Surviving
61-464: Abzhywa ( Abkhaz : Abzhuaa - "middle people" – Абжьыуа, Abƶywa ; also transliterates as Abzhua from Russian : Абжуа, Абжива; Georgian : აბჟუა ) is one of the seven historical regions in Abkhazia , and accordingly one of the seven stars on Flag of Abkhazia represents Abzhywa. Local residents belong to ethnographic group of Абжуйцы [ ru ] (Abzhui Abkhazians). Prior to
122-470: A Cyrillic-based script for Kabardian. Over the decades, the popularity in use of Arabic-derived script increased. In 1881, the poet Bekmurza Pachev compiled a standardized Arabic script for Kabardian consisting of 39 letters. He published various literature and wrote poetry in this version of the alphabet. The Arabic alphabet was gaining universal acceptance and increasing usage among Kabardian Circassians. In 1908, Nuri Tsagov compiled another iteration of
183-734: A Latin alphabet for Kabardian. While many in the Circassian community have opposed the move, the endorsement of the project by Turkey's ruling party, AK Party , has resulted in the boosting of ADDER script. Since then, government-endorsed education material and primers have been prepared in ADDER Latin script. Table below lists the 49-letter Kabardian Latin (ADDER) Alphabet and their respective Cyrillic equivalents. Highlighted letters aren't considered independent letters, but are digraphs and are used to correspond to specific Kabardian phonemes. Below table shows Kabardian Arabic alphabet, as it
244-604: A highly complex verb system that could be called a "sentence in miniature." Chirikba (2003) describes Abkhaz as a "verbocentric" language wherein verbs occupy the "central part of the morphology." However, despite its complexity, Abkhaz verbal morphology is highly regular. Abkhaz, being an ergative language, makes a strong distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs, as well as dynamic and stative . Stative verbs describe states of being, roughly analogous to copular phrases in English, as in дхәыҷуп ( d-x˚əčә́-wə-p - "she
305-479: A literary language for only about 100 years. It was suggested that certain inscriptions on Ancient Greek pottery which had been considered nonsense are in fact written in Abkhaz-Adydge languages. The methodology of the research was criticised and the results called improbable. In 1918, Tbilisi State University became the first institution of higher education to teach Abkhazian language. The founders of
366-404: A result prefer to maintain a phoneme /aː/ . In a later section of his monograph, Kuipers also attempts to analyze the two vowels phonemes /ə/ and /a/ out of existence. Halle, however, shows that this analysis is flawed, as it requires the introduction of multiple new phonemes to carry the information formerly encoded by the two vowel phonemes. The vowel /o/ appears in some loan words; it
427-873: Is a Northwest Caucasian language , that is considered to be the east dialect of Adyghe language . While some Soviet linguists have treated the two as distinct languages, the Circassians (including Kabardian people) consider the eastern and western language variants to be dialects of one Circassian language. It is spoken mainly in parts of the North Caucasus republics of Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia (Eastern Circassia), and in Turkey , Jordan and Syria (the extensive post-war diaspora). It has 47 or 48 consonant phonemes , of which 22 or 23 are fricatives , depending upon whether one counts [h] as phonemic, but it has only 3 phonemic vowels. It
488-462: Is a child"). Dynamic verbs express direct actions, functioning more closely to standard English verbs. Dynamic verbs possess the full range of aspect , mood and tense forms, in contrast to statives, which do not. Some verbs, called inversives, combine certain features of both stative and dynamic verbs. Another important verbal distinction in Abkhaz is finite versus non-finite, referring to
549-752: Is a considerable number of Abkhaz speakers in Adjara in southern Georgia, with the diaspora concentrating itself around the capital Batumi , with about 982 people considering Abkhaz their first language. In the Russian census of 2010, 6,786 speakers of Abkhaz were reported in Russia . In Ukraine there are around 1,458 according to the 2001 census, but of these only 317 speak Abkhazian. There were also communities in Syria , Jordan and Iraq with around 5,000 Abkhazians, although this number could reach 10,000 according to
610-415: Is a high degree of agreement between verbs and other parts of speech. Overall, the Abkhaz verb is constructed as follows: Not all of these elements will necessarily co-occur in every verb. The individual parts of verb morphology are addressed below. First Position The first prefixing element of the verb complex expresses either the subject of an intransitive verb in the absolutive construction, or
671-584: Is agreed that today most of the Abkhaz people do not live in Abkhazia. In the census conducted by the Republic of Abkhazia in 2011, Abkhazians comprised 50.8% of the population, around 122,175 people; of these 92,838 speaking it natively. Only two of the original dialects are still spoken in Abkhazia. The Bzyp dialect is still spoken in its homeland northwest of Sukhumi , stretching from the Bzyp River to
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#1732765375339732-399: Is also complicated somewhat by the existence of Besleney, which is usually considered a dialect of Kabardian but also shares many features with certain dialects of Adyghe. Kabardian is written in a form of Cyrillic and serves as the literary language for Circassians in both Kabardino-Balkaria (where it is usually called the "Kabardian language") and Karachay-Cherkessia (where it is called
793-473: Is concerned, a majority of diaspora Circasians have tried to follow the conventions and literary practices in place among people living in the Circassian homeland. This is to help diaspora communities maintain ties to their homeland. Therefore, before 1924, the Arabic-based scripts developed for Western and Eastern (Kabardian) Circassian, also took roots among the diaspora communities. This is also why for
854-557: Is often pronounced /aw/ . The diphthong /aw/ is pronounced /oː/ in some dialects. /jə/ may be realised as /iː/ , /wə/ as /uː/ and /aj/ as /eː/ . This monophthongisation does not occur in all dialects. The vowels /a, aː/ can have the semi-vowel /j/ in front of it. The official alphabet used for writing Kabardian, is Cyrillic alphabet, including additional letters, totalling 59 letters. Digraphs, trigraphs, and one tetragraph, are counted as independent letters on their own. The Cyrillic alphabet in its current form has been
915-551: Is one of very few languages to possess a clear phonemic distinction between ejective affricates and ejective fricatives . Some linguists argue that Kabardian is only one dialect of an overarching Adyghe or Circassian language , which consists of all of the dialects of Adyghe and Kabardian together, and the Kabardians themselves most often refer to their language using the Circassian term Adighabze ("Adyghe language"). Several linguists, including Georges Dumézil , have used
976-522: Is spoken by thousands of members of the Abkhazian diaspora in Turkey , Georgia 's autonomous republic of Adjara , Syria , Jordan , and several Western countries. 27 October is the day of the Abkhazian language in Georgia . Abkhaz is a Northwest Caucasian language and is thus related to Adyghe . The language of Abkhaz is especially close to Abaza , and they are sometimes considered dialects of
1037-583: Is spoken is in Karachay-Cherkessia , where the Northern dialects are spoken, although there they are considered as a separate language and form the literary Abaza language . They are spoken by 37,831 people in Russia, mostly in the south of Stavropol Krai in the area around Kislovodsk , and in the upper Kuma river area. Abkhaz is also spoken as a minority language around the world. There
1098-456: The Beslenei dialect, there exists an alveolar lateral ejective affricate [t͡ɬʼ] which corresponds to [ ɬʼ ] in literary Kabardian. The Turkish Kabardians (Uzunyayla) and Besleneys have a palatalized voiced velar stop [ɡʲ] and a palatalized velar ejective [kʲʼ] which corresponds to [ d͡ʒ ] and [ t͡ʃʼ ] in literary Kabardian. The glottalization of
1159-517: The direct object of a transitive verb in an ergative construction. The following table illustrates the various agreement markers which can occupy the first position. These prefixes can either be in their long forms, containing the letters inside the parenthesis, or in the short forms that do not contain them. The rules for using them are the following: Kabardian language Destroyed or barely existing Kabardian ( / k ə ˈ b ɑːr d i ə n / ), also known as East Circassian ,
1220-1008: The "Cherkess language"). Like all other Northwest Caucasian languages, Kabardian is ergative and has an extremely complex verbal system. Since 2004, the Turkish broadcasting corporation TRT has maintained a half-an-hour programme a week in the Terek dialect of Kabardian. The phoneme written Л л is pronounced as a voiced alveolar lateral fricative [ ɮ ] mostly by the Circassians of Kabarda and Cherkessia , but many Kabardians pronounce it as an alveolar lateral approximant [ l ] in diaspora. The series of labialized alveolar sibilant affricates and fricatives that exist in Adyghe /ʃʷʼ/ /ʒʷ/ /ʃʷ/ /t͡sʷ/ became labiodental consonants /fʼ/ /v/ /f/ /v/ in Kabardian, for example
1281-513: The 19th century to the middle of the 20th have been documented at around 30 thousand. Ethnologue gives 150,000 Abkhazians living in Turkey, of these 50,000 still speak the language. The head of the Abkhaz federation says there are in between 500 and 700 thousand Abkhazians in Turkey. In general, Abkhaz seems to have been lost by most of the descendants, and bilingualism being low except in some specific areas, although there seems to be an effort for
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#17327653753391342-482: The 19th century, Kabardian did not have a literary tradition yet, and it did not have a native orthography. At the time, Ottoman Turkish was used as the literary language by Circassians. Starting in the 1820s, efforts at compiling and standardizing Arabic-based scripts were undertaken by various Kabardian literaturists, and by the early 1920s, an officially-adopted Arabic-based script was in widespread educational and literary use. However, in 1924, Kabardian Arabic alphabet
1403-547: The 59-letter Kabardian Cyrillic Alphabet. Dighraphs, trigraphs, and a tetragraph are counted as independent letters. Since the genocide and forced expulsion of Circassians in their homeland in the second half of the 19th century, most Circassians have been living as diaspora communities in countries such as Turkey , Syria , Jordan , and elsewhere. In fact more Circassians live in the diaspora than within Circassia . As far as orthographic conventions among diasporic communities
1464-654: The Abkhazia's Foreign Ministry. The biggest western diaspora is in Germany , with around 5,000 speakers, but other communities are found in countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Austria, France, Belgium and so on. The earliest indisputable extant written records of the Abkhaz language are in the Arabic script , recorded by the Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century. Abkhaz has been used as
1525-453: The Arabic alphabet, better suited for all consonant and vowel phonemes of Kabardian. This version of the alphabet was widely accepted, with many authors utilizing it to publish books and literature, including a primer . The alphabet gained official status in education and later also inspired the standardization of Arabic-based orthography for Adyghe language by Akhmetov Bekukh. In line with
1586-434: The Kabardian words мафӏэ [maːfʼa] "fire", зэвы [zavə] "narrow", фыз [fəz] "wife" and вакъэ [vaːqa] "shoe" are pronounced as машӏо [maːʃʷʼa] , зэжъу [zaʒʷə] , шъуз /ʃʷəz/ and цуакъэ [t͡sʷaːqa] in Adyghe. Kabardian has a labialized voiceless velar fricative [xʷ] which correspond to Adyghe [f] , for example the Adyghe word "тфы" ( [tfə] "five" is тху ( [txʷə] ) in Kabardian. In
1647-677: The Russian annexation of the Principality of Abkhazia , Abzhywa constituted its separate administrative district. Later, in the Russian Empire Abzhywa constituted an okrug of Abkhazia. It occupied most of the territory of modern Ochamchire , as well as part of the territory of the Tkvarcheli District of Abkhazia, between the Kodor and Okhurei rivers. Abzhywa got its name from its middle location among
1708-455: The Tapanta dialect of Abkhaz. Chirikba mentions that there are possible indications that proto-Northwest Caucasian , could have divided firstly into proto-Circassian and to proto-Ubykh-Abkhaz; Ubykh then being the closest relative to Abkhaz, with it only later on being influenced by Circassian. There is not an agreed number of speakers of Abkhaz, and there are widely different numbers. It
1769-476: The alphabet inconvenient to learn and use. Thus two year later, in 1938, N.F. Yakovlev led a commission that reformed the Cyrillic alphabet to its present form. Among the diasporic Circassian communities, the situation with respect to orthography has been more complex. Some groups have advocated for use of Latin or Arabic in line with the language of the larger society in which Circassian communities reside. On
1830-441: The basis for literary Abaza are spoken in Karachay-Cherkessia , while the other dialects such as Sadz are spoken in Turkey due to Russian invasions in the 19th century. While most differences are phonetic, differences in the lexicon are present, although mostly due to exterior contact. Bzyp contains the most preserved lexicon, with few borrowings. Abzhywa has adopted many loans from Kartvelian , specially Mingrelian ; Sadz on
1891-401: The boosting of ADDER script and its usage in development of new educational material. The alphabet consists of the following letters: A a, B b, C c, Ç ç, Ć ć, D d, E e, É é, F f, Ḟ ḟ, G g, Ǵ ǵ, Ğ ğ, H h, Ḣ ḣ, I ı, İ i, J j, Ĵ ĵ, K k, Ḱ ḱ, Ǩ ǩ, L l, Ĺ ĺ, M m, N n, O o, Ö ö, P p, Ṕ ṕ, Q q, R r, S s, Ś ś, Š š, Ş ş, Ṩ ṩ, T t, Ṫ ṫ, U u, Ü ü, W w, V v, X x, Y y, Z z, Ź ź, ' Table below lists
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1952-461: The duration of the action . Finite verbs usually contain enough information to form a complete sentence, whereas non-finite verbs typically form dependent clauses . Verb stems can be derived in a number of ways, including compounding , affixation, reduplication or conversion from another part of speech. Roughly equivalent to the infinitive, or to a so-called "verbal noun," the Masdar form of
2013-506: The ejective stops (but not fricatives) can be quite weak, and has been reported to often be creaky voice , that is, to have laryngealized voicing. Something similar seems to have happened historically in the Veinakh languages . Kabardian has a vertical vowel system . Although many surface vowels appear, they can be analyzed as consisting of at most the following three phonemic vowels: /ə/ , /a/ and /aː/ . The following allophones of
2074-414: The fully conjugated personal Abkhaz verb forms are "templatic," with each grammatical distinction occupying a specific "slot" or "position" within the broader verb template. Verbs are thus formed by the addition of various affixes to the verb stem; these affixes express such distinctions as transitivity, person and stative/dynamic quality, occupying rigid positions within the overall verb structure. There
2135-717: The general linguistic policy of the Soviet Union at the time, the existing Arabic script was replaced with a newly developed Kabardian Latin alphabet in 1924. Khuranov is credited for first compiling the first version of Latin alphabet in May 1923. This version closely resembled the Latin alphabet adopted for Adyghe language in 1927. This alphabet consisted of many newly created letters, some even borrowed from Cyrillic. Another interesting feature of this iteration of Adyghe Latin Alphabet
2196-467: The main orthography of the time in the Circassian homeland, i.e. Nuri Tsagov's script. More recently, there has been developments in Turkey . In the 2000s, the Konya -based Adyghe Language Teaching Association (ADDER) has compiled a Latin alphabet for Kabardian. While many in the Circassian community have opposed the move, the endorsement of the project by Turkey's ruling party, AK Party , has resulted in
2257-533: The middle part of the principality from his father's inheritance, hence the etymology of the toponym. This Abkhazia location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Abkhaz language Abkhaz , also known as Abkhazian , is a Northwest Caucasian language most closely related to Abaza . It is spoken mostly by the Abkhaz people . It is one of the official languages of Abkhazia , where around 190,000 people speak it. Furthermore, it
2318-413: The new generation to learn the language with public schools being able to teach Abkhaz and together with 7,836 second language speakers. Abkhazian villages are concentrated around the cities of Adapazarı , Düzce , Sinop , Hendek and Samsun in the northern part, and in the west around cities such as Bilecik , Inegöl and Eskişehir ; they are mainly found in the provinces of Sakarya and Bolu in
2379-549: The object of a transitive verb. Notably, Abkhaz expresses ergativity entirely through the ordering of subjects and objects within verb constructions rather than through overt case marking as most other ergative languages do. All Latin transliterations in this section utilize the system explicated in Chirikba (2003) (see Abkhaz alphabet for the details). DETR:detrimental BENF:benefactive PREV:preverb SPREV:stem preverb EXT:extension MSD:masdar Abkhaz morphology features
2440-549: The official alphabet since 1938. Kabardian alphabet, while having minor differences reflecting dialectical variations, is very similar to orthography of the Adyghe language , the other prominent Circassian language. Kabardian is also unofficially written and taught in Latin, in some diaspora communities, especially in Turkey where government-backing of a Latin-based script has been a cause for controversy and opposition among Kabardians who still overwhelmingly favor Cyrillic. Prior to
2501-432: The other hand has more words from Circassian . Northern dialects in general have more loanwords from Persian, Arabic, Turkish and Circassian. Abkhaz has a very large number of consonants (58 in the literary dialect), with three-way voiced / voiceless / ejective and palatalized / labialized /plain distinctions. By contrast, the language has only two phonemically distinct vowels, which have several allophones depending on
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2562-488: The other hand, since the adoption of Cyrillic in Circassia others have advocated for continued use of Cyrillic as it helps maintain contact with the Circassian homeland and the literary tradition there. This divergence goes back to the early 20th century, when in 1909, Muhammad Pchegatlukov developed a new and independent Arabic-based writing system in the Ottoman Empire . His proposed script didn't manage to displace
2623-553: The palatal and/or labial quality of adjacent consonants. Labialised alveolo-palatal fricatives are found in the Bzyp and Sadz dialects of Abkhaz, but not in Abzhywa. Plain alveolo-palatal consonants and the pharyngealised and labialised-pharyngealised uvular fricatives are unique to the Bzyp dialect. The consonants highlighted in red and in brackets are the 4 kinds of labialisation described by Chirikba. Affricate The nature of
2684-411: The past decades up till today, the majority of Circassians, be they in Turkey or Jordan or elsewhere, have adopted the Cyrillic alphabet and insist on educating the new generation in Cyrillic alphabet. Nevertheless, the issue of orthography hasn't been without controversy among diaspora communities. In the 2000s in Turkey , the Konya -based Adyghe Language Teaching Association (ADDER) has compiled
2745-508: The rest of the historical regions of Abkhazia. Some scholars argue that it was part of the principality of Apsilae in the ancient period. During the period of Russian rule in Abkhazia up to 1866, Abzhua was called "Abzhuiskiy district", in 1868-1883 - "Kodori district", in 1919-1930 - "Kodori district". Since 1930, Abzhua officially became known as the Ochamchira region (later - Ochamchire Municipality ). The historical centers of Abjua were
2806-399: The same language, Abazgi , of which the literary dialects of Abkhaz and Abaza are simply two ends of a dialect continuum . Grammatically, the two are very similar; however, the differences in phonology are substantial, it also contains elements characteristic of Kabardian ; these are the main reasons for many others to prefer keeping the two separate, while others still refer to it as
2867-516: The short vowels /ə/ , /a/ appear: According to Kuipers, Most of the long vowels appear as automatic variants of a sequence of short vowel and glide, when it occurs in a single syllable: This leaves only the vowel [aː] . Kuipers claims that this can be analyzed as underlying /ha/ when word-initial, and underlying /ah/ elsewhere, based on the following facts: Halle finds Kuipers' analysis "exemplary". Gordon and Applebaum note this analysis, but also note that some authors disagree, and as
2928-445: The terms "eastern Circassian" (Kabardian) and "western Circassian" (Adyghe) to avoid that confusion, but both "Circassian" and "Kabardian" may still be found in linguistic literature. There are several key phonetic and lexical differences that create a reasonably well-defined separation between the eastern and the western Circassian dialects, but the degree to which the two are mutually intelligible has not yet been determined. The matter
2989-470: The university began to take care of the development and scientific study of the Abkhazian language. At the meeting of the Council of Professors held at Tbilisi State University in 1918, Ivane Javakhishvili noted the scientific importance of studying Caucasian languages. In 1918, by the decision of the Council of Professors, Petre Charaia was invited to teach the Abkhazian language, and from 1925, this mission
3050-597: The verb resembles the English gerund. It is formed by the addition of a specific suffix to a bare verb stem, -ра ( -ra ) for a dynamic verb and -заара ( -zaara ) for a stative. аԥхьара á-px’a-ra ART -read- MSD аԥхьара á-px’a-ra ART-read-MSD "to read/be reading" Various prefixes can be added to the Masdar to form entire dependent clauses, as in аԥибаҽра a-pә́-j+ba-č-ra ART - PREV - RECI -break- MSD аԥибаҽра a-pә́-j+ba-č-ra ART-PREV-RECI-break-MSD "breaking each other" However,
3111-557: The villages of Mokva and Kutol (village) [ ru ] . The territory appears as part of Abkhazian principality from the first half of the XVIII century. It was created after the Abkhazian principality annexed the northwestern part of the Samegrelo principality. The first governor of Abzhua was the son of the Abkhazian prince Kvapu Sharvashidze [ ka ] — Jikeshia Sharvashidze [ ka ] , who inherited
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#17327653753393172-431: The vowels differently. They describe the sound of 'ә' being completely different from [ɨ], and by their descriptions being closer to [ə]. The 'а' is described as being particularly back, likely [ɑ]. Typical of Northwest Caucasian languages, Abkhaz is an agglutinative language that relies heavily on affixation. It has an ergative-absolutive typology, such that the subject of an intransitive verb functions identically to
3233-515: The vowels of Abkhaz is not clear. Some linguists, characterise the vowel system as a 2 degree vertical vowel system ; with the two vowels being distinguished by height, 'ә' being the high/close vowel, and 'а' being the low/open. This system would very closely resemble the one found in Adyghe . The quality of 'ә' in this case, is usually represented as [ɨ] if the vowel is in a stressed position, and being unaffected by its neighbouring consonants. Other linguists however, mainly Russian ones, describe
3294-461: The western environs of Sukhumi and the Psyrtskha valley, whereas the Abzhywa dialect is spoken south-east of Sukhumi. The rest of the Abkhaz speaking population inhabits other neighbouring areas. The exact number of Abkhazians and Abkhaz speakers in Turkey is not clear. The Turkish census denotes 13,951, but the figures are dubious, since the numbers of Abkhazians that came from the beginning of
3355-632: The western part, and near the Çoruh river in the north-east. Historically the dialects of Sadz, Ahchypsy and Tsabal were located in Abkhazia; Sadz being spoken from the Bzyp river to the Matsesta River , and further to the north-west bordering the Sochypsta River . Today they are exclusively spoken in the northwestern part of Turkey, specially in the Sakarya province, it being spoken in 14 villages. The other major place where Abkhaz
3416-427: Was conducted by famous Kabardian poet, Sh. Nogma, in 1825. His alphabet consisted of 42 letters, including 15 letters introduced by him, some of which had unusual forms, diverging from the conventional rasm (base of letters which are then used for addition of dots and diacritics ). His alphabet thus didn't take hold. In 1830, in collaboration with Russian philologist and orientalist, Gratsilevsky , Nogma developed
3477-447: Was continued by Dimitri Gulia and Simon Janashia . Abkhaz is generally viewed as having three major dialects: The literary language is based on the Abzhywa dialect. Below is a classification of Abkhaz dialects according to Chirikba (1996): In some form or the other, all dialects are richer in phonemes than the standard Abzhywa dialect. The only dialects spoken in Abkhazia are Abzhywa and Bzyp. Northern dialects which are
3538-408: Was discarded and replaced with Latin.. A second version of Latin script was adopted in 1930. This lasted for another 6 years, and in 1936, Latin alphabet was discarded in favour of Cyrillic. Kabardian Cyrillic alphabet underwent an iteration of modification in 1938, and the 1938 version has been in popular and official use eversince. First ever notable attempt at compiling an orthography for Kabardian
3599-454: Was reintroduced. The alphabet consisted of the following letters: A a, B b, V v, D d, E e, G g, Gu gu, Z z, Ž ž, Z̧ z̧, Ӡ ӡ, Ꜧ ꜧ, Ꜧu ꜧu, I i, J j, K k, Ku ku, Ⱪ ⱪ, Ⱪu ⱪu, Q q, Qu qu, Qh qh, Qhu qhu, L l, [REDACTED] [REDACTED] , Lh lh, M m, N n, O o, P p, Ph ph, R r, S s, Š š, Ş ş, T t, Th th, U u, F f, Fh fh, X x, Xu xu, X̌ x̌, X̌u x̌u, ɦ, C c, Ç ç, Ch ch, Y y, H h, ', Ù ù, Je je, Jo jo, Ju ju, Ja ja . In 1930, Kabardian Latin alphabet
3660-674: Was replaced by a new version derived from the nationally-adopted new standard, Yañalif . In 1936, Kabardian was one of the languages in the Soviet Union to switch to Cyrillic alphabet. Tuta Borukaev , Kabardian public figure and linguist is credited with the compilation of the first official Cyrillic alphabet for Kabardian. They consisted of the following: А а, ’А ’а, Б б, В в, Г г, Гъ гъ, Д д, Е е, Ж ж, Жь жь, З з, И и, Й й, К к, К’ к’, Л л, Ль ль, Л’ л’, М м, Н н, О о, П п, П’ п’, Р р, С с, Т т, Т’ т’, У у, ’У ’у, Ф ф, Ф’ ф’, Х х, Хь хь, Хъ хъ, Ц ц, Ц’ ц’, Ч ч, Ш ш, Щ щ, Щ’ щ’, Ъ ъ, Ы ы, Ь ь, Э э, Ю ю, Я я . The extensive reliance on use of apostrophes made
3721-530: Was that there was no distinction between lower case and upper case letters. Each letter only had one single case. The alphabet consisted of а b w d g ꜧ [REDACTED] е ӡ z ž ⱬ i j k ⱪ q qh l [REDACTED] lh m n o p ph r s š ş t th v f fh x х̌ ɦ c ç ch y h u è ù â ỳ . Kabardian Latin alphabet underwent another update in 1925. In this version, many of the newly created letters were removed in favour of introduction of accents and diacritics over base Latin letters. In this version, upper-case/lower-case distinction
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