118-675: The Aden Protectorate ( Arabic : محمية عدن Maḥmiyyat ‘Adan ) was a British protectorate in southern Arabia . The protectorate evolved in the hinterland of the port of Aden and in the Hadhramaut after the conquest of Aden by the Bombay Presidency of British India in January 1839, and which continued until the 1960s. In 1940, it was divided for administrative purposes into the Western Protectorate and
236-532: A companion of Muhammad , was reportedly from Hadhramaut. Several prophets before them are believed to have dwelt here, including Hud of ʿĀd . He is thought to be buried at Qabr Hud , which is also called Shiʿb Hud , but this is not universally accepted. In the 16th century, the Portuguese arrived in Hadhramaut and established several settlements along the southern coast. However, their influence
354-600: A state of emergency was declared in the former protectorate and the newly created State of Aden . The Emergency was caused largely by Arab nationalism spreading to the Arabian Peninsula, encouraged especially by the Socialist and pan-Arabist doctrines of the Egyptian president Gamel Abdel Nasser . The British, French, and Israeli invasion forces that had invaded Egypt after Nasser's nationalisation of
472-575: A collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the Iron Age . Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat al-Faw , in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as
590-435: A corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya . Arabic spread with the spread of Islam . Following the early Muslim conquests , Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish . In the early Abbasid period , many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom . By
708-1081: A dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet . The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek , Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian , have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish . Arabic has influenced languages across the globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian , Turkish , Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ), Kashmiri , Kurdish , Bosnian , Kazakh , Bengali , Malay ( Indonesian and Malaysian ), Maldivian , Pashto , Punjabi , Albanian , Armenian , Azerbaijani , Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog , Sindhi , Odia , Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa , Amharic , Tigrinya , Somali , Tamazight , and Swahili . Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to
826-414: A large proportion of the land, they employ labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the other classes they are well educated and are strict tn their observance of religious duties, and owing to the respect due to their descent they exercise a strong influence both in temporal and spiritual affairs. The Mashayikh ( Hadrami Arabic : المشايخ ) is another highly regarded group that is second in prestige to
944-487: A lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world, and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users. It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims . In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic
1062-522: A link to British India and then, after the loss of most of Britain's colonies from 1945 and the disastrous Suez Crisis in 1956, as a valuable port for accessing crucial Middle Eastern oil. It had also been chosen as the new location for Middle East Command . Nationalist pressure prodded the threatened rulers of the Aden Protectorate states to revive efforts at forming a federation and, on 11 February 1959, six of them signed an accord forming
1180-703: A millennium before the modern period . Early lexicographers ( لُغَوِيُّون lughawiyyūn ) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran. They gathered shawāhid ( شَوَاهِد 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin ʾaʿrāb [ ar ] {{main other| ( أَعْراب ) who were perceived to speak
1298-619: A narrow, arid coastal plain bounded by the steep escarpment of a broad plateau locally known as the Jowl ( Hadrami Arabic : ٱلْجَوْل , romanized: al-Jawl , averaging 1,370 m (4,490 ft)). The undefined northern edge of Hadhramaut slopes down to the desert of the Empty Quarter, where the Hadhramaut Plateau or Highlands ( Arabic : هَضْبَة حَضْرَمَوْت , romanized : Haḍbat Ḥaḍramawt ) meets
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#17327656610111416-484: A petrochemicals industry. Hadramout produces approximately 258.8 thousand barrels per day. One of the prominent oil fields is the Masila Basin Sector (14), discovered in 1993. The Yemeni government is committed to developing its oil fields to increase oil production, aiming to enhance national wealth in response to the country's economic and social development needs. Oil contributes between 30% and 40% of
1534-594: A result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese , Catalan , and Sicilian ) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from
1652-462: A script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic . On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B , Thamudic D, Safaitic , and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic . Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic",
1770-470: A single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages . This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for
1888-627: A treaty in 1937, appointing the British government as "advisors" in Hadhramaut. The British exiled him to Aden in 1945, but the Protectorate lasted until 1967. In 1967, the former British Colony of Aden and the former Aden Protectorate including Hadramaut became an independent Communist state, the People's Republic of Southern Yemen , later the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. South Yemen
2006-507: A type of Arabic. Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia , which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means
2124-466: A unified Greater Yemen . During the late 1940s and the early 1950s, Yemen was involved with a series of border skirmishes along the disputed Violet Line , a 1914 Anglo-Ottoman demarcation that served to separate Yemen from the Aden Protectorate. In 1950, Kennedy Trevaskis , the Advisor for the Western Protectorate developed a plan for the protectorate states to form two federations, corresponding to
2242-507: A variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects , which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran , used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate . Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh ) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as
2360-476: A wider audience." In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism , pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted
2478-618: Is a geographic region in southern part of Arabian Peninsula encompassing mainly of the governorates of Hadhramaut , Shabwa , and al-Mahra in Yemen . It sometimes includes Aden , Abyan , and Lahij governorates in Yemen, Dhofar in south-western Oman and Sharurah in southern Saudi Arabia . The name is of ancient origin, and is retained in the name of the Yemeni Governorate of Hadhramaut. The people of Hadhramaut are called
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#17327656610112596-590: Is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak
2714-559: Is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor. Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula , as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece . In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It
2832-519: Is as yet no definitive chronology of their reigns. Their capital was Shabwa in the northwest corner of the kingdom, along the Incense trade route. Eratosthenes called it a metropolis . It was an important cult centre as well. At first, the religion was South Arabian polytheism , distinguished by the worship of the Babylonian moon god Sin . By the sixth century, the monotheistic cult of Rahmanan
2950-478: Is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz , Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in
3068-408: Is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody . Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries. The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al - Kitāb , is based first of all upon
3186-472: Is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar , or an-naḥw ( النَّحو "the way" ), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants ( نقط الإعجام nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization ( التشكيل at-tashkīl ). Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn ( كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter ع "), and
3304-636: Is estimated to contain the highest concentration of descendants of Muhammad anywhere in the world. The borders of Hadhramaut have varied over time to include the territory between Aden and Dhofar , but it always included the Wadi Hadhramaut, the lands between the Wadi and the coast, and the desert region of the Empty Quarter north of the Wadi. This encompasses the current governorates of Hadramaut and Mahra in their entirety as well as parts of
3422-667: Is not clear whether the revolt among the Arabs in Aden had the Yemeni guerrilla groups drawing inspiration from Nasser's pan-Arabist ideas or acting independently themselves. By 1963 and during the ensuing years, anti-British guerrilla groups with varying political objectives began to coalesce into two larger, rival organisations: first the Egyptian-supported National Liberation Front (NLF) and then
3540-574: Is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film 'film' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy'). The current preference
3658-855: Is official in Mali and recognized as a minority language in Morocco, while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it. Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic ) Malta and written with the Latin script . Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic , though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not
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3776-572: Is the third most widespread official language after English and French, one of six official languages of the United Nations , and the liturgical language of Islam . Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media. During the Middle Ages , Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As
3894-594: Is the former Prime Minister of East Timor , Mari Alkatiri (2006). The Hadharem have also settled in large numbers along the East African coast, and two former ministers in Kenya , Shariff Nasser and Najib Balala , are of Hadhrami descent. It has also been proved by genetic evidence that the Lemba people of Southern Africa bear some relation to the people of Hadramaut. Within the Hadhramaut region there has been
4012-532: Is the name of a son of Joktan , who is identified with Qahtan in Islamic tradition, the purported ancestor of the South Arabian kingdoms. According to various Bible dictionaries, the name "Hazarmaveth" means "court of death," reflecting a meaning similar to the Arabic folk etymologies. The origins of the name are unknown, with several scholarly proposals. Kamal Salibi proposed that the diphthong "aw" in
4130-590: Is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ( فُصْحَى fuṣḥá ) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that
4248-413: Is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots ( استماتة istimātah ' apoptosis ', using the root موت m/w/t 'death' put into
4366-524: Is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era , especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while
4484-601: The Federation of Arab Emirates of the South . During the next three years, they were joined by nine others and, on 18 January 1963, Aden Colony was merged with the federation creating the new Federation of South Arabia . At the same time, the (mostly eastern) states that had not joined the federation became the Protectorate of South Arabia , thus ending the existence of the Protectorate of Aden. On 10 December 1963,
4602-445: The Lisān al-ʻArab ). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary
4720-589: The Arab world . The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic , including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic , which is derived from Classical Arabic . This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā ( اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ "the eloquent Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā ( اَلْفُصْحَىٰ ). Arabic
4838-911: The British East India Company 's interests in various princely states on the strategically important naval route from Europe to India, to the British Foreign Office . For administrative purposes, the protectorate was divided into the Eastern Aden Protectorate (with its own Political Officer, a British advisor, stationed at Mukalla in Qu'aiti from 1937 to c. 1967 ) and the Western Aden Protectorate (with its own Political Officer, stationed at Lahej from 1 April 1937 to 1967), for some separation of administration. In 1928,
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4956-766: The Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen (FLOSY), who attacked each other as well as the British. By 1965, the RAF station ( RAF Khormaksar ) was operating nine squadrons. These included transport units with helicopters and a number of Hawker Hunter ground attack aircraft. They were called in by the army for strikes against positions using "60 lb" high explosive rockets and 30 mm Aden cannon. The Battle of Crater brought Lt-Col Colin Campbell Mitchell (AKA "Mad Mitch") to prominence. On 20 June 1967 there
5074-621: The Gulf of Aden in the Arabian Sea , elevation abruptly decreases. The Hadhramaut Mountains ( Arabic : جِبَال حَضْرَمَوْت , romanized : Jibāl Ḥaḍramawt ), also known as the "Mahrat Mountains" ( Arabic : جِبَال ٱلْمَهْرَة , romanized : Jibāl Al-Mahrah ), are a mountain range in Yemen . They are contiguous with the Omani Dhofar Mountains to the northeast, and James Canton considered Aden in
5192-769: The Hadharem . They formerly spoke Hadramautic , an old South Arabian language, but they now predominantly speak Hadhrami Arabic . The origin of the name of Ḥaḍramawt is not exactly known, and there are numerous competing hypotheses about its meaning. The most common folk etymology is that the region's name means "death has come," from Arabic: حَضَر , romanized: ḥaḍara , lit. 'he came' and Arabic: مَوْت , romanized: mawt , lit. 'death'. Ḥaḍramawt has also been identified with Biblical Hazarmaveth ( Biblical Hebrew : חֲצַרְמָוֶת , romanized: Ḥăṣarmāweṯ ; Genesis 10 :26 and 1 Chronicles 1:20). There, it
5310-603: The Islamic Prophet Muhammad , and of townsmen of northern origin, besides a considerable class of African or mixed descent. The Sada, descendants of Husain ibn Ali , grandson of the Islamic Prophet, Form a numerous and highly respected aristocracy . They are divided into families, tho chiefs of which are known as Munsibs , who are looked on as the religious leaders of the people and are even in some cases are regarded with great respect as saints. Among
5428-545: The Malacca Sultanate , Pontianak Sultanate or Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura were descents of Hadharem . In the 19th century, Hadhrami businessmen owned many of the maritime armada of barks, brigs, schooners and other ships in the Malay archipelago. In modern times, several Indonesian ministers, including former Foreign Minister Ali Alatas and former Finance Minister Mar'ie Muhammad are of Hadhrami descent, as
5546-653: The Malay Archipelago , Sri Lanka , southern Philippines and Singapore. In Hyderabad and Aurangabad, the community is known as Chaush and resides mostly in the neighborhood of Barkas . There are also settlements of Hadharem in Gujarat , such as in Ahmadabad and Surat . In South India, the Nawayath community also descends from Hadrami traders. Earlier, several sultans in the Malay Archipelago such as
5664-581: The Old South Arabian languages ( Ḥaḍramitic , Minaic , Qatabanic , and Sabaic ), though the second form is not found in any known Ḥaḍramitic inscriptions. In either form, the word itself can be a toponym , a tribal name, or the name of the kingdom of Ḥaḍramawt. In the late fourth or early 3rd century BC , Theophrastus gives the name Άδρραμύτα , a direct transcription of the Semitic name into Greek. The Kingdom of Hadramout existed before
5782-495: The Shabwah Governorate . The current governorate of Hadhramaut roughly incorporates the former territory of the two sultanates. The Hadharem live in densely built towns centered on traditional watering stations along the wadis. Hadharem harvest crops of wheat and millet , tend date palm and coconut groves, and grow some coffee. On the plateau, Bedouins tend sheep and goats. Society is still highly tribal, with
5900-681: The Suez Canal in 1956 had been forced to withdraw after intervention from both the United States and the USSR . Nasser had only limited success in spreading his pan-Arabist doctrines through the Arab world, with his 1958 attempt to unify Egypt and Syria as the United Arab Republic ending in failure only 3 years later. An anti-colonial uprising in Aden in 1963 provided another potential opportunity for his doctrines, though it
6018-441: The Umayyad Caliphate . In the 11th century, the Hadramout region came under the rule of the Mahdids , who were of Banu Hadhrami origin. They established the Qasimi dynasty , which ruled the region for several centuries. Early Islamic authors believed the nomadic Kinda tribe that founded a kingdom in central Arabia were originally from Hadhramaut, although distinct from the settled Hadhrami population. Miqdad ibn Aswad ,
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#17327656610116136-467: The Xth form , or جامعة jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to
6254-494: The northern Hejaz . These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor , Proto-Arabic . The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence: On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic. Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic: Classical Arabic
6372-406: The pre-Islamic Wadi Ḥaḍramawt, this explanation for the name is anachronistic and phonetically inconsistent (for example, the name contains pharyngeal fricatives, which are neither found nor substituted for existing sounds in Greek). Variations of the name are attested as early as the middle of the 1st millennium BC . The names ḥḍrmt (𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩) and ḥḍrmwt (𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩥𐩩) are found in texts of
6490-419: The "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Quran was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In
6608-860: The "purest," most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah ( جمع اللغة 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries. Kitāb al-'Ayn ( c. 8th century ), attributed to Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi , is considered the first lexicon to include all Arabic roots ; it sought to exhaust all possible root permutations —later called taqālīb ( تقاليب ) — calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal ( مستعمَل ) and those that are not used muhmal ( مُهمَل ). Lisān al-ʿArab (1290) by Ibn Manzur gives 9,273 roots, while Tāj al-ʿArūs (1774) by Murtada az-Zabidi gives 11,978 roots. Hadhramaut Hadhramaut ( Arabic : حَضْرَمَوْتُ , romanized : Ḥaḍramawt , /ˌhɑ.drəˈmɔ(ː)t/ ; Hadrami Arabic : حَضْرَمُوتُ , Ḥaḍramūt )
6726-454: The 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus , the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression." According to James L. Gelvin , " Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to
6844-462: The 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ( Zabad , Jebel Usays , Harran , Umm el-Jimal ). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of
6962-616: The 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides , the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic —Arabic written in Hebrew script . Ibn Jinni of Mosul , a pioneer in phonology , wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif , Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab , and Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ [ ar ] {{main other|. Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized
7080-441: The British Empire, such as Colony of Aden , where the British monarch was the sovereign. What became known as the Aden Protectorate was begun by informal arrangements of protection with nine states in the immediate hinterland of the port city of Aden : British expansion into the area was designed to secure the important port that was, at the time, governed from British India . From 1874, these protection arrangements existed with
7198-433: The British established Aden Command, directed by the Royal Air Force , to preserve the security of the Protectorate. It was renamed British Forces Aden in 1936 and was known later as British Forces Arabian Peninsula and then Middle East Command (Aden). The boundaries between the polities and even their number fluctuated over time. Some such as the Mahra Sultanate barely had any functioning administration. Not included in
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#17327656610117316-486: The Eastern Protectorate. The territory now forms part of the Republic of Yemen . The rulers of the Aden Protectorate, as generally with the other British protectorates and protected states, retained a large degree of autonomy: their flags still flew over their government buildings, government was still performed by them or in their names, and their states maintained a distinct 'international personality' in terms of international law, in contrast to states possessed directly by
7434-437: The Himyarite Kingdom remained tense, with both sides waging wars against each other for control of the trade routes and territory in the region. The Hadhrami are referred to as Chatramotitai in ancient Greek texts. Hadhramautic texts come later than Sabaean ones, and some Sabaean texts from Hadhramaut are known. Greek, Latin , Sabaean and Hadhramautic texts preserve the names of a large number of kings of Hadhramaut, but there
7552-412: The Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises." Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around
7670-474: The Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into " Classical Arabic ". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz , which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra , most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from
7788-413: The Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb , a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq , much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages. With
7906-570: The Sada. Like the Sada, they don't bear arms. Men from this group are given the honorific surname Sheikh ( Hadrami Arabic : شيخ ) and women are given the surname Sheikha ( Hadrami Arabic : شيخة ) which is different from the term Sheikh ( Arabic : شيخ ) that is used to refer to a tribal chief or a Muslim scholar . Prominent Mashayikh families include the ‘Amudi ( Hadrami Arabic : العمودي ), Ba Wazir ( Hadrami Arabic : با وزير ), and Ba ‘Abbad ( Hadrami Arabic : با عبّاد ) families. The Qaba'il ( Hadrami Arabic : القبائل ) or tribesmen, as in
8024-440: The Yemeni Government signed an agreement that designated TotalEnergies of France to be the lead company for a project for the export of liquefied natural gas (LNG). In 1997, Yemen Gas Company joined with various privately held companies to establish Yemen LNG (YLNG). In August 2005, the government gave final approval to three LNG supply agreements, enabling YLNG to award a $ 2 billion contract to an international consortium to build
8142-404: The birth of Christ, but its exact establishment date cannot be confirmed. Its capital was Shabwa and it was not far from the city of Teman (the capital of the Kingdom of Qataban ). It was a tribal federation consisting of several tribes united by their common veneration of the god Sin . Hadramout was originally the name of one of the tribes. The mention of Hadramout and its god Sin is found in
8260-509: The conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum. It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced— epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after
8378-401: The country's first liquefaction plant at Balhat on the Arabian Sea coast. The project is a $ 3.7 billion investment over 25 years, producing approximately 6.7 million tons of LNG annually, with shipments likely to go to the United States and South Korea. Production of LNG began in October 2009. The Yemen government expects the LNG project to add $ 350 million to its budget and enable it to develop
8496-470: The death of Dhū Nuwās (525/7). The kingdom ceased to exist by the end of the 3rd century CE , having been annexed by the Himyarite Kingdom . Hadhramaut continued to be used in the full titulature of the kings of Sabaʾ and Dhu Raydān (Himyar). In the 2nd century CE, Hadramout was known for its frankincense and myrrh trade. The incense trade route (southern incense route) that passed through
8614-652: The emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of
8732-728: The eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around
8850-607: The fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic. The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel , and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the Namara inscription , an epitaph of the Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From
8968-510: The fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese , and French. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet , an abjad script that is written from right to left . Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language . Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed between Proto-Semitic and
9086-532: The gross domestic product (GDP) value and represents more than 70% of the total general budget revenues of the state. Moreover, it constitutes more than 90% of the country's export value. The people of the region are known as the Hadharem belong generally to the semitic south Arabians who claim descent from Yarub bin Qahtan . There is, however, a large number of Sada ( Hadrami Arabic : سادة , romanized: Sadah ; Singular : Sayyid ), or descendant of
9204-597: The inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League . These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward
9322-627: The inscription of Surwah by the Makrib Sabean writer Karib'il Watar I around 700–680 BCE. The Kingdom, led by King Shahr-al-Khuraymat, formed an alliance with the Kingdom of Ma'in and the Kingdom of Qataban and became independent from the Kingdom of Sheba around 330 BCE, during which the Himyarite dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Sheba. The relationship between the Kingdom of Hadramout and
9440-594: The interior. The family had accumulated great wealth and was in the service of the Nizam of Hyderabad in India as commander of the Arab levy composed of his tribesmen. the townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and villages as distinguished from the Sada and the tribesmen; they do not carry arms, but are the working members of the community, merchants, artificers , cultivators, and servants and are entirely dependent on
9558-613: The language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries. The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about
9676-425: The last signed only in 1954. These treaties, together with a number of other minor agreements, created the Aden Protectorate that extended well east of Aden to Hadhramaut and included all of the territory that would become South Yemen except for the immediate environs and port of the colonial capital, Aden. Aden with its harbour was the only area in full British sovereignty and, together with some offshore islands,
9794-604: The late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd , probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra . During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ( c. 603 –689)
9912-420: The latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages ) in medieval and early modern Europe. MSA
10030-566: The leading families are that of Sheikh Abu Bakar bin Salem ( Hadrami Arabic : الشيخ ابو بكر بن سالم ) of ʽAynat , al-Aidarus ( Hadrami Arabic : العيدروس ) of Shihr and Wadi Dawan , Bin Sumayt ( Hadrami Arabic : بن سميط ) of Shibam and the Sakkaf ( Hadrami Arabic : سقاف ) of Seiyun . They do not bear arms, nor occupy themselves in trade nor manual labour nor even agriculture; though owning
10148-883: The many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows , as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. Hassaniya Arabic , Maltese , and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition. Hassaniya
10266-447: The most productive fields is Al Maseelah in the strip (14), which was discovered in 1993. The Yemeni government is keen to develop its oil fields to increase oil production to increase national wealth in response to the requirements of economic and social development in the country. Oil contributes 30–40% of the nation's GDP, over 70% of total state revenues, and more than 90% of the value of the country's exports. A Soviet discovery in
10384-411: The name is an incorrect vocalization. He notes that "-ūt" is a frequent ending for place names in the Ḥaḍramawt, and given that "Ḥaḍramūt" is the colloquial pronunciation of the name and also its ancient pronunciation, the correct reading of the name should be "place of ḥḍrm ." He proposes, then, that the name means "the green place," which is apt for its well-watered wadis whose lushness contrasts with
10502-795: The need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah سَيَّارَة 'automobile' or bākhirah باخِرة 'steamship'). In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), Khartum [ ar ] {{main other| (1993), and Tunis (1993). They review language development, monitor new words and approve
10620-514: The old Seyyid aristocracy , descended from the Islamic prophet Muhammad , traditionally educated, strict in their Islamic observance, and highly respected in religious and secular affairs. Hadhramaut is geographically divided into Inner Hadhramaut ( Hadrami Arabic : حضرموت الداخل ) which is made up of Wadi Hadhramaut, smaller tributary wadis south from the main wadi, and Coastal Hadhramaut ( Hadrami Arabic : حضرموت الساحل ) which consists of
10738-424: The one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on
10856-549: The overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior. The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab ( لسان العرب , "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290. Charles Ferguson 's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on
10974-492: The protectorate were Aden Colony and the insular areas of Perim , Kamaran , and Khuriya Muriya that were administered by it. The Eastern Protectorate (c. 230,000 km) came to include the following entities (mostly in Hadhramaut ): The Western Protectorate (c. 55,000 km) included: In 1938, Britain signed an advisory treaty with the Qu'aiti sultan and, throughout the 1940s and 1950s, signed similar treaties with twelve other protectorate states. The following were
11092-410: The region may be mutually unintelligible. Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within
11210-432: The rest of Arabia, are the predominant class in the population. All the adults carry arms. Some of the tribes have settled towns and villages, others live a bedouin life keeping however within the territory which is recognised as belonging to the tribe. They are divided into sections or families, each headed by a chief whilst the head of the tribe is called the muqaddam or sultan . He is the leader in peace and in war, but
11328-638: The rule of Britain's clients. British protection came to be considered by some to be an impediment to progress, especially by promoters of Arab nationalism as reinforced by news from the outside received by newly available transistor radios . British control was also challenged by King Ahmad bin Yahya of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen to the north who did not recognise British suzerainty in South Arabia and had ambitions of creating
11446-458: The same sentence. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese , Hindi and Urdu , Serbian and Croatian , Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. While there
11564-458: The sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of
11682-735: The southern governorate of Shabwah has proven only marginally successful even when taken over by a different group. A Western consortium began exporting oil from Masila in the Hadhramaut in 1993, and production there reached 67,000 m /d (420,000 bbl/d) in 1999. There are new finds in the Jannah (formerly known as the Joint Oil Exploration Area) and east Shabwah blocks. Yemen's oil exports in 1995 earned about US$ 1 billion. Yemen's offshore oil and gas deposits are estimated to contain billions of barrels of oil and gas. Marib oil contains associated natural gas. In September 1995,
11800-600: The southern part of Hadramout helped the region flourish economically and culturally. The Kingdom of Hadramout played a significant role in connecting the cultures of Arabia , Mesopotamia , East Africa , and the Roman Empire . In the 7th century, Islam spread to Hadramout, and it was gradually integrated into the Caliphate . The region played a role in Islamic history during the Rashidun Caliphate and
11918-520: The southwest to be in the mountains' recesses. Wadi Hadhramaut ( Arabic : وادي حضرموت ) is the main wadi in the region which has 16 tributary wadis, which are: From its southern plateau: From its northern plateau: Historically, Hadhramaut was known for being a major producer of frankincense , which in the early 20th century was mainly exported to Mumbai in India. The region has also produced senna and coconut . Currently, Hadhramaut produces approximately 260,000 barrels of oil per day; one of
12036-563: The standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language . This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of
12154-445: The states with advisory treaties: These agreements allowed for the stationing of a Resident Advisor in the signatory states which gave the British a greater degree of control of their domestic affairs. This rationalised and stabilised the rulers' status and laws of succession but had the effect of encouraging official corruption. Aerial bombardment and collective punishment were sometimes used against wayward tribes to enforce
12272-469: The succeeding governance. The NLF then seized power. Arabic language Arabic (endonym: اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ , romanized : al-ʿarabiyyah , pronounced [al ʕaraˈbijːa] , or عَرَبِيّ , ʿarabīy , pronounced [ˈʕarabiː] or [ʕaraˈbij] ) is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in
12390-521: The surrounding high desert plateau. A now rejected etymology was proposed by Juris Zarins , rediscoverer of the city claimed to be the ancient incense trade route trade capital Ubar in Oman, who claimed that the name may come from the Greek word ὕδρευματα hydreumata , i.e. enclosed (and often fortified) watering stations in wadis. Though it accurately describes the configuration of settlements in
12508-543: The tacit acceptance of the Ottoman Empire that maintained suzerainty of Yemen to the north, and the polities became known collectively as the "Nine Tribes" or the "Nine Cantons." Beginning with a formal treaty of protection with the Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra in 1886, the British began a slow formalisation of protection arrangements that included more than 30 major treaties of protection with
12626-468: The threat, Ahmad increased Yemeni efforts to decrease British control and, during the mid-1950s, Yemen assisted a number of revolts by disgruntled tribes against protectorate states. The appeal of Yemen was limited initially in the protectorate but a growing intimacy between Yemen and the popular Arab nationalist president of Egypt Gamal Abdel Nasser and the formation of United Arab States increased its attraction. Aden had been of interest to Britain as
12744-501: The towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to
12862-714: The tribes and chiefs under whose protection they live. The servile class contains a large African element, brought over formerly when the slave trade nourished on this coast; as all Islamic countries they are well treated, and often rise to positions of trust. Since the early 19th century, large-scale Hadhramaut migration has established sizable Hadhrami minorities all around the Indian Ocean, in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Africa, including Mombasa , Hyderabad , Aurangabad , Maharashtrian Konkan , Mangalore , Bhatkal , Gangolli , Malabar , Sylhet , Tanzania ,
12980-518: The tribesmen are not his subjects; he can only rule with their support. Historically, the most powerful tribes in Hadhramaut was the Qu’aiti , a branch of the Yafa'a tribe. Originally invited by the Sada to protect the settled districts against the marauding tribes, they established themselves as rulers of the country, and possessed the coastal districts with the towns of Mukalla and Shihr as well as Shibam in
13098-481: The two halves of the protectorate. Although little progress was made with the plan, it was considered a provocation by Ahmad bin Yahya. In addition to his role as king, he also served as the imam of the ruling Zaidi branch of Shi'a Islam . He feared that a successful federation in the Shafi'i Sunnite protectorates would serve to encourage discontented Shafi'ites who inhabited the coastal regions of Yemen. To counter
13216-451: The world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages , Middle Eastern studies , and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study
13334-465: Was united with North Yemen in 1990 as the Republic of Yemen. The capital and largest city of Hadhramaut is the port Mukalla . Mukalla had a 1994 population of 122,400 and a 2003 population of 174,700, while the port city of Ash Shihr has grown from 48,600 to 69,400 in the same time. One of the more historically important cities in the region is Tarim . An important locus of Islamic learning, it
13452-592: Was a mutiny in the Army of South Arabian Federation, which spread to the police. Order was restored by the British, due mainly to the efforts of the 1st Battalion Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders , commanded by Lt-Col Mitchell. Nevertheless, deadly guerrilla attacks particularly by the NLF resumed soon against British forces, with the British leaving Aden by the end of November 1967, earlier than had been planned by British Prime Minister Harold Wilson and without an agreement for
13570-529: Was followed in the local temple. The political history of Hadhramaut is not easy to piece together. Numerous wars involving Hadhramaut are referenced in Sabaean texts. From their inscriptions, the Hadhrami are known to have fortified Libna (now Qalat [ ar ] ) against Himyar and to have fortified mwyt ( Ḥiṣn al-Ghurāb حِصْن ٱلْغُرَاب ) against the Kingdom of Aksum in the period following
13688-551: Was founded by Umar bin Awadh al-Qu'aiti, a Yafa'i tribesman whose wealth and influence as hereditary Jemadar of the Nizam of Hyderabad 's armed forces enabled him to establish the Qu'aiti dynasty in the latter half of the 19th century, winning British recognition of his paramount status in the region in 1882. The British Government and the traditional and scholarly sultan Ali bin Salah signed
13806-541: Was known as Aden Settlement (1839–1932), Aden Province (1932–1937), the Colony of Aden (1937–1963) and finally State of Aden (1963–1967). In exchange for British protection, the rulers of the constituent territories of the Protectorate agreed not to make treaties with or cede territory to any other foreign power. In 1917, control of Aden Protectorate was transferred from the Government of India , which had inherited
13924-551: Was short-lived as the Yemeni Imams managed to drive them out by the 17th century. Subsequently, Hadhramaut came under Ottoman influence, and the Ottomans maintained control over the region until the early 20th century . The Qu'aiti sultans ruled the vast majority of Hadramaut, under a loose British protectorate, the Aden Protectorate, from 1882 to 1967, when the Hadhramaut was annexed by South Yemen. The Qu'aiti dynasty
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