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109-540: A domain controller is a server running the Active Directory Domain Services ( AD DS ) role. It authenticates and authorizes all users and computers in a Windows domain-type network, assigning and enforcing security policies for all computers and installing or updating software. For example, when a user logs into a computer which is part of a Windows domain, Active Directory checks the submitted username and password and determines whether

218-666: A Directory Service with an LDAP Directory Service Interface. Unlike AD DS, multiple AD LDS instances can operate on the same server. Active Directory Certificate Services (AD CS) establishes an on-premises public key infrastructure . It can create, validate, revoke and perform other similar actions, public key certificates for internal uses of an organization. These certificates can be used to encrypt files (when used with Encrypting File System ), emails (per S/MIME standard), and network traffic (when used by virtual private networks , Transport Layer Security protocol or IPSec protocol). AD CS predates Windows Server 2008, but its name

327-459: A PIN and a day code (knowledge factor elements), but this is still a two-factor authentication. The United States government's National Information Assurance Glossary defines strong authentication as a layered authentication approach relying on two or more authenticators to establish the identity of an originator or receiver of information. The European Central Bank (ECB) has defined strong authentication as "a procedure based on two or more of

436-624: A Windows cluster typically residing in the same datacenter, SCR can replicate data to a non-clustered server, located in a separate datacenter. With Exchange Server 2010, Microsoft introduced the concept of the Database Availability Group (DAG). A DAG contains Mailbox servers that become members of the DAG. Once a Mailbox server is a member of a DAG, the Mailbox Databases on that server can be copied to other members of

545-479: A cloud product. Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services (AD LDS), previously called Active Directory Application Mode (ADAM), implements the LDAP protocol for AD DS. It runs as a service on Windows Server and offers the same functionality as AD DS, including an equal API . However, AD LDS does not require the creation of domains or domain controllers. It provides a Data Store for storing directory data and

654-545: A compelling solution, such as private keys encrypted by fingerprint inside of a USB device. In a computer data context, cryptographic methods have been developed which are not spoofable if the originator's key has not been compromised. That the originator (or anyone other than an attacker ) knows (or doesn't know) about a compromise is irrelevant. However, it is not known whether these cryptographically based authentication methods are provably secure, since unanticipated mathematical developments may make them vulnerable to attack in

763-430: A dedicated set of credentials for each service. AD FS uses many popular open standards to pass token credentials such as SAML , OAuth or OpenID Connect . AD FS supports encryption and signing of SAML assertions. AD FS's purpose is an extension of that of AD DS: The latter enables users to authenticate with and use the devices that are part of the same network, using one set of credentials. The former enables them to use

872-472: A design limitation specific to Active Directory, and other competing directories, such as Novell NDS , can set access privileges through object placement within an OU. Active Directory requires a separate step for an administrator to assign an object in an OU as a group member also within that OU. Using only the OU location to determine access permissions is unreliable since the entity might not have been assigned to

981-502: A domain, account name generation poses a significant challenge for large organizations that cannot be easily subdivided into separate domains, such as students in a public school system or university who must be able to use any computer across the network. In Microsoft's Active Directory, OUs do not confer access permissions, and objects placed within OUs are not automatically assigned access privileges based on their containing OU. It represents

1090-538: A domain, ease its administration, and can resemble the organization's structure in managerial or geographical terms. OUs can contain other OUs—domains are containers in this sense. Microsoft recommends using OUs rather than domains for structure and simplifying the implementation of policies and administration. The OU is the recommended level at which to apply group policies , which are Active Directory objects formally named group policy objects (GPOs), although policies can also be applied to domains or sites (see below). The OU

1199-427: A group of processes where the confidence for user identities is established and presented via electronic methods to an information system. The digital authentication process creates technical challenges because of the need to authenticate individuals or entities remotely over a network. The American National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has created a generic model for digital authentication that describes

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1308-527: A hosted service. This has been possible from a number of providers for more than 10 years, but as of June 2018 is that many providers have been marketing the service as "cloud computing" or "Software-as-a-Service". Exchange hosting allows for Microsoft Exchange Server to be running in the Internet, also referred to as the Cloud, and managed by a "Hosted Exchange Server provider" instead of building and deploying

1417-470: A means for readers to reliably authenticate that a given message originated from or was relayed by them. These involve authentication factors like: The opposite problem is the detection of plagiarism , where information from a different author is passed off as a person's own work. A common technique for proving plagiarism is the discovery of another copy of the same or very similar text, which has different attribution. In some cases, excessively high quality or

1526-647: A multi-tenant version of Exchange Online as part of the Business Productivity Online Standard Suite in November 2008. In June 2011, as part of the commercial release of Microsoft Office 365 , Exchange Online was updated with the capabilities of Exchange Server 2010. Exchange Server 2010 was developed concurrently as a server product and for the Exchange Online service. In February 2020, an ASP.NET vulnerability

1635-410: A popular brand's reputation. As mentioned above, having an item for sale in a reputable store implicitly attests to it being genuine, the first type of authentication. The second type of authentication might involve comparing the quality and craftsmanship of an item, such as an expensive handbag, to genuine articles. The third type of authentication could be the presence of a trademark on the item, which

1744-465: A positive authentication, elements from at least two, and preferably all three, factors should be verified. The three factors (classes) and some of the elements of each factor are: As the weakest level of authentication, only a single component from one of the three categories of factors is used to authenticate an individual's identity. The use of only one factor does not offer much protection from misuse or malicious intrusion. This type of authentication

1853-474: A product or document is not counterfeit . Authentication is relevant to multiple fields. In art , antiques , and anthropology , a common problem is verifying that a given artifact was produced by a certain person or in a certain place or period of history. In computer science , verifying a user's identity is often required to allow access to confidential data or systems. Authentication can be considered to be of three types: The first type of authentication

1962-517: A pull replication cycle. Replication intervals between different sites are usually less consistent and don't usually use change notifications. However, it's possible to set it up to be the same as replication between locations on the same network if needed. Each DS3 , T1 , and ISDN link can have a cost, and the KCC alters the site link topology accordingly. Replication may occur transitively through several site links on same-protocol site link bridges if

2071-606: A solution that can be much more difficult to counterfeit than most other options while at the same time being more easily verified. Packaging and labeling can be engineered to help reduce the risks of counterfeit consumer goods or the theft and resale of products. Some package constructions are more difficult to copy and some have pilfer indicating seals. Counterfeit goods, unauthorized sales (diversion), material substitution and tampering can all be reduced with these anti-counterfeiting technologies. Packages may include authentication seals and use security printing to help indicate that

2180-405: A style mismatch may raise suspicion of plagiarism. In literacy, authentication is a readers’ process of questioning the veracity of an aspect of literature and then verifying those questions via research. The fundamental question for authentication of literature is – Does one believe it? Related to that, an authentication project is therefore a reading and writing activity in which students document

2289-636: A variable QR Code . A QR Code alone is easy to verify but offers a weak level of authentication as it offers no protection against counterfeits unless scan data is analyzed at the system level to detect anomalies. To increase the security level, the QR Code can be combined with a digital watermark or copy detection pattern that are robust to copy attempts and can be authenticated with a smartphone. A secure key storage device can be used for authentication in consumer electronics, network authentication, license management, supply chain management, etc. Generally,

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2398-457: Is Active Directory Domain Services, commonly abbreviated as AD DS or simply AD. Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) is the foundation of every Windows domain network. It stores information about domain members, including devices and users, verifies their credentials , and defines their access rights . The server running this service is called a domain controller . A domain controller

2507-462: Is a Service Provider License Agreement (SPLA) available whereby Microsoft receives a monthly service fee instead of traditional CALs. Two types of Exchange CAL are available: Exchange CAL Standard and Exchange CAL Enterprise. The Enterprise CAL is an add-on license to the Standard CAL. Microsoft Exchange Server uses a proprietary remote procedure call (RPC) protocol called MAPI/RPC , which

2616-485: Is a collection of domains and domain trees in a contiguous namespace linked in a transitive trust hierarchy. The forest is at the top of the structure, a collection of trees with a standard global catalog, directory schema, logical structure, and directory configuration. The forest is a secure boundary that limits access to users, computers, groups, and other objects. The objects held within a domain can be grouped into organizational units (OUs). OUs can provide hierarchy to

2725-405: Is a legally protected marking, or any other identifying feature which aids consumers in the identification of genuine brand-name goods. With software, companies have taken great steps to protect from counterfeiters, including adding holograms, security rings, security threads and color shifting ink. The ways in which someone may be authenticated fall into three categories, based on what is known as

2834-716: Is a violation of the LDAP RFCs on which Active Directory is supposedly based. As the number of users in a domain increases, conventions such as "first initial, middle initial, last name" ( Western order ) or the reverse (Eastern order) fail for common family names like Li (李), Smith or Garcia . Workarounds include adding a digit to the end of the username. Alternatives include creating a separate ID system of unique employee/student ID numbers to use as account names in place of actual users' names and allowing users to nominate their preferred word sequence within an acceptable use policy . Because duplicate usernames cannot exist within

2943-429: Is accepting proof of identity given by a credible person who has first-hand evidence that the identity is genuine. When authentication is required of art or physical objects, this proof could be a friend, family member, or colleague attesting to the item's provenance, perhaps by having witnessed the item in its creator's possession. With autographed sports memorabilia, this could involve someone attesting that they witnessed

3052-484: Is assigned a unique security identifier (SID). An object represents a single entity, such as a user, computer, printer, or group, along with its attributes. Some objects may even contain other objects within them. Each object has a unique name, and its definition is a set of characteristics and information by a schema , which determines the storage in the Active Directory. Administrators can extend or modify

3161-439: Is because SamAccountName, a user object attribute, must be unique within the domain. However, two users in different OUs can have the same common name (CN), the name under which they are stored in the directory itself such as "fred.staff-ou.domain" and "fred.student-ou.domain", where "staff-ou" and "student-ou" are the OUs. In general, the reason for this lack of allowance for duplicate names through hierarchical directory placement

3270-619: Is contacted when a user logs into a device, accesses another device across the network, or runs a line-of-business Metro-style app sideloaded into a machine. Other Active Directory services (excluding LDS , as described below) and most Microsoft server technologies rely on or use Domain Services; examples include Group Policy , Encrypting File System , BitLocker , Domain Name Services , Remote Desktop Services , Exchange Server , and SharePoint Server . The self-managed Active Directory DS must be distinct from managed Azure AD DS ,

3379-494: Is directly implemented into the Directory. Such groups are known as shadow groups . Once created, these shadow groups are selectable in place of the OU in the administrative tools. Microsoft's Server 2008 reference documentation mentions shadow groups but does not provide instructions on creating them. Additionally, there are no available server methods or console snap-ins for managing these groups. An organization must determine

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3488-414: Is established by known individuals signing each other's cryptographic key for instance. The second type of authentication is comparing the attributes of the object itself to what is known about objects of that origin. For example, an art expert might look for similarities in the style of painting, check the location and form of a signature, or compare the object to an old photograph. An archaeologist , on

3597-472: Is from a logged-in user; in legitimate use, the view state should always be returned in a POST request , and never a GET request. This combination causes the server to decrypt and run this added code with its own privileges, allowing the server to be fully compromised as any command can therefore be run. In July 2020, Positive Technologies published research explaining how hackers can attack Microsoft Exchange Server without exploiting any vulnerabilities. It

3706-399: Is not recommended for financial or personally relevant transactions that warrant a higher level of security. Multi-factor authentication involves two or more authentication factors (something you know, something you have, or something you are). Two-factor authentication is a special case of multi-factor authentication involving exactly two factors. For example, using a bank card (something

3815-517: Is supposed to be used only by those authorized must attempt to detect and exclude the unauthorized. Access to it is therefore usually controlled by insisting on an authentication procedure to establish with some degree of confidence the identity of the user, granting privileges established for that identity. Exchange Server Microsoft Exchange Server is a mail server and calendaring server developed by Microsoft . It runs exclusively on Windows Server operating systems. The first version

3924-465: Is that Microsoft primarily relies on the principles of NetBIOS , which is a flat-namespace method of network object management that, for Microsoft software, goes all the way back to Windows NT 3.1 and MS-DOS LAN Manager . Allowing for duplication of object names in the directory, or completely removing the use of NetBIOS names, would prevent backward compatibility with legacy software and equipment. However, disallowing duplicate object names in this way

4033-455: Is the ability to have only two nodes and the third node known as "voter node" or file share witness that prevents "split brain" scenarios, generally hosted as a file share on a Hub Transport Server. The second type of cluster is the traditional clustering that was available in previous versions, and is now being referred to as SCC (Single Copy Cluster). In Exchange Server 2007 deployment of both CCR and SCC clusters has been simplified and improved;

4142-438: Is the act of proving an assertion , such as the identity of a computer system user. In contrast with identification , the act of indicating a person or thing's identity, authentication is the process of verifying that identity. It might involve validating personal identity documents , verifying the authenticity of a website with a digital certificate , determining the age of an artifact by carbon dating , or ensuring that

4251-420: Is the level at which administrative powers are commonly delegated, but delegation can be performed on individual objects or attributes as well. Organizational units do not each have a separate namespace. As a consequence, for compatibility with Legacy NetBios implementations, user accounts with an identical SamAccountName are not allowed within the same domain even if the accounts objects are in separate OUs. This

4360-422: Is the process of verifying that "you are permitted to do what you are trying to do". While authorization often happens immediately after authentication (e.g., when logging into a computer system), this does not mean authorization presupposes authentication: an anonymous agent could be authorized to a limited action set. One familiar use of authentication and authorization is access control . A computer system that

4469-399: Is then loaded, and by requesting both the session ID of the user login and the correct View State directly from the server, this correct View State can be deserialised and then modified to also include arbitrary code and then be falsely verified by the attacker. This modified View State is then serialised and passed back to the server in a GET request along with the session ID to show it

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4578-473: Is used to communicate to other Internet mail servers. Exchange Server is licensed both as on-premises software and software as a service (SaaS). In the on-premises form, customers purchase client access licenses (CALs); as SaaS, Microsoft charges a monthly service fee instead. Microsoft had sold a number of simpler email products before, but the first release of Exchange (Exchange Server 4.0 in April 1996 )

4687-564: Is used to replicate between sites but only for modifications in the Schema, Configuration, or Partial Attribute Set (Global Catalog) GCs. It's not suitable for reproducing the default Domain partition. Generally, a network utilizing Active Directory has more than one licensed Windows server computer. Backup and restore of Active Directory are possible for a network with a single domain controller. However, Microsoft recommends more than one domain controller to provide automatic failover protection of

4796-547: The NT PDC / BDC model. Each DC has a copy of the Active Directory. Member servers joined to Active Directory that are not domain controllers are called Member Servers. In the domain partition, a group of objects acts as copies of domain controllers set up as global catalogs. These global catalog servers offer a comprehensive list of all objects in the forest. Global Catalog servers replicate all objects from all domains to themselves, providing an international listing of entities in

4905-493: The data table and the link table . Windows Server 2003 added a third main table for security descriptor single instancing. Programs may access the features of Active Directory via the COM interfaces provided by Active Directory Service Interfaces . To allow users in one domain to access resources in another, Active Directory uses trusts. Trusts inside a forest are automatically created when domains are created. The forest sets

5014-515: The rules of evidence often require establishing the chain of custody of evidence presented. This can be accomplished through a written evidence log, or by testimony from the police detectives and forensics staff that handled it. Some antiques are accompanied by certificates attesting to their authenticity. Signed sports memorabilia is usually accompanied by a certificate of authenticity. These external records have their own problems of forgery and perjury and are also vulnerable to being separated from

5123-627: The supply chain and educate consumers help ensure that authentic products are sold and used. Even security printing on packages, labels, and nameplates, however, is subject to counterfeiting. In their anti-counterfeiting technology guide, the EUIPO Observatory on Infringements of Intellectual Property Rights categorizes the main anti-counterfeiting technologies on the market currently into five main categories: electronic, marking, chemical and physical, mechanical, and technologies for digital media. Products or their packaging can include

5232-534: The Core CAL. Just like Windows Server and other server products from Microsoft, there is the choice to use User CALs or Device CALs. Device CALs are assigned to devices (workstation, laptop or PDA), which may be used by one or more users. User CALs, are assigned to users, allowing them to access Exchange from any device. User and Device CALs have the same price, however, they cannot be used interchangeably. For service providers looking to host Microsoft Exchange, there

5341-566: The DAG. When a Mailbox server is added to a DAG, the Failover Clustering Windows role is installed on the server and all required clustering resources are created. Like Windows Server products, Exchange Server requires client access licenses , which are different from Windows CALs. Corporate license agreements, such as the Enterprise Agreement , or EA, include Exchange Server CALs. It also comes as part of

5450-554: The DNS server must support SRV resource records , also known as service records. Active Directory uses multi-master replication to synchronize changes, meaning replicas pull changes from the server where the change occurred rather than being pushed to them. The Knowledge Consistency Checker (KCC) uses defined sites to manage traffic and create a replication topology of site links. Intra-site replication occurs frequently and automatically due to change notifications, which prompt peers to begin

5559-719: The LDAP API, August 1995), RFC 2307, RFC 3062, and RFC 4533. Microsoft previewed Active Directory in 1999, released it first with Windows 2000 Server edition, and revised it to extend functionality and improve administration in Windows Server 2003 . Active Directory support was also added to Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows NT 4.0 via patch, with some unsupported features. Additional improvements came with subsequent versions of Windows Server . In Windows Server 2008 , Microsoft added further services to Active Directory, such as Active Directory Federation Services . The part of

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5668-529: The RFC process and has accepted numerous RFCs initiated by widespread participants. For example, LDAP underpins Active Directory. Also, X.500 directories and the Organizational Unit preceded the Active Directory concept that uses those methods. The LDAP concept began to emerge even before the founding of Microsoft in April 1975, with RFCs as early as 1971. RFCs contributing to LDAP include RFC 1823 (on

5777-493: The artifact and lost. In computer science, a user can be given access to secure systems based on user credentials that imply authenticity. A network administrator can give a user a password, or provide the user with a key card or other access devices to allow system access. In this case, authenticity is implied but not guaranteed. Consumer goods such as pharmaceuticals, perfume, and clothing can use all forms of authentication to prevent counterfeit goods from taking advantage of

5886-786: The authentication of these poses a problem. For instance, the son of Han van Meegeren , the well-known art-forger, forged the work of his father and provided a certificate for its provenance as well. Criminal and civil penalties for fraud , forgery , and counterfeiting can reduce the incentive for falsification, depending on the risk of getting caught. Currency and other financial instruments commonly use this second type of authentication method. Bills, coins, and cheques incorporate hard-to-duplicate physical features, such as fine printing or engraving, distinctive feel, watermarks, and holographic imagery, which are easy for trained receivers to verify. The third type of authentication relies on documentation or other external affirmations. In criminal courts,

5995-651: The cluster are allowed to be active simultaneously. This is opposed to Exchange's more common active-passive mode in which the failover servers in any cluster node cannot be used at all while their corresponding home servers are active. They must wait, inactive, for the home servers in the node to fail. Subsequent performance issues with active-active mode have led Microsoft to recommend that it should no longer be used. In fact, support for active-active mode clustering has been discontinued with Exchange Server 2007. Exchange's clustering (active-active or active-passive mode) has been criticized because of its requirement for servers in

6104-636: The cluster nodes to share the same data. The clustering in Exchange Server provides redundancy for Exchange Server as an application , but not for Exchange data . In this scenario, the data can be regarded as a single point of failure , despite Microsoft's description of this set-up as a "Shared Nothing" model. This void has however been filled by ISVs and storage manufacturers, through "site resilience" solutions, such as geo-clustering and asynchronous data replication. Exchange Server 2007 introduces new cluster terminology and configurations that address

6213-626: The culture portrayed (e.g., the language, clothing, food, gender roles), are believable for the period. Historically, fingerprints have been used as the most authoritative method of authentication, but court cases in the US and elsewhere have raised fundamental doubts about fingerprint reliability. Outside of the legal system as well, fingerprints are easily spoofable , with British Telecom 's top computer security official noting that "few" fingerprint readers have not already been tricked by one spoof or another. Hybrid or two-tiered authentication methods offer

6322-548: The database. The Directory System Agent is the executable part, a set of Windows services and processes that run on Windows 2000 and later. Accessing the objects in Active Directory databases is possible through various interfaces such as LDAP, ADSI, messaging API , and Security Accounts Manager services. Active Directory structures consist of information about objects classified into two categories: resources (such as printers) and security principals (which include user or computer accounts and groups). Each security principal

6431-1013: The default boundaries of trust, and implicit, transitive trust is automatic for all domains within a forest. Microsoft Active Directory management tools include: These management tools may not provide enough functionality for efficient workflow in large environments. Some third-party tools extend the administration and management capabilities. They provide essential features for a more convenient administration process, such as automation, reports, integration with other services, etc. Varying levels of interoperability with Active Directory can be achieved on most Unix-like operating systems (including Unix , Linux , Mac OS X or Java and Unix-based programs) through standards-compliant LDAP clients, but these systems usually do not interpret many attributes associated with Windows components, such as Group Policy and support for one-way trusts. Authentication Authentication (from Greek : αὐθεντικός authentikos , "real, genuine", from αὐθέντης authentes , "author")

6540-446: The device to be authenticated needs some sort of wireless or wired digital connection to either a host system or a network. Nonetheless, the component being authenticated need not be electronic in nature as an authentication chip can be mechanically attached and read through a connector to the host e.g. an authenticated ink tank for use with a printer. For products and services that these secure coprocessors can be applied to, they can offer

6649-459: The directory in charge of managing domains, which was a core part of the operating system, was renamed Active Directory Domain Services (ADDS) and became a server role like others. "Active Directory" became the umbrella title of a broader range of directory-based services. According to Byron Hynes, everything related to identity was brought under Active Directory's banner. Active Directory Services consist of multiple directory services. The best known

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6758-458: The directory. Domain controllers are ideally single-purpose for directory operations only and should not run any other software or role. Since certain Microsoft products, like SQL Server and Exchange, can interfere with the operation of a domain controller, isolation of these products on additional Windows servers is advised. Combining them can complicate the configuration and troubleshooting of

6867-444: The domain and OU structure and are shared across the forest. Sites play a crucial role in managing network traffic created by replication and directing clients to their nearest domain controllers (DCs). Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 uses the site topology for mail routing. Administrators can also define policies at the site level. The Active Directory information is physically held on one or more peer domain controllers , replacing

6976-481: The domain controller or the other installed software more complex. If planning to implement Active Directory, a business should purchase multiple Windows server licenses to have at least two separate domain controllers. Administrators should consider additional domain controllers for performance or redundancy and individual servers for tasks like file storage, Exchange, and SQL Server since this will guarantee that all server roles are adequately supported. One way to lower

7085-415: The email systems of an estimated 250,000 global customers, including state and local governments, policy think tanks, academic institutions, infectious disease researchers and businesses such as law firms and defense contractors. In a separate incident, an ongoing brute-force campaign from mid-2019 to the present (July 2021) , attributed by British and American ( NSA , FBI , CISA ) security agencies to

7194-640: The entire cluster install process takes place during Exchange Server installation. LCR or Local Continuous Replication has been referred to as the "poor man's cluster". It is designed to allow for data replication to an alternative drive attached to the same system and is intended to provide protection against local storage failures. It does not protect against the case where the server itself fails. In November 2007, Microsoft released SP1 for Exchange Server 2007. This service pack includes an additional high-availability feature called SCR (Standby Continuous Replication). Unlike CCR, which requires that both servers belong to

7303-429: The factors of authentication: something the user knows, something the user has, and something the user is. Each authentication factor covers a range of elements used to authenticate or verify a person's identity before being granted access, approving a transaction request, signing a document or other work product, granting authority to others, and establishing a chain of authority. Security research has determined that for

7412-577: The first time. Additionally, Microsoft has retired the Unified Messaging feature of Exchange, meaning that Skype for Business on-premises customers will have to use alternative solutions for voicemail, such as Azure cloud voicemail. Exchange Server Enterprise Edition supports clustering of up to 4 nodes when using Windows 2000 Server, and up to 8 nodes with Windows Server 2003. Exchange Server 2003 also introduced active-active clustering, but for two-node clusters only. In this setup, both servers in

7521-452: The following way: "A domain represents a database. That database holds records about network services-things like computers, users, groups and other things that use, support, or exist on a network. The domain database is, in effect, Active Directory." Like many information-technology efforts, Active Directory originated out of a democratization of design using Requests for Comments (RFCs). The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) oversees

7630-408: The forest itself is the only security boundary. All other domains must trust any administrator in the forest to maintain security. The Active Directory database is organized in partitions , each holding specific object types and following a particular replication pattern. Microsoft often refers to these partitions as 'naming contexts. The 'Schema' partition defines object classes and attributes within

7739-478: The forest. However, to minimize replication traffic and keep the GC's database small, only selected attributes of each object are replicated, called the partial attribute set (PAS). The PAS can be modified by modifying the schema and marking features for replication to the GC. Earlier versions of Windows used NetBIOS to communicate. Active Directory is fully integrated with DNS and requires TCP/IP —DNS. To fully operate,

7848-526: The forest. The 'Configuration' partition contains information on the physical structure and configuration of the forest (such as the site topology). Both replicate all domains in the forest. The 'Domain' partition holds all objects created in that domain and replicates only within it. Sites are physical (rather than logical) groupings defined by one or more IP subnets. AD also defines connections, distinguishing low-speed (e.g., WAN , VPN ) from high-speed (e.g., LAN ) links. Site definitions are independent of

7957-448: The framework that holds objects has different levels: the forest, tree, and domain. Domains within a deployment contain objects stored in a single replicable database, and the DNS name structure identifies their domains, the namespace . A domain is a logical group of network objects such as computers, users, and devices that share the same Active Directory database. On the other hand, a tree

8066-419: The future. If that were to occur, it may call into question much of the authentication in the past. In particular, a digitally signed contract may be questioned when a new attack on the cryptography underlying the signature is discovered. The process of authorization is distinct from that of authentication. Whereas authentication is the process of verifying that "you are who you say you are", authorization

8175-460: The group object for that OU yet. A common workaround for an Active Directory administrator is to write a custom PowerShell or Visual Basic script to automatically create and maintain a user group for each OU in their Directory. The scripts run periodically to update the group to match the OU's account membership. However, they cannot instantly update the security groups anytime the directory changes, as occurs in competing directories, as security

8284-938: The initial log-in session, which can be the cause of a critical security flaw. To resolve this problem, systems need continuous user authentication methods that continuously monitor and authenticate users based on some biometric trait(s). A study used behavioural biometrics based on writing styles as a continuous authentication method. Recent research has shown the possibility of using smartphones sensors and accessories to extract some behavioral attributes such as touch dynamics, keystroke dynamics and gait recognition . These attributes are known as behavioral biometrics and could be used to verify or identify users implicitly and continuously on smartphones. The authentication systems that have been built based on these behavioral biometric traits are known as active or continuous authentication systems. The term digital authentication, also known as electronic authentication or e-authentication, refers to

8393-442: The latest version of Microsoft Entourage for Mac and Microsoft Outlook for Mac - since the release of Mac OS X Snow Leopard Mac computers running OS X include some support for this technology via Apple's Mail application. E-mail hosted on an Exchange Server can also be accessed using POP3 , and IMAP4 protocols, using clients such as Windows Live Mail , Mozilla Thunderbird , and Lotus Notes . These protocols must be enabled on

8502-450: The need or urgency to do a full transition to Exchange Online, and also allows for staggered email migration . Hybrid tools can cover the main stack of Microsoft Exchange, Lync , SharePoint, Windows, and Active Directory servers, in addition to using replica data to report cloud user experience. Exchange Online was first provided as a hosted service in dedicated customer environments in 2005 to select pilot customers. Microsoft launched

8611-427: The object being signed. A vendor selling branded items implies authenticity, while they may not have evidence that every step in the supply chain was authenticated. Centralized authority-based trust relationships back most secure internet communication through known public certificate authorities; decentralized peer-based trust, also known as a web of trust , is used for personal services such as email or files and trust

8720-409: The operations authorized users can perform on them, such as viewing, editing, copying, saving, or printing. IT administrators can create pre-set templates for end users for convenience, but end users can still define who can access the content and what actions they can take. Active Directory is a service comprising a database and executable code . It is responsible for managing requests and maintaining

8829-475: The other hand, might use carbon dating to verify the age of an artifact, do a chemical and spectroscopic analysis of the materials used, or compare the style of construction or decoration to other artifacts of similar origin. The physics of sound and light, and comparison with a known physical environment, can be used to examine the authenticity of audio recordings, photographs, or videos. Documents can be verified as being created on ink or paper readily available at

8938-429: The package and contents are not counterfeit; these too are subject to counterfeiting. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance tags that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Anti-counterfeiting technologies that can be used with packaging include: Literary forgery can involve imitating

9047-745: The physical hardware costs is by using virtualization . However, for proper failover protection, Microsoft recommends not running multiple virtualized domain controllers on the same physical hardware. The Active-Directory database , the directory store , in Windows 2000 Server uses the JET Blue -based Extensible Storage Engine (ESE98). Each domain controller's database is limited to 16 terabytes and 2 billion objects (but only 1 billion security principals). Microsoft has created NTDS databases with more than 2 billion objects. NT4's Security Account Manager could support up to 40,000 objects. It has two main tables:

9156-429: The price is low. However, KCC automatically costs a direct site-to-site link lower than transitive connections. A bridgehead server in each zone can send updates to other DCs in the exact location to replicate changes between sites. To configure replication for Active Directory zones, activate DNS in the domain based on the site. To replicate Active Directory, Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) over IP (RPC/IP) are used. SMTP

9265-677: The processes that are used to accomplish secure authentication: The authentication of information can pose special problems with electronic communication, such as vulnerability to man-in-the-middle attacks , whereby a third party taps into the communication stream, and poses as each of the two other communicating parties, in order to intercept information from each. Extra identity factors can be required to authenticate each party's identity. Counterfeit products are often offered to consumers as being authentic. Counterfeit consumer goods , such as electronics, music, apparel, and counterfeit medications , have been sold as being legitimate. Efforts to control

9374-418: The relevant research process ( ). It builds students' critical literacy. The documentation materials for literature go beyond narrative texts and likely include informational texts, primary sources, and multimedia. The process typically involves both internet and hands-on library research. When authenticating historical fiction in particular, readers consider the extent that the major historical events, as well as

9483-630: The same set of credentials in a different network. As the name suggests, AD FS works based on the concept of federated identity . AD FS requires an AD DS infrastructure, although its federation partner may not. Active Directory Rights Management Services ( AD RMS ), previously known as Rights Management Services or RMS before Windows Server 2008 , is server software that allows for information rights management , included with Windows Server . It uses encryption and selective denial to restrict access to various documents, such as corporate e-mails , Microsoft Word documents, and web pages . It also limits

9592-419: The schema using the schema object when needed. However, because each schema object is integral to the definition of Active Directory objects, deactivating or changing them can fundamentally alter or disrupt a deployment. Modifying the schema affects the entire system automatically, and new objects cannot be deleted, only deactivated. Changing the schema usually requires planning. In an Active Directory network,

9701-461: The server. Exchange Server mailboxes can also be accessed through a web browser, using Outlook Web App (OWA). Exchange Server 2003 also featured a version of OWA for mobile devices , called Outlook Mobile Access (OMA). Microsoft Exchange Server up to version 5.0 came bundled with Microsoft Exchange Client as the email client. After version 5.0, this was replaced by Microsoft Outlook, bundled as part of Microsoft Office 97 and later. When Outlook 97

9810-594: The shortcomings of the previous "shared data model". Exchange Server 2007 provides built-in support for asynchronous replication modeled on SQL Server's " Log shipping " in CCR (Cluster Continuous Replication) clusters, which are built on MSCS MNS (Microsoft Cluster Service—Majority Node Set) clusters, which do not require shared storage. This type of cluster can be inexpensive and deployed in one, or "stretched" across two data centers for protection against site-wide failures such as natural disasters. The limitation of CCR clusters

9919-478: The software and all versions of it, where the View State is used to temporarily preserve changes to an individual page as information is sent to the server. The default validation key used is therefore public knowledge, and so when this is used the validation key can be used to decrypt and falsely verify a modified View State containing commands added by an attacker. When logged in as any user, any .ASPX page

10028-441: The structure of its information infrastructure by dividing it into one or more domains and top-level OUs. This decision is critical and can base on various models such as business units, geographical locations, IT service, object type, or a combination of these models. The immediate purpose of organizing OUs is to simplify administrative delegation and, secondarily, to apply group policies. While OUs serve as an administrative boundary,

10137-454: The style of a famous author. If an original manuscript , typewritten text, or recording is available, then the medium itself (or its packaging – anything from a box to e-mail headers ) can help prove or disprove the authenticity of the document. However, text, audio, and video can be copied into new media, possibly leaving only the informational content itself to use in authentication. Various systems have been invented to allow authors to provide

10246-462: The system in-house. Exchange Online is Exchange Server delivered as a cloud service hosted by Microsoft itself. It is built on the same technologies as on-premises Exchange Server, and offers essentially the same services as third-party providers which host Exchange Server instances. Customers can also choose to combine both on-premises and online options in a hybrid deployment. Hybrid implementations are popular for organizations that are unsure of

10355-734: The three authentication factors". The factors that are used must be mutually independent and at least one factor must be "non-reusable and non-replicable", except in the case of an inherence factor and must also be incapable of being stolen off the Internet. In the European, as well as in the US-American understanding, strong authentication is very similar to multi-factor authentication or 2FA, but exceeding those with more rigorous requirements. The FIDO Alliance has been striving to establish technical specifications for strong authentication. Conventional computer systems authenticate users only at

10464-546: The time of the item's implied creation. Attribute comparison may be vulnerable to forgery. In general, it relies on the facts that creating a forgery indistinguishable from a genuine artifact requires expert knowledge, that mistakes are easily made, and that the amount of effort required to do so is considerably greater than the amount of profit that can be gained from the forgery. In art and antiques, certificates are of great importance for authenticating an object of interest and value. Certificates can, however, also be forged, and

10573-403: The user has) along with a PIN (something the user knows) provides two-factor authentication. Business networks may require users to provide a password (knowledge factor) and a pseudorandom number from a security token (ownership factor). Access to a very-high-security system might require a mantrap screening of height, weight, facial, and fingerprint checks (several inherence factor elements) plus

10682-533: The user is a system administrator or a non-admin user. Furthermore, it allows the management and storage of information, provides authentication and authorization mechanisms, and establishes a framework to deploy other related services: Certificate Services, Active Directory Federation Services , Lightweight Directory Services, and Rights Management Services . Active Directory uses Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) versions 2 and 3, Microsoft's version of Kerberos , and DNS . Robert R. King defined it in

10791-416: Was added to Microsoft Exchange Server 2003. It allows a compliant device such as a Windows Mobile device or smartphone to securely synchronize mail, contacts and other data directly with an Exchange server and has become a popular mobile access standard for businesses due to support from companies like Nokia and Apple Inc. as well as its device security and compliance features. Support for push email

10900-572: Was added to it with Exchange Server 2003 Service Pack 2 and is supported by Windows Phone 7, the iPhone and Android phones, but notably not for Apple 's native Mail app on macOS . Exchange ActiveSync Policies allow administrators to control which devices can connect to the organization, remotely deactivate features, and remotely wipe lost or stolen devices. The complexities of managing Exchange Server—namely running both one or more Exchange Servers, plus Active Directory synchronization servers—make it attractive for organisations to purchase it as

11009-456: Was an entirely new X.400 -based client–server groupware system with a single database store, which also supported X.500 directory services. The directory used by Exchange Server eventually became Microsoft's Active Directory service, an LDAP -compliant directory service which was integrated into Windows 2000 as the foundation of Windows Server domains . As of 2020, there have been ten releases. The current version, Exchange Server 2019,

11118-523: Was called "Microsoft Exchange". A stripped-down version of the Exchange Client that does not have support for Exchange Server was released as Windows Messaging to avoid confusion; it was included with Windows 95 OSR2 , Windows 98 , and Windows NT 4 . It was discontinued because of the move to email standards such as SMTP, IMAP, and POP3, all of which Outlook Express supports better than Windows Messaging. Support for Exchange ActiveSync (EAS)

11227-532: Was called Exchange Server 4.0, to position it as the successor to the related Microsoft Mail 3.5. Exchange initially used the X.400 directory service but switched to Active Directory later. Until version 5.0, it came bundled with an email client called Microsoft Exchange Client . This was discontinued in favor of Microsoft Outlook . Exchange Server primarily uses a proprietary protocol called MAPI to talk to email clients , but subsequently added support for POP3 , IMAP , and EAS . The standard SMTP protocol

11336-517: Was designed to be used by Microsoft Outlook . Clients capable of using the proprietary features of Exchange Server include Evolution , Hiri and Microsoft Outlook. Thunderbird can access Exchange server via the Owl Plugin. Exchange Web Services (EWS), an alternative to the MAPI protocol, is a documented SOAP -based protocol introduced with Exchange Server 2007. Exchange Web Services is used by

11445-445: Was discovered and exploited relying on a default setting allowing attackers to run arbitrary code with system privileges, only requiring a connection to the server as well as being logged into any user account which can be done through credential stuffing . The exploit relied on all versions of Microsoft Exchange using the same static validation key to decrypt, encrypt, and validate the 'View State' by default on all installations of

11554-459: Was released in October 2018. Unlike other Office Server 2019 products such as SharePoint and Skype for Business, Exchange Server 2019 could only be deployed on Windows Server 2019 when it was released. Since Cumulative Update 2022 H1 Exchange 2019 has been supported on Windows Server 2022. One of the key features of the new release is that Exchange Server can be deployed onto Windows Server Core for

11663-415: Was released, Exchange Client 5.0 was still in development and to be later released as part of Exchange Server 5.0, primarily because Outlook was only available for Windows. Later, in Exchange Server 5.5, Exchange Client was removed and Outlook was made the only Exchange client. As part of Exchange Server 5.5, Outlook was released for other platforms. The original Windows 95 "Inbox" client also used MAPI and

11772-414: Was simply Certificate Services. AD CS requires an AD DS infrastructure. Active Directory Federation Services (AD FS) is a single sign-on service. With an AD FS infrastructure in place, users may use several web-based services (e.g. internet forum , blog , online shopping , webmail ) or network resources using only one set of credentials stored at a central location, as opposed to having to be granted

11881-532: Was voted into Top 10 web hacking techniques of 2020 according to PortSwigger Ltd . In 2021, critical zero-day exploits were discovered in Microsoft Exchange Server. Thousands of organizations have been affected by hackers using these techniques to steal information and install malicious code. Microsoft revealed that these vulnerabilities had existed for around 10 years, but were exploited only from January 2021 onwards. The attack affected

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