route of the Lombards in 489, from their homeland to " Rugiland ", encompassed several places: Scoringa (believed to be their land on the Elbe shores), Mauringa , Golanda , Anthaib , Banthaib , and Vurgundaib ( Burgundaib ). According to
35875-429: The sick. During the English Reformation , all monasteries were dissolved and their lands confiscated by the Crown, forcing those who wished to continue in the monastic life to flee into exile on the Continent. During the 19th century English members of these communities were able to return to England. St. Mildred's Priory , on the Isle of Thanet , Kent , was built in 1027 on the site of an abbey founded in 670 by
36080-439: The side of a river," and a district near Magdeburg is still called the lange Börde. According to this view Langobardi would signify "inhabitants of the long bord of the river;" and traces of their name are supposed still to occur in such names as Bardengau and Bardewick in the neighborhood of the Elbe. According to the Gallaecian Christian priest , historian and theologian Paulus Orosius (translated by Daines Barrington ),
36285-446: The sixth century, the monks "followed the rules of Basil, Cassian, Caesarius, and other fathers, taking and using whatever seemed proper to the conditions of time and place", and doubtless the same liberty was taken with the Benedictine Rule when it reached them. In Gaul and Switzerland, it gradually supplemented the much stricter Irish or Celtic Rule introduced by Columbanus and others. In many monasteries it eventually entirely displaced
36490-509: The student is not identified but the teacher is always recognizably Anselm himself. Anselm's De Grammatico ("On the Grammarian"), of uncertain date, deals with eliminating various paradoxes arising from the grammar of Latin nouns and adjectives by examining the syllogisms involved to ensure the terms in the premises agree in meaning and not merely expression. The treatment shows a clear debt to Boethius 's treatment of Aristotle . Between 1080 and 1086, while still at Bec, Anselm composed
36695-869: The time of his death in 1887, Wimmer had sent Benedictine monks to Kansas, New Jersey, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Illinois, and Colorado. Wimmer also asked for Benedictine sisters to be sent to America by St. Walburg Convent in Eichstätt , Bavaria. In 1852, Sister Benedicta Riepp and two other sisters founded St. Marys, Pennsylvania . Soon they would send sisters to Michigan, New Jersey, and Minnesota. By 1854, Swiss monks began to arrive and founded St. Meinrad Abbey in Indiana, and they soon spread to Arkansas and Louisiana. They were soon followed by Swiss sisters. There are now over 100 Benedictine houses across America. Most Benedictine houses are part of one of four large Congregations: American-Cassinese, Swiss-American, St. Scholastica, and St. Benedict. The congregations mostly are made up of monasteries that share
36900-405: The title Dame in preference to Sister . The monastery at Subiaco in Italy, established by Benedict of Nursia c. 529, was the first of the dozen monasteries he founded. He later founded the Abbey of Monte Cassino . There is no evidence, however, that he intended to found an order and the Rule of Saint Benedict presupposes the autonomy of each community. When Monte Cassino was sacked by
37105-489: The toils of war." During the reign of King Claffo , the Langobards occupied parts of modern-day Upper and Lower Austria and converted to Arian Christianity . In 505 the Herulians attacked and defeated them, obliging them to pay tax and withdraw to Northern Bohemia . In 508, King Rodulf sent his brother to the Lombard court to collect tribute and extend the truce; however, he was stabbed by Rometrud, sister of King Tato . Rodulf personally led his forces against Tato, but
37310-480: The twelfth century. Wherever they went, they were joined by the Ostrogothic population, which was allowed to live peacefully in Italy with their Rugian allies under Roman sovereignty. The Byzantines managed to retain control of the area of Ravenna and Rome, linked by a thin corridor running through Perugia . When they entered Italy, some Lombards retained their native form of paganism , while some were Arian Christians. Hence they did not enjoy good relations with
37515-421: The use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist before 185 bishops. Although this is sometimes portrayed as a failed ecumenical dialogue , it is more likely that the "Greeks" present were the local bishops of Southern Italy, some of whom had been ruled by Constantinople as recently as 1071. The formal acts of the council have been lost and Eadmer's account of Anselm's speech principally consists of descriptions of
37720-466: The vacancy at Canterbury; the clerics gathered at court acclaiming him, forcing the crozier into his hands, and bodily carrying him to a nearby church amid a Te Deum . Anselm tried to refuse on the grounds of age and ill-health for months and the monks of Bec refused to give him permission to leave them. Negotiations were handled by the recently restored Bishop William of Durham and Robert, count of Meulan . On 24 August, Anselm gave King William
37925-410: The work was largely handled by Christ Church's priors Ernulf (1096–1107) and Conrad (1108–1126), Anselm's episcopate also saw the expansion of Canterbury Cathedral from Lanfranc's initial plans. The eastern end was demolished and an expanded choir placed over a large and well-decorated crypt , doubling the cathedral's length. The new choir formed a church unto itself with its own transepts and
38130-447: The work were later compiled under the name Meditations or The Manual of St Austin . The argument presented in the Proslogion has rarely seemed satisfactory and was swiftly opposed by Gaunilo , a monk from the abbey of Marmoutier in Tours . His book "for the fool" ( Liber pro Insipiente ) argues that we cannot arbitrarily pass from idea to reality ( de posse ad esse not fit illatio ). The most famous of Gaunilo's objections
38335-598: The works of Boethius . He or the thinkers in northern France who shortly followed him—including Abelard , William of Conches , and Gilbert of Poitiers —inaugurated "one of the most brilliant periods of Western philosophy ", innovating logic , semantics , ethics , metaphysics , and other areas of philosophical theology . Anselm held that faith necessarily precedes reason, but that reason can expand upon faith: "And I do not seek to understand that I may believe but believe that I might understand. For this too I believe since, unless I first believe, I shall not understand." This
38540-424: The younger monks. There was also admiration for his spirited defence of the abbey's independence from lay and archiepiscopal control, especially in the face of Robert de Beaumont, Earl of Leicester and the new Archbishop of Rouen, William Bona Anima . Following the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, devoted lords had given the abbey extensive lands across the Channel . Anselm occasionally visited to oversee
38745-444: Was canonized as a saint ; his feast day is 21 April. He was proclaimed a Doctor of the Church by a papal bull of Pope Clement XI in 1720. As Archbishop of Canterbury, he defended the church's interests in England amid the Investiture Controversy . For his resistance to the English kings William II and Henry I , he was exiled twice: once from 1097 to 1100 and then from 1105 to 1107. While in exile, he helped guide
38950-544: Was Pierre-Joseph Didier. He came to the United States in 1790 from Paris and served in the Ohio and St. Louis areas until his death. The first actual Benedictine monastery founded was Saint Vincent Archabbey , located in Latrobe, Pennsylvania . It was founded in 1832 by Boniface Wimmer , a German monk, who sought to serve German immigrants in America. In 1856, Wimmer started to lay the foundations for St. John's Abbey in Minnesota. In 1876, Herman Wolfe, of Saint Vincent Archabbey established Belmont Abbey in North Carolina. By
39155-409: Was a greater victory than the matter of homage. On 23 March 1106, Paschal wrote Anselm accepting the terms established at L'Aigle, although both clerics saw this as a temporary compromise and intended to continue pressing for reforms, including the ending of homage to lay authorities. Even after this, Anselm refused to return to England. Henry travelled to Bec and met with him on 15 August 1106. Henry
39360-477: Was a patron of Fruttuaria, and retired there in 1065 before moving to Rome. The Empress was instrumental in introducing Fruttuaria's Benedictine customs, as practiced at Cluny, to Saint Blaise Abbey in Baden-Württemberg . Other houses either reformed by, or founded as priories of, St. Blasien were Muri Abbey (1082), Ochsenhausen Abbey (1093), Göttweig Abbey (1094), Stein am Rhein Abbey (before 1123) and Prüm Abbey (1132). It also had significant influence on
39565-417: Was ambushed and killed from a hill. In the 540s, Audoin (ruled 546–560) led the Lombards across the Danube once more into Pannonia . Thurisind , King of the Gepids attempted to expel them, and both peoples asked for help from the Byzantines. Justinian I sent his army against the Gepids; however, it was routed on the way by the Herulians and the sides signed a two-year truce. Revenging what he felt as
39770-433: Was among those expected to pay him. He offered £ 500 but William refused, encouraged by his courtiers to insist on £1000 as a kind of annates for Anselm's elevation to archbishop. Anselm not only refused, he further pressed the king to fill England's other vacant positions, permit bishops to meet freely in councils, and to allow Anselm to resume enforcement of canon law , particularly against incestuous marriages , until he
39975-417: Was declared at the Council of Clermont in November. Despite his service for the king which earned him rough treatment from Anselm's biographer Eadmer , upon the grave illness of the Bishop of Durham in December, Anselm journeyed to console and bless him on his deathbed. Over the next two years, William opposed several of Anselm's efforts at reform—including his right to convene a council—but no overt dispute
40180-401: Was facing east, and woke him. So Godan spotted the Winnili first and asked, "Who are these long-beards?," and Frea replied, "My lord, thou hast given them the name, now give them also the victory." From that moment onwards, the Winnili were known as the Longbeards (Latinised as Langobardi , Italianised as Longobardi , and Anglicized as Langobards or Lombards ). When Paul the Deacon wrote
40385-559: Was forced to make further concessions. He restored to Canterbury all the churches that had been seized by William or during Anselm's exile, promising that nothing more would be taken from them and even providing Anselm with a security payment. Henry had initially taxed married clergy and, when their situation had been outlawed, had made up the lost revenue by controversially extending the tax over all Churchmen. He now agreed that any prelate who had paid this would be exempt from taxation for three years. These compromises on Henry's part strengthened
40590-445: Was further east, perhaps on the right bank of the Oder . Schmidt considers the name the equivalent of Gotland , meaning simply "good land". This theory is highly plausible; Paul the Deacon mentions the Lombards crossing a river, and they could have reached Rugiland from the Upper Oder area via the Moravian Gate . Moving out of Golanda, the Lombards passed through Anthaib and Banthaib until they reached Vurgundaib, believed to be
40795-414: Was ordered by Henry to do homage for his Canterbury estates and to receive his investiture by ring and crozier anew. Despite having done so under William, the bishop now refused to violate canon law . Henry for his part refused to relinquish a right possessed by his predecessors and even sent an embassy to Pope Paschal II to present his case. Paschal reaffirmed Urban's bans to that mission and
41000-493: Was ordered to silence. When a group of bishops subsequently suggested that William might now settle for the original sum, Anselm replied that he had already given the money to the poor and "that he disdained to purchase his master's favour as he would a horse or ass". The king being told this, he replied Anselm's blessing for his invasion would not be needed as "I hated him before, I hate him now, and shall hate him still more hereafter". Withdrawing to Canterbury, Anselm began work on
41205-417: Was present and moved quickly to secure the throne before the return of his elder brother Robert, Duke of Normandy , from the First Crusade . Henry invited Anselm to return, pledging in his letter to submit himself to the archbishop's counsel. The cleric's support of Robert would have caused great trouble but Anselm returned before establishing any other terms than those offered by Henry. Once in England, Anselm
41410-432: Was present in a seat of honour at the Easter Council at St Peter's in Rome the next year. There, amid an outcry to address Anselm's situation, Urban renewed bans on lay investiture and on clerics doing homage. Anselm departed the next day, first for Schiavi —where he completed his work Cur Deus Homo —and then for Lyon . William Rufus was killed hunting in the New Forest on 2 August 1100. His brother Henry
41615-412: Was subsequently permitted to inherit the extensive March of Susa through his wife Adelaide in preference to her uncle's families, who had supported the effort to establish an independent Kingdom of Italy under William V, Duke of Aquitaine . Otto and Adelaide's unified lands then controlled the most important passes in the Western Alps and formed the county of Savoy whose dynasty would later rule
41820-403: Was the lands of the lower Elbe. In the mid-second century, the Lombards supposedly appeared in the Rhineland , because according to Claudius Ptolemy , the Suebic Lombards lived "below" the Bructeri and Sugambri , and between these and the Tencteri . To their east stretching northwards to the central Elbe are the Suebi Angili . But Ptolemy also mentions the "Laccobardi" to the north of
42025-408: Was unanimously elected as Bec's abbot following the death of its founder, the warrior-monk Herluin . He was blessed as abbot by Gilbert d'Arques , Bishop of Évreux, on 22 February 1079. Under Anselm's direction, Bec became the foremost seat of learning in Europe, attracting students from France, Italy , and elsewhere. During this time, he wrote the Monologion and Proslogion . He then composed
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