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120-661: The first ACOG model, known as the TA01, was released in 1987. In 1995, United States Special Operations Command selected the 4×32 TA01 as the official scope for the M4 carbine and purchased 12,000 units from Trijicon. Between 2004 and 2005, the TA31RCO-A4 & M4 (AN/PVQ-31A & 31B) was selected as the official Rifle Combat Optic of the United States Marine Corps , prompting Trijicon to produce 100,000 units for

240-415: A 441 man special task force, named Task Force Ranger, to hunt down and capture Aidid. By this time, however, circumstances on the ground had changed significantly and Aidid was in hiding, no longer appearing publicly. On 22 August, advance forces were deployed to Somalia followed shortly after by the main force on 25 August. TF Ranger, led by Major General William F. Garrison , was under JSOC . Thus, it

360-671: A SEAL team boarded the vessel at first light and discovered nine mines on the vessel's deck, as well as a logbook revealing areas where previous mines had been laid. The logbook implicated Iran in mining international waters. Within a few days, the Special Operations forces had determined the Iranian pattern of activity; the Iranians hid during the day near oil and gas platforms in Iranian waters and at night they headed toward

480-637: A brand new unified command was to abolish an existing command. United States Readiness Command (USREDCOM), with an often misunderstood mission, did not appear to have a viable mission in the post-Goldwater-Nichols era, and its commander-in-chief, General James Lindsay , had had some special operations experience. On 23 January 1987, the Joint Chiefs of Staff recommended to the Secretary of Defense that USREDCOM be disestablished to provide billets and facilities for USSOCOM. President Ronald Reagan approved

600-486: A cane that concealed a hidden locating beacon. Delta operators tracked his vehicle convoy via helicopter and disabled Atto's vehicle with shots to its engine block before taking him into custody. This was also the first known takedown of a moving vehicle from a helicopter. To obfuscate when exactly a mission would occur, Garrison had the 160th SOAR conduct flights with soldiers aboard multiple times per day so militia could not rely solely on seeing helicopters to know that

720-589: A capability in unconventional warfare, counter-terrorism, and information operations. MARSOC deployed its first units in August 2006, six months after the group's initial activation. MARSOC reached full operational capability in October 2008. Units The United States Naval Special Warfare Command (NAVSPECWARCOM, NAVSOC, or NSWC) was commissioned April 16, 1987, at Naval Amphibious Base Coronado in San Diego as

840-507: A civil affairs brigade, and a special sustainment brigade. These are one of the USSOCOM's main weapons for waging unconventional warfare and counter-insurgency. The significance of these units is emphasized as conventional conflicts are becoming less prevalent as insurgent and guerrilla warfare increases. Units: In October 2005, the Secretary of Defense directed the formation of United States Marine Forces Special Operations Command ,

960-689: A coordinating board for low-intensity conflict within the National Security Council , and a new Major Force Program (MFP-11) for SOF (the so-called "SOF checkbook"). The final bill, attached as a rider to the 1987 Defense Authorization Act, amended the Goldwater-Nichols Act and was signed into law in October 1986. This was interpreted as Congress forcing the hand of the DOD and the Reagan administration regarding what it saw as

1080-425: A doubling of attacks against UNOSOM II forces. On 8 August 1993, Somali National Alliance militia detonated a remote controlled bomb against a US Army vehicle, killing four military policemen . On 19 August, a second bomb attack injured four more soldiers. And on 22 August, a third attack occurred, injuring 6 US soldiers. In response, President Clinton approved Operation Gothic Serpent , which would deploy

1200-473: A major change in course in the mission. Substantial U.S. forces would be sent to Somalia as short term reinforcements, but all American forces would be withdrawn from the country by the end of March 1994. He would firmly defend American policy in Somalia but admitted that it had been a mistake for American forces to be drawn into the decision "to personalize the conflict" to Aidid. He would go on to reappoint

1320-513: A peaceful resolution of the conflict quickly vanished. The next day, the UN Security Council issued Resolution 837 , calling for the arrest and trial of those who carried out the ambush. US warplanes and UN troops began an attack on Aidid's stronghold. Aidid remained defiant, and the violence between Somalis and UN forces escalated. A significant number of Somali civilians also resented international forces following incidents such as

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1440-447: A raid was going to occur. They also varied their insertion and extraction tactics, using various permutations of ground vehicle and helicopter-based infil and exfil. At approximately 0200 on 25 September, Aidid's men shot down a Black Hawk with an RPG and killed three crew members at New Port near Mogadishu, though the two pilots, who were both injured, managed to escape and evade to reach friendly units. Pakistani and US forces secured

1560-456: A residence in the "Black Sea" neighborhood in Mogadishu, the task force sent 19 aircraft, 12 vehicles, and 160 men to capture them. The two Somali lieutenants alongside 22 others were quickly captured and loaded on a convoy of ground vehicles. However, armed militiamen and civilians, some of them women and children, converged on the target area from all over the city. Shortly before the mission

1680-682: A single commander for all SOF promoted interoperability among the same command forces. The establishment of a four-star commander-in-chief and an Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict eventually gave SOF a voice in the highest councils of the Defense Department. However, implementing the provisions and mandates of the Nunn-Cohen Amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1987

1800-538: A small number of Senators to elaborate on the problems that he had encountered in Grenada . Both the House and Senate passed SOF reform bills, and these went to a conference committee for reconciliation. Senate and House conferees forged a compromise. The bill called for a unified combatant command headed by a four-star general for all SOF, an Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict,

1920-490: A territory in Northeastern Iraq that was completely occupied by Ansar Al Islam, an ally of Al Qaeda. This was a very significant battle and led to the death of a substantial number of terrorists and the uncovering of a chemical weapons facility at Sargat. These terrorists would have been in the subsequent insurgency had they not been eliminated during this battle. Sargat was the only facility of its type discovered in

2040-402: A third-platform 2 miles (3 km) away. Documents and radios were taken for intelligence purposes. On 14 April 1988, 65 miles (100 km) east of Bahrain , the frigate USS Samuel B. Roberts hit a mine, blowing an immense hole in its hull. Ten sailors were injured. During Operation Praying Mantis the U.S. retaliated fiercely, attacking the Iranian frigate Sahand and oil platforms in

2160-616: A two-year-long study of the Defense Department, which included an examination of SOF spearheaded by Senator Barry Goldwater ( R -AZ). With concern mounting on Capitol Hill , the Department of Defense created the Joint Special Operations Agency on 1 January 1984; this agency, however, had neither operational nor command authority over any SOF. The Joint Special Operations Agency thus did little to improve SOF readiness, capabilities, or policies, and therefore

2280-417: A variety of missions to include direct action, special reconnaissance, counter-terrorism, foreign internal defense, unconventional warfare and support psychological and civil affairs operations. Their operators are deployed worldwide in support of National Command Authority objectives, conducting operations with other conventional and special operations forces. Units Air Force Special Operations Command

2400-532: A withdrawal. On 6 October 1993, U.S. President Bill Clinton would personally order General Joseph P. Hoar to terminate all combat operations against Somali National Alliance , except in self defence . General Hoar would proceed to relay the stand down order to Generals William F. Garrison of Task Force Ranger and Thomas M. Montgomery of the American Quick Reaction Force . The following day on 7 October, Clinton publicly announced

2520-625: Is now designated as the Marine Special Operations Advisor Group (MSOAG). As a service component of USSOCOM, MARSOC is tasked by the Commander USSOCOM to train, organize, equip, and deploy responsive U.S. Marine Corps special operations forces worldwide, in support of combatant commanders and other agencies. MARSOC has been directed to conduct foreign internal defense, direct action, and special reconnaissance. MARSOC has also been directed to develop

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2640-531: The American embassy in Iran in 1980. The ensuing investigation, chaired by Admiral James L. Holloway III , the retired Chief of Naval Operations , cited lack of command and control and inter-service coordination as significant factors in the failure of the mission. Since its activation on 16 April 1987, U.S. Special Operations Command has participated in many operations , from the 1989 invasion of Panama to

2760-690: The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , was reportedly so upset he "had to screw myself off the ceiling". Missions followed on 6 September, with a raid on an old Russian compound; 14 September, when they raided the Jialiou house/police station; 17 September, with a raid on Radio Mogadishu ; 18 September, a raid on the garages of Osman Atto's (the Somali National Alliance's chief financier); and 21 September when they captured Osman Atto himself. Local intelligence assets had given Atto

2880-603: The Iraqi security forces . United States Special Operations Command played a pivotal role in fighting the former Taliban government in Afghanistan in 2001 and toppling it thereafter, as well as combating the insurgency and capturing Saddam Hussein in Iraq. USSOCOM in 2004 was developing plans to have an expanded and more complex role in the global campaign against terrorism, and that role continued to emerge before and after

3000-540: The Mark V Special Operations Craft . Special Operations Command first became involved in Somalia in 1992 as part of Operation Provide Relief . C-130s circled over Somali airstrips during the delivery of relief supplies. Special Forces medics accompanied many relief flights into the airstrips throughout southern Somalia to assess the area. They were the first U.S. soldiers in Somalia, arriving before U.S. forces who supported

3120-616: The Naval Special Warfare Development Group , and Air Force special tactics units. During August and September 1993, the task force conducted six missions into Mogadishu , all of which were successes. Although Aidid remained free, the effect of these missions seriously limited his movements. On 3 October, TF Ranger launched its seventh mission, this time into Aidid's stronghold the Bakara Market to capture two of his key lieutenants. The mission

3240-865: The SNA . The Somali National Alliance viewed the Battle of Mogadishu as a victory against the United States and UNOSOM II . The victory ensured the pullout of US and UN forces and the end to the humanitarian aid which had rescued the country from famine. Osama bin Laden , who was living in Sudan at the time, cited this operation, in particular the US withdrawal, as an example of American weakness and vulnerability to attack. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of

3360-591: The United States Armed Forces . The command is part of the Department of Defense and is the only unified combatant command created by an Act of Congress . USSOCOM is headquartered at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa , Florida. The idea of an American unified special operations command had its origins in the aftermath of Operation Eagle Claw , the disastrous attempted rescue of hostages at

3480-582: The United States Army Special Operations Command (USASOC) activated as the 16th major Army command. These special operations forces have been America's spearhead for unconventional warfare for more than 40 years. USASOC commands such units as the well known Special Forces (SF, or the " Green Berets "), the Rangers , and such relatively unknown units as two psychological operations groups, a special aviation regiment,

3600-529: The War on Terror . USSOCOM is involved with clandestine activity, such as direct action , special reconnaissance , counter-terrorism , foreign internal defense , unconventional warfare , psychological warfare , civil affairs , and counter-narcotics operations. Each branch has a distinct Special Operations Command that is capable of running its own operations, but when the different special operations forces need to work together for an operation, USSOCOM becomes

3720-588: The killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan in 2011. In 2010, "of about 13,000 Special Operations forces deployed overseas, about 9,000 [were] evenly divided between Iraq and Afghanistan." In the initial stages of the War in Afghanistan , USSOCOM forces linked up with CIA Paramilitary Officers from Special Activities Division to defeat the Taliban without the need for large-scale conventional forces. This

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3840-404: The " Bindon Aiming Concept ", an aiming technique developed by Trijicon founder and optical designer Glyn Bindon. The technique is essentially using the illuminated part of the reticle and its focusing rear eyepiece as a collimator sight . As in any other collimator sight, the user does not actually look through the sight but instead keeps the collimated (infinity) image of the illuminated part of

3960-462: The 24th MEU provided an interim QRF (Force Recon Det and helicopters from HMM-263), the task force arrived in the country and began training exercises. The Marines were asked to take on the Aidid snatch mission, but having the advantage of being in the area for more than two months, decided after mission analysis that the mission was a "no-go" due to several factors, centered around the inability to rescue

4080-560: The ACOG are designed with bright enough daylight-lit fiber optic or battery-powered LED reticles that facilitate this technique. Trijicon has been the subject of some criticism for inscribing references to Bible verses (e.g. JN8:12, referring to John 8:12 , "I am the Light of the World ") alongside the model numbers on their ACOG sights. Starting in late 2009, Trijicon began shipping sights to

4200-422: The ACOG have an additional daytime reticle illumination via a passive external fiber optic light pipe . Normally this allows the brightness of the reticle to match the field of view since it collects ambient light from around the sight, although this can lead to a mismatch in lighting - such as sunlight hitting the light pipe directly, or standing in a shadow - causing the reticle to be much brighter or darker than

4320-632: The Armed Services Committee, and Representative Dan Daniel (D-VA), the chairman of the United States House Armed Services Subcommittee on Readiness . Congressman Daniel had become convinced that the U.S. military establishment was not interested in special operations, that the country's capability in this area was second rate, and that SOF operational command and control was an endemic problem. Senators Nunn and Cohen also felt strongly that

4440-625: The Department of Defense still did not fill this new billet. In December 1987, Congress directed Secretary of the Army John O. Marsh to carry out the ASD (SO/LIC) duties until the Senate approved a suitable replacement. Not until 18 months after the legislation passed did Ambassador Charles Whitehouse assume the duties of ASD (SO/LIC). Meanwhile, the establishment of USSOCOM provided its own measure of excitement. A quick solution to manning and basing

4560-529: The Department of Defense was not preparing adequately for future threats. Senator Cohen agreed that the U.S. needed a clearer organizational focus and chain of command for special operations to deal with low-intensity conflicts . In October 1985, the Senate Armed Services Committee published the results of its two-year review of the U.S. military structure, entitled "Defense Organization: The Need For Change." James R. Locher III ,

4680-572: The Dominican Republic, Jordan, Romania, Senegal, South Korea, and Thailand, among other nations. In addition, SOC forces executed the high-profile killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan in 2011. In November 2009 The Nation reported on a covert JSOC/ Blackwater anti-terrorist operation in Pakistan. In 2010, White House counterterrorism director John O. Brennan said that the United States "will not merely respond after

4800-570: The Iran–Iraq War ended. The remaining SEALs, patrol boats, and helicopters then returned to the United States. Special operations forces provided critical skills necessary to help CENTCOM gain control of the northern Persian Gulf and balk Iran's small boats and minelayers. The ability to work at night proved vital because Iranian units used darkness to conceal their actions. Additionally, because of Earnest Will operational requirements, USSOCOM would acquire new weapons systems—the patrol coastal ships and

4920-563: The Iraq war. This battle may have been the Tora Bora of Iraq, but it was a sound defeat for Al Qaeda and their ally Ansar Al Islam. This combined team then led the Peshmerga against Saddam's Northern Army. This effort kept Saddam's forces in the north and denied the ability to redeploy to contest the invasion force coming from the south. This effort may have saved the lives of hundreds if not thousands of coalition servicemen and women. At

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5040-584: The June 1993 UN mass shooting of protesters and the 12 July 1993 Bloody Monday raid . These events and other incidents led significant numbers of civilians, including women and children, to take up arms and actively resist US and UNOSOM II forces during fighting in Mogadishu. Following the 12 July 1993 raid carried out by the US QRF force for UNOSOM II, the conflict began sharply escalating and SNA forces began deliberately targeting American forces in Somalia for

5160-525: The Lig Ligato house. There, they captured 9 individuals along with weapons, drugs, communications gear, and other equipment. They were highly embarrassed, however, when it was found out that the prisoners they had taken were actually UN employees. Regardless of the fact that the employees were in a restricted area and were found with weapons and drugs, the incident was ridiculed in the media. Colin Powell ,

5280-607: The Marine component of United States Special Operations Command. It was determined that the Marine Corps would initially form a unit of approximately 2,500 to serve with USSOCOM. On February 24, 2006 MARSOC activated at Camp Lejeune , North Carolina. MARSOC initially consisted of a small staff and the Foreign Military Training Unit (FMTU), which had been formed to conduct foreign internal defense. FMTU

5400-470: The Middle Shoals Buoy, a navigation aid for tankers. With this knowledge, SOF launched three Little Bird helicopters and two patrol craft to the buoy. The Little Bird helicopters arrived first and were fired upon by three Iranian boats anchored near the buoy. After a short but intense firefight, the helicopters sank all three boats. Three days later, in mid-October, an Iranian Silkworm missile hit

5520-604: The Naval component to the United States Special Operations Command. Naval Special Warfare Command provides vision, leadership, doctrinal guidance, resources and oversight to ensure component special operations forces are ready to meet the operational requirements of combatant commanders. Today, SEAL Teams and Special Boat Teams comprise the elite combat units of Naval Special Warfare. These teams are organized, trained, and equipped to conduct

5640-706: The Picatinny rail of the M16A4 and M4 , it can be mounted on the carrying handles of previous models by using a special adapter. Trijicon later produced ACOG mounts and adapters for weapons besides the M16, including the Beretta AR70/90 series; SIG SG 550 , Heckler & Koch HK416 , Bushmaster ACR , Enfield L85A2 , and FN SCAR weapon systems; and the Steyr AUG . Several ACOG models are designed to be used with

5760-577: The QRF, 10th Mountain Division soldiers, Rangers, SEALs, Pakistan Army tanks and Malaysian armored personnel carriers , finally arrived at 1:55 am on 4 October. The combined force worked until dawn to free the pilot's body, receiving RPG and small arms fire throughout the night. All the casualties were loaded onto the armored personnel carriers, and the remainder of the force was left behind and had no choice but to move out on foot. AH-6 gunships raked

5880-614: The SOF budget process. Congress held hearings on the two bills in the summer of 1986. Admiral William J. Crowe Jr. , Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , led the Pentagon 's opposition to the bills. As an alternative, he proposed a new Special Operations Forces command led by a three-star general . This proposal was not well received on Capitol Hill—Congress wanted a four-star general in charge to give SOF more influence. A number of retired military officers and others testified in favor of

6000-526: The Sirri and Sassan oil fields. After U.S. warships bombarded the Sirri platform and set it ablaze, a UH-60 with a SEAL platoon flew toward the platform but was unable to get close enough because of the roaring fire. Secondary explosions soon wrecked the platform. Thereafter, Iranian attacks on neutral ships dropped drastically. On 18 July, Iran accepted the United Nations cease-fire; on 20 August 1988,

6120-593: The Somalis, the rescue convoy broke through and extracted the besieged forces. The mission's objective of capturing Aidid's associates was accomplished, but the battle turned out to be the most difficult close combat that US troops had engaged in since the Vietnam War . In the end, four MH-60 Black Hawks were shot down by SNA forces with two crashing in hostile territory. 18 Americans were killed and 85–97 wounded along with dozens of UNOSOM troops. In total,

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6240-591: The U.S. Delta Force in 1977. Following Eagle Claw, he called for a further restructuring of special operations capabilities. Although unsuccessful at the joint level, Meyer nevertheless went on to consolidate Army SOF units under the new 1st Special Operations Command in 1982. By 1983, there was a small but growing sense in the US Congress of the need for military reforms. In June, the Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC) began

6360-462: The U.S. military without Bible verses. United States Special Operations Command Operation Gothic Serpent Operation Uphold Democracy War on Terror The United States Special Operations Command ( USSOCOM or SOCOM ) is the unified combatant command charged with overseeing the various special operations component commands of the Army , Marine Corps , Navy , and Air Force of

6480-449: The UN and the Somali National Alliance began soon after the establishment of UNOSOM II in March, centering on the perceived true nature of the operation's political mandate. By May 1993, relations between the SNA and UNOSOM would rapidly deteriorate. On 5 June 1993, one of the deadliest attacks on UN forces in Somalia occurred when 24 Pakistani soldiers were ambushed and killed in an SNA controlled area of Mogadishu . Any hope of

6600-418: The US Marines in the following 18 months. The ACOG is available in a variety of configurations from the manufacturer with different reticles , illumination, and other features. Most ACOGs do not use batteries for reticle illumination, being designed to use internal phosphor illumination provided by the radioactive decay of tritium . The tritium illumination has a usable life of 10–15 years. Some versions of

6720-422: The US forces would suffer an estimated 70% casualty rate from the battle. Two days after the battle's end, a Somali mortar strike on their compound killed one Delta Force operator and injured another 12–13 members of TF Ranger. Somali casualties were estimated to be 314 killed and 812 wounded (including civilians), though figures greatly vary. The American public, outraged at the losses sustained, demanded

6840-432: The USSOCOM and is charged to study special operations requirements and techniques to ensure interoperability and equipment standardization, plan and conduct special operations exercises and training, and develop Joint Special Operations Tactics. It was established in 1980 on the recommendation of Col. Charlie Beckwith , in the aftermath of the failure of Operation Eagle Claw . Units Portions of JSOC units have made up

6960-552: The United States ensured that neutral oil tankers and other merchant ships could safely transit the Persian Gulf during the Iran–Iraq War . Iranian attacks on tankers prompted Kuwait to ask the United States in December 1986 to register 11 Kuwaiti tankers as American ships so that they could be escorted by the U.S. Navy. President Reagan agreed to the Kuwaiti request on 10 March 1987, hoping it would deter Iranian attacks. The protection offered by U.S. naval vessels, however, did not stop Iran , which used mines and small boats to harass

7080-400: The area and were able to evacuate the casualties. The helicopter and crew were from 9th Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment and 2nd Battalion, 25th Aviation Regiment , and not part of the Task Force Ranger mission, but the helicopter's destruction was still a huge psychological victory for the SNA. On the afternoon of 3 October 1993, informed that two lieutenants of Aidid's clan were at

7200-412: The battle prompted the effective termination of the operation on 6 October 1993. This was followed by the withdrawal of TF Ranger later in October 1993, and then the complete exit of American troops in early 1994. The repercussions of this encounter substantially influenced American foreign policy, culminating in the discontinuation of the UNOSOM II by March 1995. At the time, the Battle of Mogadishu

7320-463: The beginning of 2009. In 2011, SOC spokesman Colonel Tim Nye (Army ) was reported to have said that the number of countries with SOC presence will likely reach 120 and that joint training exercises will have been carried out in most or all of those countries during the year. One study identified joint-training exercises in Belize, Brazil, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Germany, Indonesia, Mali, Norway, Panama, and Poland in 2010 and also, through mid-year 2011, in

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7440-423: The constantly changing special operations task force, operating in the U.S. Central Command area of operations. The Task Force 11 , Task Force 121 , Task Force 6-26 and Task Force 145 are creations of the Pentagon's post-11 September campaign against terrorism, and it quickly became the model for how the military would gain intelligence and battle insurgents in the future. Originally known as Task Force 121, it

7560-568: The convoys steaming to and from Kuwait. In late July 1987, Rear Admiral Harold J. Bernsen , commander of the Middle East Force, requested NSW assets. Special Boat Teams deployed with six Mark III Patrol Boats and two SEAL platoons in August. The Middle East Force decided to convert two oil servicing barges, Hercules and Wimbrown VII, into mobile sea bases. The mobile sea bases allowed SOF in the northern Persian Gulf to thwart clandestine Iranian mining and small boat attacks. On 21 September, Nightstalkers flying MH-60 and Little Birds took off from

7680-401: The crash site, quickly establishing a perimeter, and securing the surviving crew. The Black Hawk wreck came under heavy attack from the Somali militia, despite attempts from the 160th helicopters overhead to hold back the crowd. After losing close air support to damage from RPG-7 fire, MSG Gordon, SFC Shughart, and the surviving crew of Super 64 were overrun and killed, save for CW3 Durant who

7800-408: The crash sites, causing a dire situation. A Somali mob overran the second site and, despite a heroic defense, killed everyone except the pilot, whom they took prisoner. Two defenders of this crash site, Master Sergeant Gary Gordon and Sergeant First Class Randall Shughart , were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor . About this time, the mission's quick reaction force (QRF) also tried to reach

7920-430: The crew of a downed helicopter (re: the indigenous forces technique of using RPGs against helicopters and blocking the narrow streets in order to restrict the movement of a ground rescue force). This knowledge was not passed on to the Rangers, due to the Marines operating from the USS Wasp and the Rangers remaining on land. TF Ranger was made up of operators from Delta Force , 75th Ranger Regiment , 160th SOAR , SEALs from

8040-466: The deployment of a Joint Special Operations Task Force (JSOTF) to Somalia in response to attacks made by General Mohamed Farrah Aidid 's supporters upon U.S. and UN forces. The JSOTF, named Task Force (TF) Ranger was charged with a mission named Operation Gothic Serpent to capture Aidid. This was an especially arduous mission, for Aidid had gone underground, after several Lockheed AC-130 air raids and UN assaults on his strongholds. While Marines from

8160-415: The establishment of an office in the Defense Department to ensure adequate funding and policy emphasis for low-intensity conflict and special operations. Representative Daniel's proposal went even further—he wanted a national special operations agency headed by a civilian who would bypass the Joint Chiefs and report directly to the US Secretary of Defense ; this would keep Joint Chiefs and the Services out of

8280-530: The establishment of the new command on 13 April 1987. The Department of Defense activated USSOCOM on 16 April 1987 and nominated General Lindsay to be the first Commander in Chief Special Operations Command (USCINCSOC). The Senate accepted him without debate. USSOCOM's first tactical operation involved 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) ("Night Stalkers") aviators, SEALs, and Special Boat Teams (SBT) working together during Operation Earnest Will in September 1987. During Operation Earnest Will ,

8400-416: The expanded relief operations of Restore Hope. The first teams into Somalia were CIA Special Activities Division paramilitary officers with elements of JSOC . They conducted very high-risk advanced force operations prior to the entry of the follow-on forces. The first casualty of the conflict came from this team and was a Paramilitary officer and former Delta Force operator named Larry Freedman . Freedman

8520-412: The fact" of a terrorist attack but will "take the fight to al-Qaeda and its extremist affiliates whether they plot and train in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia and beyond." Olson said, "In some places, in deference to host-country sensitivities, we are lower in profile. In every place, Special Operations forces activities are coordinated with the U.S. ambassador and are under the operational control of

8640-509: The first time. According to US special envoy to Somalia Robert B. Oakley , "Before July 12th, the US would have been attacked only because of association with the UN, but the US was never singled out until after July 12th." For the remainder of July firefights between the SNA and UNOSOM began occurring almost daily. The SNA would put out a bounty for any American soldier or UN personnel killed, leading to

8760-500: The former U.S. Special Envoy for Somalia Robert B. Oakley to signal the administrations return to focusing on political reconciliation. The stand down order given to U.S. forces in Somalia led other UNOSOM II contingents to effectively avoid any confrontation with the SNA. This led to the majority of UNOSOM patrols in Mogadishu to cease and numerous checkpoints in SNA controlled territory to be abandoned. On 9 October 1993, Special Envoy Robert B. Oakley arrived in Mogadishu to obtain

8880-615: The four-star regional commander." The conduct of actions by SOC forces outside of Iraq and Afghan war zones has been the subject of internal U.S. debate, including between representatives of the Bush administration such as John B. Bellinger III , on one hand, and the Obama administration on another. The United Nations in 2010 also "questioned the administration's authority under international law to conduct such raids, particularly when they kill innocent civilians. One possible legal justification –

9000-411: The frigate USS Jarrett to track an Iranian ship, Iran Ajr . The Nightstalkers observed Iran Ajr turn off her lights and begin laying mines. After receiving permission to attack, the helicopters fired guns and rockets, stopping the ship. As Iran Ajr' s crew began to push mines over the side, the helicopters resumed firing until the crew abandoned the ship. Special Boat Teams provided security while

9120-515: The heaviest and bloodiest fights in the War in Afghanistan. The battle on an Afghan mountaintop called Takur Ghar featured special operations forces from all 4 services and the CIA. Navy SEALs, Army Rangers, Air Force Combat Controllers, and Pararescuemen fought against entrenched Al-Qaeda fighters atop a 10,000-foot (3,000 m) mountain. Subsequently, the entrenched Taliban became targets of every asset in

9240-410: The implementation of capability solutions in order to improve strategic and operational Warfighting readiness and joint interoperability. SOC-JC must also be prepared to support the deployed Special Operations Joint Task Force (SOJTF) Headquarters (HQ). The Government Accountability Office wrote that SOC-JC was disestablished in 2013, and positions were to be zeroed out in 2014. On 1 December 1989,

9360-490: The joint component command of the operation, instead of a SOC of a specific branch. The unwieldy command and control structure of separate U.S. military special operations forces (SOF), which led to the failure of Operation Eagle Claw in 1980, highlighted the need within the US Department of Defense for reform and reorganization. The US Army Chief of Staff , General Edward C. "Shy" Meyer , had already helped create

9480-573: The launch of the Iraq War , dozens of 12-member Special Forces teams infiltrated southern and western Iraq to hunt for Scud missiles and pinpoint bombing targets. Scores of Navy SEALs seized oil terminals and pumping stations on the southern coast. Air Force combat controllers flew combat missions in MC-130H Combat Talon IIs and established austere desert airstrips to begin the flow of soldiers and supplies deep into Iraq. It

9600-453: The need for reform. By most accounts, retired Army Major General Richard Scholtes gave the most compelling reasons for the change. Scholtes, who commanded the joint special operations task force during Operation Urgent Fury , explained how conventional force leaders misused SOF during the operation, not allowing them to use their unique capabilities, which resulted in high SOF casualties. After his formal testimony, Scholtes met privately with

9720-517: The next several months, the situation deteriorated. During the early months of 1993, all the parties involved in the civil war agreed to a disarmament conference held in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia . Enactment of the agreed upon terms, however, was not so easily achieved. One powerful faction, the Somali National Alliance (SNA) led by Gen. Mohamed Farah Aidid , formed in late 1992 and had become particularly anti-UNOSOM. Major disagreements between

9840-633: The night, eventually expending nearly 80,000 rounds of ammunition. Consequently the helicopters have been credited with saving US forces from being overrun. A rescue convoy nearly 70 vehicles long was organized and bolstered by hundreds of UNOSOM II forces, including the 19th Battalion, Royal Malay Regiment (Mech); Pakistani 15 FF Regiment and a squadron of M48 Pattons from 19th Lancers ; and US Army 2nd Battalion, 14th Infantry , 10th Mountain Division (which included elements of 1st Battalion, 87th Infantry ; 41st Engineer Battalion; and 2nd Battalion, 25th Aviation) . After hours of heavy combat with

9960-689: The overall outcome of Operation Gothic Serpent was deemed a failure because of the Task Force's failure to complete their stated mission, capturing Mohamed Farrah Aidid . Most U.S. forces pulled out of Somalia by March 1994. The withdrawal from Somalia was completed in March 1995. Even though Operation Gothic Serpent failed, USSOCOM still made significant contributions to operations in Somalia. SOF performed reconnaissance and surveillance missions, assisted with humanitarian relief, protected American forces, and conducted riverine patrols. Additionally, they ensured

10080-430: The past failures and emerging threats. The DOD and the administration were responsible for implementing the law, and Congress subsequently passed two additional bills to ensure implementation. The legislation promised to improve SOF in several respects. Once implemented, MFP-11 provided SOF with control over its own resources, better enabling it to modernize the force. Additionally, the law fostered interservice cooperation:

10200-420: The permission of the country in question – is complicated in places such as Pakistan and Yemen, where the governments privately agree but do not publicly acknowledge approving the attacks," as one report put it. In two decades fighting terrorism, 660 members of the special operation community have been killed and a further 2,738 were wounded. Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) is a component command of

10320-420: The pilots, Michael Durant , couldn't move. Two Delta snipers, Master Sergeant Gary Gordon and Sergeant First Class Randy Shughart , provided cover from a helicopter and repeatedly volunteered to secure the crash site. After a 10th Mountain relief force from the Mogadishu airport was halted and turned back by an SNA ambush, Shughart and Gordon were finally granted permission to be inserted. They made their way to

10440-457: The port could support offloading ships. This was a tough mission because the SEALs swam against a strong current which left many of them overheated and exhausted. Furthermore, they swam through raw sewage in the harbor, which made them sick. When the first SEALs hit the shore the following night, they were surprised to meet members of the news media. The first Marines came ashore soon thereafter, and

10560-947: The precision application of firepower via airstrikes or close air support , to infiltration, exfiltration, resupply and refueling of SOF operational elements. AFSOC's unique capabilities include airborne radio and television broadcast for psychological operations, as well as aviation foreign internal defense instructors to provide other governments military expertise for their internal development. The command's core missions include battlefield air operations; agile combat support; aviation foreign internal defense; information operations; precision aerospace fires; psychological operations; specialized air mobility; specialized refueling; and intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance. Components Operation Gothic Serpent Somali National Alliance victory [REDACTED] 1 killed 7 wounded [REDACTED] 2 wounded 6 October: 1 killed, 13 wounded Operation Gothic Serpent

10680-610: The press redirected their attention to them. Later, the SEALs provided personal security for President George Bush during a visit to Somalia. In December 1992, Special Forces assets in Kenya moved to Somalia and joined Operation Restore Hope. January 1993, a Special Forces command element deployed to Mogadishu as the Joint Special Operations Forces-Somalia (JSOFOR) that would command and control all special operations for Restore Hope. JSOFOR's mission

10800-431: The principal author of this study, also examined past special operations and speculated on the most likely future threats. This influential document led to the 1986 Goldwater-Nichols Act . By spring 1986, SOF advocates had introduced reform bills in both houses of Congress. On 15 May, Senator Cohen introduced the Senate bill, co-sponsored by Senator Nunn and others, which called for a joint military organization for SOF and

10920-534: The release of Black Hawk pilot Michael Durant . Three months later all SNA prisoners in U.N. custody were released including Aidid's lieutenants Omar Salad Elmi and Mohamed Hassan Awale, who had been the targets of the 3 October raid. US Secretary of Defense Les Aspin resigned his post late in 1993. He was specifically blamed for denying the US Army permission to have its own armor units in place in Somalia, units which might have been able to break through to

11040-418: The release of captured troops and to consolidate a ceasefire with the Somali National Alliance . Oakley and General Anthony Zinni would both engage in direct negotiations with representatives of the SNA. It was made clear that the manhunt was over, but that no conditions put forward by the SNA would be accepted for the release of prisoners of war . On 14 October, Aidid announced in a brief appearance on CNN

11160-475: The reticle in focus with the dominant eye while the other eye views the entire field of view to acquire the target. In this both-eyes-open technique the brain superimposes the aiming reticle on the target. An added part of the technique is to shift focus after acquisition to the dominant eye/telescopic image for more accurate shooting. This overcomes the problem of centering or acquiring fast traversing targets common with all telescopic sights. Only certain models of

11280-591: The safe landing of the Marines and safeguarded the arrival of merchant ships carrying food. USSOCOM's 10th Special Forces Group , elements of JSOC , and CIA/SAD Paramilitary Officers linked up again and were the first to enter Iraq prior to the invasion. Their efforts organized the Kurdish Peshmerga to defeat Ansar Al Islam in Northern Iraq before the invasion. This battle was for control of

11400-510: The scope. Others include Docter or Trijicon reflex sights mounted on top, such as the TA11SDO (SU-258/PVQ) and the TA648MGO (SU-260P). The ACOG ECOS line features both of these secondary sighting systems on the same scope. Other features include Picatinny rails like the TA648MGO, flip caps, and the ability to be waterproof up to 11 m (36 ft). Although the ACOG is designed for

11520-495: The second crash site. This force too was pinned by the Somali fire and required the fire support of two AH-6 helicopters before it could break contact and make its way back to the base. The assault and security elements moved on foot towards the first crash area, passing through heavy fire, and occupied buildings south and southwest of the downed helicopter. They fought to establish defensive positions so as not to be pinned down by

11640-508: The sky. According to an executive summary, the Battle of Takur Ghar was the most intense firefight American special operators have been involved in since 18 U.S. Army Rangers were killed in Mogadishu , Somalia, in 1993. During Operation Red Wings on 28 June 2005, four Navy SEALs, pinned down in a firefight, radioed for help. A Chinook helicopter, carrying 16 service members, responded but

11760-566: The streets with fire to support the movement. The main force of the convoy arrived at the Pakistani Stadium-compound for the QRF-at 6:30 am, thus concluding one of the bloodiest and fiercest urban firefights since the Vietnam War . Task Force Ranger experienced a total of 17 killed in action and 106 wounded. Various estimates placed Somali casualties above 1,000. Although Task Force Ranger's few missions were successes,

11880-517: The tanker Sea Isle City near the oil terminal outside Kuwait City . Seventeen crewmen and the American captain were injured in the missile attack. During Operation Nimble Archer , four destroyers shelled two oil platforms in the Rostam oil field. After the shelling, a SEAL platoon and a demolition unit planted explosives on one of the platforms to destroy it. The SEALs next boarded and searched

12000-413: The target. Reticles have other features such as a bullet drop compensator and other different reticle shapes such as chevrons . Some ACOG models incorporate rudimentary ghost ring iron sights as a backup for targets that are within 50 m (55 yd). Most ACOG models, when mounted to a carry handle, have an open space through the mount to allow the use of the rifle's iron sights without removing

12120-441: The task force occupied an old hangar and construction trailers under primitive conditions, without access to potable water . Only days after arriving, on 28 August, Somali militia launched a mortar attack on the hangar at 19:27 which injured four Rangers. These mortar attacks became a regular occurrence but rarely caused any further significant injuries. The task force launched its first raid at 03:09 on 30 August, hitting

12240-448: The trapped soldiers earlier in the battle. US political leaders had, at the time, felt the presence of tanks would taint the peacekeeping image of the mission. Clinton expressed surprise that the Battle of Mogadishu had even occurred, and later claimed that he had decided on a diplomatic solution before the incident. Despite his apparent reservations there had been no direct orders previously given to TF Ranger to halt operations against

12360-505: The very heavy enemy fire while treating their wounded and worked to free the pilot's body from the downed helicopter. With the detainees loaded on trucks, the ground convoy force attempted to reach the first crash site. Unable to find it amongst the narrow, winding alleyways, the convoy came under devastating small arms and RPG fire. The convoy had to return to base after suffering numerous casualties and sustaining substantial damage to their vehicles. Reinforcements, consisting of elements from

12480-546: Was a military operation conducted in Mogadishu , Somalia , by an American force code-named Task Force Ranger during the Somali Civil War in 1993. The primary objective of the operation was to capture Mohamed Farrah Aidid , leader of the Somali National Alliance who was wanted by the UNOSOM II in response to his attacks against United Nations troops. The operation took place from August to October 1993 and

12600-491: Was awarded the Intelligence Star for "extraordinary heroism" for his actions. The earliest missions during Operation Restore Hope were conducted by Navy SEALs. The SEALs performed several hydrographic reconnaissance missions to find suitable landing sites for Marines . On 7 December, the SEALs swam into Mogadishu Harbor, where they found suitable landing sites, assessed the area for threats, and concluded that

12720-457: Was deemed insufficient. Within the Defense Department, there were a few staunch SOF supporters. Noel Koch , Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs, and his deputy, Lynn Rylander , both advocated SOF reforms. At the same time, a few on Capitol Hill were determined to overhaul United States Special Operations Forces . They included Senators Sam Nunn ( D -GA) and William Cohen (R-ME), both members of

12840-785: Was established on May 22, 1990, with headquarters at Hurlburt Field , Florida. AFSOC is one of the 10 Air Force Major Commands or MAJCOMs, and the Air Force component of United States Special Operations Command. It holds operational and administrative oversight of subordinate special operations wings and groups in the regular Air Force, Air Force Reserve Command and the Air National Guard . AFSOC provides Air Force special operations forces for worldwide deployment and assignment to regional unified commands. The command's SOF are composed of highly trained, rapidly deployable airmen, conducting global special operations missions ranging from

12960-474: Was expected to take only one or two hours. Helicopters carried an assault and a ground convoy of security teams launched in the late afternoon from the TF Ranger compound at Mogadishu airport. The TF came under increasingly heavy fire, more intense than during previous missions. The assault team captured 24 Somalis including Aidid's lieutenants and were loading them onto the convoy trucks when a MH-60 Blackhawk

13080-534: Was formed in the summer of 2003 when the military merged two existing Special Operations units, one hunting Osama bin Laden in and around Afghanistan, and the other tracking Sadaam Hussein in Iraq. Special Operations Command – Joint Capabilities (SOC-JC) was transferred to USSOCOM from the soon-to-be disestablished United States Joint Forces Command in 2011. Its primary mission was to train conventional and SOF commanders and their staffs to support USSOCOM international engagement training requirements, and support

13200-446: Was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade (RPG). A small element from the security forces, as well as an MH-6 assault helicopter and an MH-60 carrying a fifteen-man combat search and rescue (CSAR) team, rushed to the crash site. The battle became increasingly worse. An RPG struck another MH-60, crashing less than 1 mile (1.6 km) to the south of the first downed helicopter. The task force faced overwhelming Somali mobs that overran

13320-571: Was led by US Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC). On 3 October 1993, the task force executed a mission to capture two of Aidid's lieutenants . The mission ultimately culminated in what became known as the Battle of Mogadishu . The battle was extremely bloody and the task force inflicted significant casualties on Somali militia forces, while suffering heavy losses themselves. The Malaysian , Pakistani , and conventional US Army troops under UNOSOM II which aided in TF Ranger's extraction suffered losses as well, though not as heavy. The intensity of

13440-406: Was neither rapid nor smooth. One of the first issues to arise was the appointment of an Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low Intensity Conflict , whose principal duties included monitorship of special operations activities and the low-intensity conflict activities of the Department of Defense. Congress increased the number of assistant secretaries of defense from 11 to 12, but

13560-409: Was not under UN command or the command of US General Thomas M. Montgomery , the deputy commander of UNOSOM II forces as well as commander of US forces in Somalia. Instead, Garrison and TF Ranger received orders directly from CENTCOM . The force consisted of: The task force had intelligence support from a joint effort between CIA officers and Intelligence Support Activity . In Mogadishu,

13680-651: Was notably different from the Persian Gulf war of 1991, where Special Operations forces were mostly kept participating. But it would not be a replay of Afghanistan, where Army Special Forces and Navy SEALs led the fighting. After their star turn in Afghanistan, many special operators were disappointed to play a supporting role in Iraq. Many special operators felt restricted by cautious commanders. From that point, USSOCOM has since killed or captured hundreds of insurgents and Al-Qaeda terrorists. It has conducted several foreign internal defense missions successfully training

13800-484: Was one of the biggest successes of the global War on Terrorism . These units linked up several times during this war and engaged in several furious battles with the enemy. One such battle happened during Operation Anaconda , the mission to squeeze the life out of a Taliban and Al-Qaeda stronghold dug deep into the Shah-i-Kot Valley and Arma Mountains of eastern Afghanistan. The operation was seen as one of

13920-454: Was shot down. All members of the rescue team and three of four SEALs on the ground died. It was the worst loss of life in Afghanistan since the invasion in 2001. The Navy SEAL Marcus Luttrell alone survived. Team leader Michael P. Murphy was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in the battle. In 2010, special operations forces were deployed in 75 countries, compared with about 60 at

14040-429: Was taken hostage. Shughart and Gordon were both posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions. Meanwhile, the remaining Rangers and Delta operators fought their way to the first crash site. Repeated attempts by the Somalis to overrun US positions were beaten back with heavy small arms fire accompanied by fierce close air support from helicopters. US gunships constantly engaged hostile forces throughout

14160-418: Was the most intense, bloodiest single firefight involving US troops since Vietnam. In December 1992, US President George H. W. Bush ordered the military to join the UN in a joint operation known as Operation Restore Hope , with the primary mission of restoring order in Somalia. The country had collapsed into civil war in 1991 and the following year a severe famine , induced by the fighting, broke out. Over

14280-420: Was to be concluded, an MH-60 Black Hawk , Super Six One , was shot down by SNA forces using a rocket-propelled grenade (RPG). Both of the pilots were killed on impact, but the crew survived the crash landing. Shortly afterward, another Black Hawk helicopter, Super Six Four , was shot down by an RPG fired from the ground. No rescue team was immediately available, and the small surviving crew, including one of

14400-469: Was to make initial contact with indigenous factions and leaders; provide information for force protection; and provide reports on the area for future relief and security operations. Before redeploying in April, JSOFOR elements drove over 26,000 miles (42,000 km), captured 277 weapons, and destroyed over 45,320 pounds (20,560 kg) of explosives. In August 1993, Secretary of Defense Les Aspin directed

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