122-1327: Collective intelligence Collective action Self-organized criticality Herd mentality Phase transition Agent-based modelling Synchronization Ant colony optimization Particle swarm optimization Swarm behaviour Social network analysis Small-world networks Centrality Motifs Graph theory Scaling Robustness Systems biology Dynamic networks Evolutionary computation Genetic algorithms Genetic programming Artificial life Machine learning Evolutionary developmental biology Artificial intelligence Evolutionary robotics Reaction–diffusion systems Partial differential equations Dissipative structures Percolation Cellular automata Spatial ecology Self-replication Conversation theory Entropy Feedback Goal-oriented Homeostasis Information theory Operationalization Second-order cybernetics Self-reference System dynamics Systems science Systems thinking Sensemaking Variety Ordinary differential equations Phase space Attractors Population dynamics Chaos Multistability Bifurcation Rational choice theory Bounded rationality In biology , adaptation has three related meanings. Firstly, it
244-504: A factor analysis . Both studies showed support for a general collective intelligence factor c underlying differences in group performance with an initial eigenvalue accounting for 43% (44% in study 2) of the variance, whereas the next factor accounted for only 18% (20%). That fits the range normally found in research regarding a general individual intelligence factor g typically accounting for 40% to 50% percent of between-individual performance differences on cognitive tests. Afterwards,
366-482: A final cause (a purpose), but thought that it "came about naturally, since such things survived." Aristotle did believe in final causes, but assumed that species were fixed . In natural theology , adaptation was interpreted as the work of a deity and as evidence for the existence of God. William Paley believed that organisms were perfectly adapted to the lives they led, an argument that shadowed Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , who had argued that God had brought about "
488-441: A neuropsychological capacity for learning . Examples include searching for food , mating , and vocalizations . Physiological adaptations permit the organism to perform special functions such as making venom , secreting slime , and phototropism , but also involve more general functions such as growth and development , temperature regulation , ionic balance and other aspects of homeostasis . Adaptation affects all aspects of
610-491: A "collective consciousness" and Teilhard de Chardin as a thinker who has developed the philosophical implications of the group mind. Tom Atlee focuses primarily on humans and on work to upgrade what Howard Bloom calls "the group IQ". Atlee feels that collective intelligence can be encouraged "to overcome ' groupthink ' and individual cognitive bias in order to allow a collective to cooperate on one process – while achieving enhanced intellectual performance." George Pór defined
732-439: A "public intelligence" that keeps public officials and corporate managers honest, turning the concept of "national intelligence" (previously concerned about spies and secrecy) on its head. According to Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams , collective intelligence is mass collaboration . In order for this concept to happen, four principles need to exist: A new scientific understanding of collective intelligence defines it as
854-447: A broader consideration of how to design "collectives" of self-interested adaptive agents to meet a system-wide goal. This was related to single-agent work on "reward shaping" and has been taken forward by numerous researchers in the game theory and engineering communities. Howard Bloom has discussed mass behavior – collective behavior from the level of quarks to the level of bacterial, plant, animal, and human societies. He stresses
976-525: A great deal of genetic variability. The first experimental evidence of the pre-adaptive nature of genetic variants in microorganisms was provided by Salvador Luria and Max Delbrück who developed the Fluctuation Test , a method to show the random fluctuation of pre-existing genetic changes that conferred resistance to bacteriophages in Escherichia coli . The word is controversial because it
1098-419: A group (Group-IQ) parallel to an individual's intelligence quotient (IQ) even though the score is not a quotient per se. Mathematically, c and g are both variables summarizing positive correlations among different tasks supposing that performance on one task is comparable with performance on other similar tasks. c thus is a source of variance among groups and can only be considered as a group's standing on
1220-453: A group's general ability to perform a wide range of tasks. Definition, operationalization and statistical methods are similar to the psychometric approach of general individual intelligence . Hereby, an individual's performance on a given set of cognitive tasks is used to measure general cognitive ability indicated by the general intelligence factor g proposed by English psychologist Charles Spearman and extracted via factor analysis . In
1342-426: A higher fecundity and broader geographic range. The peacock 's ornamental train (grown anew in time for each mating season) is a famous adaptation. It must reduce his maneuverability and flight, and is hugely conspicuous; also, its growth costs food resources. Darwin's explanation of its advantage was in terms of sexual selection : "This depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over other individuals of
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#17327907208961464-577: A human swarm challenge by CBS Interactive to predict the Kentucky Derby. The swarm correctly predicted the first four horses, in order, defying 542–1 odds and turning a $ 20 bet into $ 10,800. The value of parallel collective intelligence was demonstrated in medical applications by researchers at Stanford University School of Medicine and Unanimous AI in a set of published studies wherein groups of human doctors were connected by real-time swarming algorithms and tasked with diagnosing chest x-rays for
1586-420: A mechanism whose significance had only been glimpsed previously. A century later, experimental field studies and breeding experiments by people such as E. B. Ford and Theodosius Dobzhansky produced evidence that natural selection was not only the 'engine' behind adaptation, but was a much stronger force than had previously been thought. The significance of an adaptation can only be understood in relation to
1708-408: A more complex task was solved by each group to determine whether c factor scores predict performance on tasks beyond the original test. Criterion tasks were playing checkers (draughts) against a standardized computer in the first and a complex architectural design task in the second study. In a regression analysis using both individual intelligence of group members and c to predict performance on
1830-461: A multiplier effect in group problem solving: "Three people working together in this augmented mode [would] seem to be more than three times as effective in solving a complex problem as is one augmented person working alone". In 1994, he coined the term 'collective IQ' as a measure of collective intelligence, to focus attention on the opportunity to significantly raise collective IQ in business and society. The idea of collective intelligence also forms
1952-456: A niche for ectoparasites ; the only flying penguins do is under water. Adaptations serving different functions may be mutually destructive. Compromise and makeshift occur widely, not perfection. Selection pressures pull in different directions, and the adaptation that results is some kind of compromise. It is a profound truth that Nature does not know best; that genetical evolution... is a story of waste, makeshift, compromise and blunder. Since
2074-454: A non- Turing model of computation is used. This theory allows simple formal definition of collective intelligence as the property of social structure and seems to be working well for a wide spectrum of beings, from bacterial colonies up to human social structures. Collective intelligence considered as a specific computational process is providing a straightforward explanation of several social phenomena. For this model of collective intelligence,
2196-610: A predictor of c was largely mediated by social sensitivity ( Sobel z = 1.93, P= 0.03) which is in vein with previous research showing that women score higher on social sensitivity tests. While a mediation , statistically speaking, clarifies the mechanism underlying the relationship between a dependent and an independent variable, Wolley agreed in an interview with the Harvard Business Review that these findings are saying that groups of women are smarter than groups of men. However, she relativizes this stating that
2318-422: A similar problem. As another example, the long neck of a giraffe brings benefits but at a cost. The neck of a giraffe can be up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in length. The benefits are that it can be used for inter-species competition or for foraging on tall trees where shorter herbivores cannot reach. The cost is that a long neck is heavy and adds to the animal's body mass, requiring additional energy to build
2440-553: A similar result for groups working together online communicating only via text and confirmed the role of female proportion and social sensitivity in causing collective intelligence in both cases. Similarly to Wolley et al., they also measured social sensitivity with the RME which is actually meant to measure people's ability to detect mental states in other peoples' eyes. The online collaborating participants, however, did neither know nor see each other at all. The authors conclude that scores on
2562-633: A single organism. Wheeler saw this collaborative process at work in ants that acted like the cells of a single beast he called a superorganism . In 1912 Émile Durkheim identified society as the sole source of human logical thought. He argued in " The Elementary Forms of Religious Life " that society constitutes a higher intelligence because it transcends the individual over space and time. Other antecedents are Vladimir Vernadsky and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin 's concept of " noosphere " and H. G. Wells 's concept of " world brain ". Peter Russell, Elisabet Sahtouris , and Barbara Marx Hubbard (originator of
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#17327907208962684-409: A trait, whereas fitness predicts a trait's future. Sewall Wright proposed that populations occupy adaptive peaks on a fitness landscape. To evolve to another, higher peak, a population would first have to pass through a valley of maladaptive intermediate stages, and might be "trapped" on a peak that is not optimally adapted. Adaptation is the heart and soul of evolution. Before Darwin, adaptation
2806-474: A voting group is more likely than not to make a correct decision, the probability that the highest vote of the group is the correct decision increases with the number of members of the group. Many theorists have interpreted Aristotle 's statement in the Politics that "a feast to which many contribute is better than a dinner provided out of a single purse" to mean that just as many may bring different dishes to
2928-593: A way that suits the habitat. The varying shapes of the beaks of Darwin's finches, for example, are driven by adaptive mutations in the ALX1 gene. The coat color of different wild mouse species matches their environments, whether black lava or light sand, owing to adaptive mutations in the melanocortin 1 receptor and other melanin pathway genes. Physiological resistance to the heart poisons ( cardiac glycosides ) that monarch butterflies store in their bodies to protect themselves from predators are driven by adaptive mutations in
3050-421: A wide range of tasks. Definition, operationalization and statistical methods are derived from g . Similarly as g is highly interrelated with the concept of IQ , this measurement of collective intelligence can be interpreted as intelligence quotient for groups (Group-IQ) even though the score is not a quotient per se. Causes for c and predictive validity are investigated as well. Writers who have influenced
3172-424: Is teleological and the entire concept of natural selection depends on the presence of genetic variation, regardless of the population size of a species in question. Features that now appear as adaptations sometimes arose by co-option of existing traits, evolved for some other purpose. The classic example is the ear ossicles of mammals , which we know from paleontological and embryological evidence originated in
3294-428: Is a ToM test for adults that shows sufficient test-retest reliability and constantly differentiates control groups from individuals with functional autism or Asperger Syndrome . It is one of the most widely accepted and well-validated tests for ToM within adults. ToM can be regarded as an associated subset of skills and abilities within the broader concept of emotional intelligence . The proportion of females as
3416-523: Is a major topic in the philosophy of biology , as it concerns function and purpose ( teleology ). Some biologists try to avoid terms which imply purpose in adaptation, not least because it suggests a deity's intentions, but others note that adaptation is necessarily purposeful. Adaptation is an observable fact of life accepted by philosophers and natural historians from ancient times, independently of their views on evolution , but their explanations differed. Empedocles did not believe that adaptation required
3538-430: Is a measure of collective intelligence, although it is often used interchangeably with the term collective intelligence. Collective intelligence has also been attributed to bacteria and animals. It can be understood as an emergent property from the synergies among: Or it can be more narrowly understood as an emergent property between people and ways of processing information. This notion of collective intelligence
3660-458: Is another potential parallel to individual intelligence where more intelligent people are found to acquire new material quicker. Individual intelligence can be used to predict plenty of life outcomes from school attainment and career success to health outcomes and even mortality. Whether collective intelligence is able to predict other outcomes besides group performance on mental tasks has still to be investigated. Gladwell (2008) showed that
3782-407: Is better fitted to survive in the new environment," writes the evolutionary biologist John Maynard Smith . If humans move to a higher altitude, respiration and physical exertion become a problem, but after spending time in high altitude conditions they acclimatize to the reduced partial pressure of oxygen, such as by producing more red blood cells . The ability to acclimatize is an adaptation, but
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3904-556: Is called habitat tracking . It is one explanation put forward for the periods of apparent stasis in the fossil record (the punctuated equilibrium theory). Without mutation , the ultimate source of all genetic variation , there would be no genetic changes and no subsequent adaptation through evolution by natural selection. Genetic change occurs in a population when mutation increases or decreases in its initial frequency followed by random genetic drift, migration, recombination or natural selection act on this genetic variation. One example
4026-440: Is conversational turn-taking. Research further suggest that collectively intelligent groups communicate more in general as well as more equally; same applies for participation and is shown for face-to-face as well as online groups communicating only via writing. Bottom-up processes include group composition, namely the characteristics of group members which are aggregated to the team level. An example of such bottom-up processes
4148-404: Is interlinked with knowledge-based culture and sustained by collective idea sharing, and thus contributes to a better understanding of diverse society. Similar to the g factor ( g ) for general individual intelligence, a new scientific understanding of collective intelligence aims to extract a general collective intelligence factor c factor for groups indicating a group's ability to perform
4270-469: Is just moderately correlated with the intelligence of individual group members. According to Woolley et al.'s results, neither team cohesion nor motivation or satisfaction is correlated with c . However, they claim that three factors were found as significant correlates: the variance in the number of speaking turns, group members' average social sensitivity and the proportion of females. All three had similar predictive power for c , but only social sensitivity
4392-408: Is more than just the aggregation of the individual IQs or the influence of the group member with the highest IQ. Engel et al. (2014) replicated Woolley et al.'s findings applying an accelerated battery of tasks with a first factor in the factor analysis explaining 49% of the between-group variance in performance with the following factors explaining less than half of this amount. Moreover, they found
4514-422: Is nearly zero. This may explain why Woolley et al. found that the group's individual intelligence scores were not predictive of performance. In addition, low effort on tasks in human subjects research may inflate evidence for a supposed collective intelligence factor based on similarity of performance across tasks, because a team's low effort on one research task may generalize to low effort across many tasks. It
4636-419: Is notable that such a phenomenon is present merely because of the low stakes setting of laboratory research for research participants and not because it reflects how teams operate in organizations. Noteworthy is also that the involved researchers among the confirming findings widely overlap with each other and with the authors participating in the original first study around Anita Woolley. On 3 May 2022,
4758-412: Is referred to as "symbiotic intelligence" by Norman Lee Johnson. The concept is used in sociology , business , computer science and mass communications: it also appears in science fiction . Pierre Lévy defines collective intelligence as, "It is a form of universally distributed intelligence, constantly enhanced, coordinated in real time, and resulting in the effective mobilization of skills. I'll add
4880-551: Is rooted in scientific community metaphor . The term group intelligence is sometimes used interchangeably with the term collective intelligence. Anita Woolley presents Collective intelligence as a measure of group intelligence and group creativity. The idea is that a measure of collective intelligence covers a broad range of features of the group, mainly group composition and group interaction. The features of composition that lead to increased levels of collective intelligence in groups include criteria such as higher numbers of women in
5002-473: Is shared or group intelligence ( GI ) that emerges from the collaboration , collective efforts, and competition of many individuals and appears in consensus decision making . The term appears in sociobiology , political science and in context of mass peer review and crowdsourcing applications. It may involve consensus , social capital and formalisms such as voting systems , social media and other means of quantifying mass activity. Collective IQ
Adaptation - Misplaced Pages Continue
5124-505: Is that the first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism at the very origin of life on Earth may have been co-opted components of the already-existing purine nucleotide metabolism , a metabolic pathway that evolved in an ancient RNA world . The co-option requires new mutations and through natural selection, the population then adapts genetically to its present circumstances. Genetic changes may result in entirely new or gradual change to visible structures, or they may adjust physiological activity in
5246-471: Is the average social sensitivity or the average and maximum intelligence scores of group members. Furthermore, collective intelligence was found to be related to a group's cognitive diversity including thinking styles and perspectives. Groups that are moderately diverse in cognitive style have higher collective intelligence than those who are very similar in cognitive style or very different. Consequently, groups where members are too similar to each other lack
5368-440: Is the dynamic evolutionary process of natural selection that fits organisms to their environment, enhancing their evolutionary fitness . Secondly, it is a state reached by the population during that process. Thirdly, it is a phenotypic trait or adaptive trait , with a functional role in each individual organism , that is maintained and has evolved through natural selection. Historically, adaptation has been described from
5490-520: Is the evolution of cichlid fish in African lakes, where the question of reproductive isolation is complex. Adaptation is not always a simple matter where the ideal phenotype evolves for a given environment. An organism must be viable at all stages of its development and at all stages of its evolution. This places constraints on the evolution of development, behaviour, and structure of organisms. The main constraint, over which there has been much debate,
5612-764: Is the requirement that each genetic and phenotypic change during evolution should be relatively small, because developmental systems are so complex and interlinked. However, it is not clear what "relatively small" should mean, for example polyploidy in plants is a reasonably common large genetic change. The origin of eukaryotic endosymbiosis is a more dramatic example. All adaptations help organisms survive in their ecological niches . The adaptive traits may be structural, behavioural or physiological . Structural adaptations are physical features of an organism, such as shape, body covering, armament, and internal organization . Behavioural adaptations are inherited systems of behaviour, whether inherited in detail as instincts , or as
5734-409: Is via the introduction of new genetic variation for natural selection to act upon. Seen like this, adaptation is a genetic tracking process , which goes on all the time to some extent, but especially when the population cannot or does not move to another, less hostile area. Given enough genetic change, as well as specific demographic conditions, an adaptation may be enough to bring a population back from
5856-463: Is what is now called Lamarckism , a proto-evolutionary hypothesis of the inheritance of acquired characteristics , intended to explain adaptations by natural means. Other natural historians, such as Buffon , accepted adaptation, and some also accepted evolution, without voicing their opinions as to the mechanism. This illustrates the real merit of Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace , and secondary figures such as Henry Walter Bates , for putting forward
5978-606: The White Leghorn chicken is markedly more resistant to vitamin B 1 deficiency than other breeds; on a plentiful diet this makes no difference, but on a restricted diet this preadaptation could be decisive. Pre-adaptation may arise because a natural population carries a huge quantity of genetic variability. In diploid eukaryotes, this is a consequence of the system of sexual reproduction , where mutant alleles get partially shielded, for example, by genetic dominance . Microorganisms , with their huge populations, also carry
6100-574: The c factor compared to other groups in a given relevant population. The concept is in contrast to competing hypotheses including other correlational structures to explain group intelligence, such as a composition out of several equally important but independent factors as found in individual personality research . Besides, this scientific idea also aims to explore the causes affecting collective intelligence, such as group size, collaboration tools or group members' interpersonal skills. The MIT Center for Collective Intelligence , for instance, announced
6222-490: The last glacial period presumably depended on the relative gain and loss of reproductive capacity in the population of elks during that time. As another example, camouflage to avoid detection is destroyed when vivid coloration is displayed at mating time. Here the risk to life is counterbalanced by the necessity for reproduction. Stream-dwelling salamanders, such as Caucasian salamander or Gold-striped salamander have very slender, long bodies, perfectly adapted to life at
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#17327907208966344-411: The life cycle , which is often quite complex. However, as a practical term, "adaptation" often refers to a product : those features of a species which result from the process. Many aspects of an animal or plant can be correctly called adaptations, though there are always some features whose function remains in doubt. By using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process , and adaptive trait for
6466-514: The warning coloration of aculeate Hymenoptera ( wasps and bees ). Such mimicry does not need to be perfect to improve the survival of the palatable species. Bates, Wallace and Fritz Müller believed that Batesian and Müllerian mimicry provided evidence for the action of natural selection , a view which is now standard amongst biologists. All adaptations have a downside: horse legs are great for running on grass, but they cannot scratch their backs; mammals ' hair helps temperature, but offers
6588-494: The " genetic algorithms ", concepts pioneered by John Holland . Bloom traced the evolution of collective intelligence to our bacterial ancestors 1 billion years ago and demonstrated how a multi-species intelligence has worked since the beginning of life. Ant societies exhibit more intelligence, in terms of technology, than any other animal except for humans and co-operate in keeping livestock, for example aphids for "milking". Leaf cutters care for fungi and carry leaves to feed
6710-587: The RME must be related to a broader set of abilities of social reasoning than only drawing inferences from other people's eye expressions. A collective intelligence factor c in the sense of Woolley et al. was further found in groups of MBA students working together over the course of a semester, in online gaming groups as well as in groups from different cultures and groups in different contexts in terms of short-term versus long-term groups. None of these investigations considered team members' individual intelligence scores as control variables. Note as well that
6832-743: The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RME) and correlated .26 with c . Hereby, participants are asked to detect thinking or feeling expressed in other peoples' eyes presented on pictures and assessed in a multiple choice format. The test aims to measure peoples' theory of mind (ToM) , also called 'mentalizing' or 'mind reading', which refers to the ability to attribute mental states, such as beliefs, desires or intents, to other people and in how far people understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions or perspectives different from their own ones. RME
6954-573: The ability of an organism with a given genotype (genetic type) to change its phenotype (observable characteristics) in response to changes in its habitat , or to move to a different habitat. The degree of flexibility is inherited, and varies between individuals. A highly specialized animal or plant lives only in a well-defined habitat, eats a specific type of food, and cannot survive if its needs are not met. Many herbivores are like this; extreme examples are koalas which depend on Eucalyptus , and giant pandas which require bamboo . A generalist, on
7076-402: The acclimatization itself is not. The reproductive rate declines, but deaths from some tropical diseases also go down. Over a longer period of time, some people are better able to reproduce at high altitudes than others. They contribute more heavily to later generations, and gradually by natural selection the whole population becomes adapted to the new conditions. This has demonstrably occurred, as
7198-538: The actual important thing is the high social sensitivity of group members. It is theorized that the collective intelligence factor c is an emergent property resulting from bottom-up as well as top-down processes. Hereby, bottom-up processes cover aggregated group-member characteristics. Top-down processes cover group structures and norms that influence a group's way of collaborating and coordinating. Top-down processes cover group interaction, such as structures, processes, and norms. An example of such top-down processes
7320-579: The animals have modified. Some traits do not appear to be adaptive as they have a neutral or deleterious effect on fitness in the current environment. Because genes often have pleiotropic effects, not all traits may be functional: they may be what Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin called spandrels , features brought about by neighbouring adaptations, on the analogy with the often highly decorated triangular areas between pairs of arches in architecture, which began as functionless features. Collective intelligence Collective intelligence ( CI )
7442-425: The appearance and spread of corresponding features in the other species. In other words, each species triggers reciprocal natural selection in the other. These co-adaptational relationships are intrinsically dynamic, and may continue on a trajectory for millions of years, as has occurred in the relationship between flowering plants and pollinating insects. Bates' work on Amazonian butterflies led him to develop
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#17327907208967564-403: The authors of "Quantifying collective intelligence in human groups", who include Riedl and Woolley from the original 2010 paper on Collective Intelligence, issued a correction to the article after mathematically impossible findings reported in the article were noted publicly by researcher Marcus Credé. Among the corrections is an admission that the average variance extracted (AVE)--that is to say,
7686-401: The banks of fast small rivers and mountain brooks . Elongated body protects their larvae from being washed out by current. However, elongated body increases risk of desiccation and decreases dispersal ability of the salamanders; it also negatively affects their fecundity . As a result, fire salamander , less perfectly adapted to the mountain brook habitats, is in general more successful, have
7808-521: The best of all possible worlds ." Voltaire 's satire Dr. Pangloss is a parody of this optimistic idea, and David Hume also argued against design. Charles Darwin broke with the tradition by emphasising the flaws and limitations which occurred in the animal and plant worlds. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed a tendency for organisms to become more complex, moving up a ladder of progress, plus "the influence of circumstances", usually expressed as use and disuse . This second, subsidiary element of his theory
7930-502: The biological adaptations that have turned most of this earth's living beings into components of what he calls "a learning machine". In 1986 Bloom combined the concepts of apoptosis , parallel distributed processing , group selection , and the superorganism to produce a theory of how collective intelligence works. Later he showed how the collective intelligences of competing bacterial colonies and human societies can be explained in terms of computer-generated " complex adaptive systems " and
8052-435: The bodily part or function (the product), one may distinguish the two different senses of the word. Adaptation is one of the two main processes that explain the observed diversity of species, such as the different species of Darwin's finches . The other process is speciation , in which new species arise, typically through reproductive isolation . An example widely used today to study the interplay of adaptation and speciation
8174-547: The brink of extinction in a process called evolutionary rescue . Adaptation does affect, to some extent, every species in a particular ecosystem . Leigh Van Valen thought that even in a stable environment, because of antagonistic species interactions and limited resources, a species must constantly had to adapt to maintain its relative standing. This became known as the Red Queen hypothesis , as seen in host- parasite interactions. Existing genetic variation and mutation were
8296-476: The categorization of intelligence in fluid and crystallized intelligence or the hierarchical model of intelligence differences . Further supplementing explanations and conceptualizations for the factor structure of the Genomes of collective intelligence besides a general ' c factor', though, are missing yet. Other scholars explain team performance by aggregating team members' general intelligence to
8418-428: The collective intelligence phenomenon as "the capacity of human communities to evolve towards higher order complexity and harmony, through such innovation mechanisms as differentiation and integration, competition and collaboration." Atlee and Pór state that "collective intelligence also involves achieving a single focus of attention and standard of metrics which provide an appropriate threshold of action". Their approach
8540-512: The criterion tasks, c had a significant effect, but average and maximum individual intelligence had not. While average (r=0.15, P=0.04) and maximum intelligence (r=0.19, P=0.008) of individual group members were moderately correlated with c , c was still a much better predictor of the criterion tasks. According to Woolley et al., this supports the existence of a collective intelligence factor c, because it demonstrates an effect over and beyond group members' individual intelligence and thus that c
8662-532: The data indicate that results may be driven in part by low-effort responding. For instance, Woolley et al.'s data indicates that at least one team scored a 0 on a task in which they were given 10 minutes to come up with as many uses for a brick as possible. Similarly, Woolley et al.'s data show that at least one team had an average score of 8 out of 50 on the WPT. Scholars have noted that the probability of this occurring with study participants who are putting forth effort
8784-469: The detection of The Genome of Collective Intelligence as one of its main goals aiming to develop a "taxonomy of organizational building blocks, or genes, that can be combined and recombined to harness the intelligence of crowds". Individual intelligence is shown to be genetically and environmentally influenced. Analogously, collective intelligence research aims to explore reasons why certain groups perform more intelligently than other groups given that c
8906-712: The development over time or the question of improving intelligence. Whereas it is controversial whether human intelligence can be enhanced via training, a group's collective intelligence potentially offers simpler opportunities for improvement by exchanging team members or implementing structures and technologies. Moreover, social sensitivity was found to be, at least temporarily, improvable by reading literary fiction as well as watching drama movies. In how far such training ultimately improves collective intelligence through social sensitivity remains an open question. There are further more advanced concepts and factor models attempting to explain individual cognitive ability including
9028-477: The ecosystems of the valleys around them. Earthworms, as Darwin noted, improve the topsoil in which they live by incorporating organic matter. Humans have constructed extensive civilizations with cities in environments as varied as the Arctic and hot deserts. In all three cases, the construction and maintenance of ecological niches helps drive the continued selection of the genes of these animals, in an environment that
9150-535: The evidence for collective intelligence—was only 19.6% from their Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Notable is that an AVE of at least 50% is generally required to demonstrate evidence for convergent validity of a single factor, with greater than 70% generally indicating good evidence for the factor. Therefore, the evidence for collective intelligence referred to as "robust" in Riedl et al. is in fact quite weak or nonexistent, as their primary evidence does not meet or near even
9272-414: The extent of human interactions. A broader definition was provided by Geoff Mulgan in a series of lectures and reports from 2006 onwards and in the book Big Mind which proposed a framework for analysing any thinking system, including both human and machine intelligence, in terms of functional elements (observation, prediction, creativity, judgement etc.), learning loops and forms of organisation. The aim
9394-432: The field of collective intelligence research is quite young and published empirical evidence is relatively rare yet. However, various proposals and working papers are in progress or already completed but (supposedly) still in a scholarly peer reviewing publication process. Next to predicting a group's performance on more complex criterion tasks as shown in the original experiments, the collective intelligence factor c
9516-464: The first scientific account of mimicry , especially the kind of mimicry which bears his name: Batesian mimicry . This is the mimicry by a palatable species of an unpalatable or noxious species (the model), gaining a selective advantage as predators avoid the model and therefore also the mimic. Mimicry is thus an anti-predator adaptation . A common example seen in temperate gardens is the hoverfly (Syrphidae), many of which—though bearing no sting—mimic
9638-455: The following indispensable characteristic to this definition: The basis and goal of collective intelligence is mutual recognition and enrichment of individuals rather than the cult of fetishized or hypostatized communities." According to researchers Pierre Lévy and Derrick de Kerckhove , it refers to capacity of networked ICTs (Information communication technologies) to enhance the collective pool of social knowledge by simultaneously expanding
9760-440: The formal definition of IQS (IQ Social) was proposed and was defined as "the probability function over the time and domain of N-element inferences which are reflecting inference activity of the social structure". While IQS seems to be computationally hard, modeling of social structure in terms of a computational process as described above gives a chance for approximation. Prospective applications are optimization of companies through
9882-435: The framework for contemporary democratic theories often referred to as epistemic democracy . Epistemic democratic theories refer to the capacity of the populace, either through deliberation or aggregation of knowledge, to track the truth and relies on mechanisms to synthesize and apply collective intelligence. Collective intelligence was introduced into the machine learning community in the late 20th century, and matured into
10004-462: The fungi. David Skrbina cites the concept of a 'group mind' as being derived from Plato's concept of panpsychism (that mind or consciousness is omnipresent and exists in all matter). He develops the concept of a 'group mind' as articulated by Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan and Fechner 's arguments for a collective consciousness of mankind. He cites Durkheim as the most notable advocate of
10126-516: The future. Yet tasks, hereby, refer to mental or intellectual tasks performed by small groups even though the concept is hoped to be transferable to other performances and any groups or crowds reaching from families to companies and even whole cities. Since individuals' g factor scores are highly correlated with full-scale IQ scores, which are in turn regarded as good estimates of g , this measurement of collective intelligence can also be seen as an intelligence indicator or quotient respectively for
10248-483: The group as well as increased diversity of the group. Atlee and Pór suggest that the field of collective intelligence should primarily be seen as a human enterprise in which mind-sets, a willingness to share and an openness to the value of distributed intelligence for the common good are paramount, though group theory and artificial intelligence have something to offer. Individuals who respect collective intelligence are confident of their own abilities and recognize that
10370-521: The idea of collective intelligence include Francis Galton , Douglas Hofstadter (1979), Peter Russell (1983), Tom Atlee (1993), Pierre Lévy (1994), Howard Bloom (1995), Francis Heylighen (1995), Douglas Engelbart , Louis Rosenberg, Cliff Joslyn , Ron Dembo , Gottfried Mayer-Kress (2003), and Geoff Mulgan . The concept (although not so named) originated in 1785 with the Marquis de Condorcet , whose "jury theorem" states that if each member of
10492-576: The life of an organism. The following definitions are given by the evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky : Adaptation differs from flexibility, acclimatization , and learning, all of which are changes during life which are not inherited. Flexibility deals with the relative capacity of an organism to maintain itself in different habitats: its degree of specialization . Acclimatization describes automatic physiological adjustments during life; learning means alteration in behavioural performance during life. Flexibility stems from phenotypic plasticity ,
10614-531: The lowest thresholds of acceptable evidence for a latent factor. Curiously, despite this and several other factual inaccuracies found throughout the article, the paper has not been retracted, and these inaccuracies were apparently not originally detected by the author team, peer reviewers, or editors of the journal. In 2001, Tadeusz (Tad) Szuba from the AGH University in Poland proposed a formal model for
10736-403: The maximization of their IQS, and the analysis of drug resistance against collective intelligence of bacterial colonies. One measure sometimes applied, especially by more artificial intelligence focused theorists, is a "collective intelligence quotient" (or "cooperation quotient") – which can be normalized from the "individual" intelligence quotient (IQ) – thus making it possible to determine
10858-432: The mother's pelvis ) and the size needed for an adult brain (about 1400 cm), means the brain of a newborn child is quite immature. The most vital things in human life (locomotion, speech) just have to wait while the brain grows and matures. That is the result of the birth compromise. Much of the problem comes from our upright bipedal stance, without which our pelvis could be shaped more suitably for birth. Neanderthals had
10980-427: The neck and to carry its weight around. Adaptation and function are two aspects of one problem. Pre-adaptation occurs when a population has characteristics which by chance are suited for a set of conditions not previously experienced. For example, the polyploid cordgrass Spartina townsendii is better adapted than either of its parent species to their own habitat of saline marsh and mud-flats. Among domestic animals,
11102-410: The observed performance of long-term communities at higher altitude is significantly better than the performance of new arrivals, even when the new arrivals have had time to acclimatize. There is a relationship between adaptedness and the concept of fitness used in population genetics . Differences in fitness between genotypes predict the rate of evolution by natural selection. Natural selection changes
11224-423: The other hand, eats a range of food, and can survive in many different conditions. Examples are humans, rats, crabs and many carnivores. The tendency to behave in a specialized or exploratory manner is inherited—it is an adaptation. Rather different is developmental flexibility: "An animal or plant is developmentally flexible if when it is raised in or transferred to new conditions, it changes in structure so that it
11346-482: The other species, such as with flowering plants and pollinating insects . In mimicry , species evolve to resemble other species; in mimicry this is a mutually beneficial co-evolution as each of a group of strongly defended species (such as wasps able to sting) come to advertise their defenses in the same way. Features evolved for one purpose may be co-opted for a different one, as when the insulating feathers of dinosaurs were co-opted for bird flight . Adaptation
11468-580: The phenomenon of collective intelligence. It is assumed to be an unconscious, random, parallel, and distributed computational process, run in mathematical logic by the social structure. In this model, beings and information are modeled as abstract information molecules carrying expressions of mathematical logic. They are quasi-randomly displacing due to their interaction with their environments with their intended displacements. Their interaction in abstract computational space creates multi-thread inference process which we perceive as collective intelligence. Thus,
11590-507: The phenotype as a whole is the target of selection, it is impossible to improve simultaneously all aspects of the phenotype to the same degree. Consider the antlers of the Irish elk , (often supposed to be far too large; in deer antler size has an allometric relationship to body size). Antlers serve positively for defence against predators , and to score victories in the annual rut . But they are costly in terms of resources. Their size during
11712-534: The positive effects of group cohesion , motivation and satisfaction on group performance. Some scholars have noted that the evidence for collective intelligence in the body of work by Wolley et al. is weak and may contain errors or misunderstandings of the data. For example, Woolley et al. stated in their findings that the maximum individual score on the Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT; an individual intelligence test used in their research)
11834-467: The presence of pneumonia. When working together as "human swarms," the groups of experienced radiologists demonstrated a 33% reduction in diagnostic errors as compared to traditional methods. Woolley, Chabris, Pentland, Hashmi, & Malone (2010), the originators of this scientific understanding of collective intelligence, found a single statistical factor for collective intelligence in their research across 192 groups with people randomly recruited from
11956-406: The process of adaptation is never fully complete. Over time, it may happen that the environment changes little, and the species comes to fit its surroundings better and better, resulting in stabilizing selection. On the other hand, it may happen that changes in the environment occur suddenly, and then the species becomes less and less well adapted. The only way for it to climb back up that fitness peak
12078-478: The public. In Woolley et al.'s two initial studies, groups worked together on different tasks from the McGrath Task Circumplex , a well-established taxonomy of group tasks. Tasks were chosen from all four quadrants of the circumplex and included visual puzzles, brainstorming, making collective moral judgments, and negotiating over limited resources. The results in these tasks were taken to conduct
12200-507: The relationship between individual IQ and success works only to a certain point and that additional IQ points over an estimate of IQ 120 do not translate into real life advantages. If a similar border exists for Group-IQ or if advantages are linear and infinite, has still to be explored. Similarly, demand for further research on possible connections of individual and collective intelligence exists within plenty of other potentially transferable logics of individual intelligence, such as, for instance,
12322-469: The relative frequencies of alternative phenotypes, insofar as they are heritable . However, a phenotype with high adaptedness may not have high fitness. Dobzhansky mentioned the example of the Californian redwood , which is highly adapted, but a relict species in danger of extinction . Elliott Sober commented that adaptation was a retrospective concept since it implied something about the history of
12444-496: The same sex and species, in exclusive relation to reproduction." The kind of sexual selection represented by the peacock is called ' mate choice ,' with an implication that the process selects the more fit over the less fit, and so has survival value. The recognition of sexual selection was for a long time in abeyance, but has been rehabilitated. The conflict between the size of the human foetal brain at birth, (which cannot be larger than about 400 cm, else it will not get through
12566-442: The same vein as g serves to display between-individual performance differences on cognitive tasks, collective intelligence research aims to find a parallel intelligence factor for groups ' c factor' (also called 'collective intelligence factor' ( CI ) ) displaying between-group differences on task performance. The collective intelligence score then is used to predict how this same group will perform on any other similar task in
12688-835: The serialized process has been found to introduce substantial noise that distorts the collective output of the group. In one significant study of serialized collective intelligence, it was found that the first vote contributed to a serialized voting system can distort the final result by 34%. To address the problems of serialized aggregation of input among large-scale groups, recent advancements collective intelligence have worked to replace serialized votes, polls, and markets, with parallel systems such as " human swarms " modeled after synchronous swarms in nature. Based on natural process of Swarm Intelligence , these artificial swarms of networked humans enable participants to work together in parallel to answer questions and make predictions as an emergent collective intelligence. In one high-profile example,
12810-525: The speed and degree of the change. When the habitat changes, three main things may happen to a resident population: habitat tracking, genetic change or extinction. In fact, all three things may occur in sequence. Of these three effects only genetic change brings about adaptation. When a habitat changes, the resident population typically moves to more suitable places; this is the typical response of flying insects or oceanic organisms, which have wide (though not unlimited) opportunity for movement. This common response
12932-487: The table, so in a deliberation many may contribute different pieces of information to generate a better decision. Recent scholarship, however, suggests that this was probably not what Aristotle meant but is a modern interpretation based on what we now know about team intelligence. A precursor of the concept is found in entomologist William Morton Wheeler 's observation in 1910 that seemingly independent individuals can cooperate so closely as to become indistinguishable from
13054-563: The target of the poison, the sodium pump , resulting in target site insensitivity. These same adaptive mutations and similar changes at the same amino acid sites were found to evolve in a parallel manner in distantly related insects that feed on the same plants, and even in a bird that feeds on monarchs through convergent evolution , a hallmark of adaptation. Convergence at the gene-level across distantly related species can arise because of evolutionary constraint. Habitats and biota do frequently change over time and space. Therefore, it follows that
13176-474: The team level instead of building an own overall collective intelligence measure. Devine and Philips (2001) showed in a meta-analysis that mean cognitive ability predicts team performance in laboratory settings (0.37) as well as field settings (0.14) – note that this is only a small effect. Suggesting a strong dependence on the relevant tasks, other scholars showed that tasks requiring a high degree of communication and cooperation are found to be most influenced by
13298-506: The team member with the lowest cognitive ability. Tasks in which selecting the best team member is the most successful strategy, are shown to be most influenced by the member with the highest cognitive ability. Since Woolley et al.'s results do not show any influence of group satisfaction, group cohesiveness , or motivation, they, at least implicitly, challenge these concepts regarding the importance for group performance in general and thus contrast meta-analytically proven evidence concerning
13420-444: The term "conscious evolution") are inspired by the visions of a noosphere – a transcendent, rapidly evolving collective intelligence – an informational cortex of the planet. The notion has more recently been examined by the philosopher Pierre Lévy. In a 1962 research report, Douglas Engelbart linked collective intelligence to organizational effectiveness, and predicted that pro-actively 'augmenting human intellect' would yield
13542-535: The time of the ancient Greek philosophers such as Empedocles and Aristotle . In 18th and 19th century natural theology , adaptation was taken as evidence for the existence of a deity. Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace proposed instead that it was explained by natural selection. Adaptation is related to biological fitness , which governs the rate of evolution as measured by change in allele frequencies . Often, two or more species co-adapt and co-evolve as they develop adaptations that interlock with those of
13664-457: The total biology of the species. Adaptation is primarily a process rather than a physical form or part of a body. An internal parasite (such as a liver fluke ) can illustrate the distinction: such a parasite may have a very simple bodily structure, but nevertheless the organism is highly adapted to its specific environment. From this we see that adaptation is not just a matter of visible traits: in such parasites critical adaptations take place in
13786-465: The traditional sources of material on which natural selection could act. In addition, horizontal gene transfer is possible between organisms in different species, using mechanisms as varied as gene cassettes , plasmids , transposons and viruses such as bacteriophages . In coevolution , where the existence of one species is tightly bound up with the life of another species, new or 'improved' adaptations which occur in one species are often followed by
13908-597: The upper and lower jaws and the hyoid bone of their synapsid ancestors, and further back still were part of the gill arches of early fish. The word exaptation was coined to cover these common evolutionary shifts in function. The flight feathers of birds evolved from the much earlier feathers of dinosaurs , which might have been used for insulation or for display. Animals including earthworms , beavers and humans use some of their adaptations to modify their surroundings, so as to maximize their chances of surviving and reproducing. Beavers create dams and lodges, changing
14030-795: The variety of perspectives and skills needed to perform well. On the other hand, groups whose members are too different seem to have difficulties to communicate and coordinate effectively. For most of human history, collective intelligence was confined to small tribal groups in which opinions were aggregated through real-time parallel interactions among members. In modern times, mass communication, mass media, and networking technologies have enabled collective intelligence to span massive groups, distributed across continents and time-zones. To accommodate this shift in scale, collective intelligence in large-scale groups been dominated by serialized polling processes such as aggregating up-votes, likes, and ratings over time. While modern systems benefit from larger group size,
14152-409: The way people are learning to participate in knowledge cultures outside formal learning settings. Henry Jenkins criticizes schools which promote 'autonomous problem solvers and self-contained learners' while remaining hostile to learning through the means of collective intelligence. Both Pierre Lévy and Henry Jenkins support the claim that collective intelligence is important for democratization , as it
14274-684: The whole is indeed greater than the sum of any individual parts. Maximizing collective intelligence relies on the ability of an organization to accept and develop "The Golden Suggestion", which is any potentially useful input from any member. Groupthink often hampers collective intelligence by limiting input to a select few individuals or filtering potential Golden Suggestions without fully developing them to implementation. Robert David Steele Vivas in The New Craft of Intelligence portrayed all citizens as "intelligence minutemen", drawing only on legal and ethical sources of information, able to create
14396-466: Was 39, but also that the maximum averaged team score on the same test was also a 39. This indicates that their sample seemingly had a team composed entirely of people who, individually, got exactly the same score on the WPT, and also all happened to all have achieved the highest scores on the WPT found in Woolley et al. This was noted by scholars as particularly unlikely to occur. Other anomalies found in
14518-503: Was also found to predict group performance in diverse tasks in MBA classes lasting over several months. Thereby, highly collectively intelligent groups earned significantly higher scores on their group assignments although their members did not do any better on other individually performed assignments. Moreover, highly collective intelligent teams improved performance over time suggesting that more collectively intelligent teams learn better. This
14640-414: Was seen as a fixed relationship between an organism and its habitat. It was not appreciated that as the climate changed, so did the habitat; and as the habitat changed, so did the biota . Also, habitats are subject to changes in their biota: for example, invasions of species from other areas. The relative numbers of species in a given habitat are always changing. Change is the rule, though much depends on
14762-402: Was statistically significant (b=0.33, P=0.05). The number speaking turns indicates that "groups where a few people dominated the conversation were less collectively intelligent than those with a more equal distribution of conversational turn-taking". Hence, providing multiple team members the chance to speak up made a group more intelligent. Group members' social sensitivity was measured via
14884-618: Was to provide a way to diagnose, and improve, the collective intelligence of a city, business, NGO or parliament. Collective intelligence strongly contributes to the shift of knowledge and power from the individual to the collective. According to Eric S. Raymond in 1998 and JC Herz in 2005, open-source intelligence will eventually generate superior outcomes to knowledge generated by proprietary software developed within corporations. Media theorist Henry Jenkins sees collective intelligence as an 'alternative source of media power', related to convergence culture. He draws attention to education and
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