113-515: The Aden Trade Union Congress (ATUC or TUC) was a trade union in the Aden Colony , a British protectorate in Yemen . The ATUC was founded in 1956 during serious labour unrest in the area. Its organ was Al-'Amal (1957) . The Secretary General of the trade union was Abdullah Asnag , a pro-independence Arab nationalist and admirer of Nasser who also advocated union with Yemen. Supported by
226-533: A Reducing Inequality Index which measured social spending, tax and workers' rights to show which countries were best at closing the gap between the rich and the poor. The 2022 World Inequality Report , a four-year research project organized by the economists Lucas Chancel , Thomas Piketty , Emmanuel Saez , and Gabriel Zucman , shows that "the world is marked by a very high level of income inequality and an extreme level of wealth inequality" and that these inequalities "seem to be about as great today as they were at
339-449: A "substantial head start". A 2017 report by the IPS said that three individuals, Jeff Bezos , Bill Gates and Warren Buffett , own as much wealth as the bottom half of the population, or 160 million people, and that the growing disparity between the wealthy and the poor has created a "moral crisis", noting that "we have not witnessed such extreme levels of concentrated wealth and power since
452-541: A British assistant adviser to part of the Western Aden Protectorate was wounded in a rebel ambush. On the 19 March 1956, labourers at the Little Aden refinery went on strike. Workers stoned policemen at the refinery gates, with clashes resulting in some deaths. The strike lasted ten days, being called off on the 29 March, with agreement reached mainly on pay. The strikes in 1956 were marked by
565-607: A federation with the protectorates of East and West Aden. It was hoped that this would lessen Arab calls for complete independence, while still allowing British control of foreign affairs and the BP refinery at Little Aden to continue. It was the hope of the government of Harold Macmillan that creating a federation that would be dominated by the traditional sultans would allow for indirect British control as he wrote in his diary that his government planned to use "the Sultans to help us keep
678-697: A good many attacks on non-Arab groups. It was during this time that the Army took over command of Aden from the Royal Air Force , with its presence maintained "in view of the importance of preserving internal security" according to War Secretary Antony Head . Days after the strike had ended, the Governor Sir Tom Hickinbotham conferred with almost all of the tribal leaders from the Aden Protectorates, where broad agreement
791-541: A high of roughly 4,500 in 1947 less than 500 were left in 1963. "The 1947 incident found Government policies at odds with the whole Arab community, including those who manned the police forces". The 1948 Arab–Israeli War made immigration into Israel very difficult, as the Red Sea and Suez Canal were closed by the Egyptian government. By 1949 and after the declaration of a cease fire, 12,000 Jews from Yemen, Aden and
904-572: A low-income group, within a high-income group and between them, within an age group and between inter-generational groups, within a gender group and between them etc, either from one or from multiple nations). Income inequality metrics are used for measuring income inequality, the Gini coefficient being a widely used one. Another type of measurement is the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index , which
1017-511: A measurable effect on the rising inequality in the United States . He attributes this trend to increased trade with poor countries and the fragmentation of the means of production , resulting in low skilled jobs becoming more tradeable. Anthropologist Jason Hickel contends that globalization and " structural adjustment " set off the " race to the bottom ", a significant driver of surging global inequality. Another driver Hickel mentions
1130-614: A new home there. The Palestine issue had a serious effect on British prestige in Aden. During the Second World War , Jews from Yemen flocked in large numbers into Aden while en route to Palestine , where they were placed in refugee camps , primarily for their own safety. However conditions in the camps were difficult and in 1942 there was an outbreak of Typhus . The need for the camps was apparent when in December 1947, following
1243-575: A public holiday". The most serious problem facing Aden in the late 50s and 60s was the relationship with the Yemen and Yemeni raids along the borders. But the adherence of Yemen to the UAR created a delicate situation and several political problems arose. Immigration into the Colony was a major concern of the local Arab workforce. Previously to the creation of the UAR, peace in Aden it was admitted came not from
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#17327733624201356-584: A race that has experienced discrimination are born into a disadvantaged family from the beginning and therefore have less resources and opportunities at their disposal. The universal lack of education, technical and cognitive skills, and inheritable wealth within a particular race is often passed down between generations, compounding in effect to make escaping these racialized cycles of poverty increasingly difficult. Additionally, ethnic groups that experience significant disparities are often also minorities, at least in representation though often in number as well, in
1469-586: A result of the change in tax regime. Additionally, steeper tax progressivity applied to social spending can result in a more equal distribution of income across the board. Tax credits such as the Earned Income Tax Credit in the US can also decrease income inequality. The difference between the Gini index for an income distribution before taxation and the Gini index after taxation is an indicator for
1582-710: A separate body, covering the oil refinery and the workers' settlement. All of these bodies were under the overall control of the Executive Council, which in turn was kept in check by the Governor. Until 1 December 1955, the Legislative Council was entirely unelected. The situation improved only slightly after this date, as four members were elected. Judicial administration was also entirely in British hands. "Compared with other British possessions ,
1695-485: Is a near-universal belief that complete economic equality (Gini of zero) would be undesirable and unachieveable. In 1820, the ratio between the income of the top and bottom 20 percent of the world's population was three to one. By 1991, it was eighty-six to one. A 2011 study titled "Divided we Stand: Why Inequality Keeps Rising" by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) sought to explain
1808-482: Is a statistic composite index that takes inequality into account. Important concepts of equality include equity , equality of outcome , and equality of opportunity . Historically , there has been a long-run trend towards greater economic inequality over time. The exceptions to this during the modern era are the declines in economic inequality during the two World Wars and amid the creation of modern welfare states after World War II. Whereas globalization has reduced
1921-479: Is accompanied by systematically unequal access to education, career opportunities, and poverty relief. This region of the world, apart from urbanizing areas like Brazil and Costa Rica, continues to be understudied and often the racial disparity is denied by Latin Americans who consider themselves to be living in post-racial and post-colonial societies far removed from intense social and economic stratification despite
2034-423: Is also a globally recognized disparity in the wealth, income, and economic welfare of people of different races. In many nations, data exists to suggest that members of certain racial demographics experience lower wages, fewer opportunities for career and educational advancement, and intergenerational wealth gaps . Studies have uncovered the emergence of what is called "ethnic capital", by which people belonging to
2147-444: Is associated with substantial levels of social exclusion, including high levels of income inequality, high relative and absolute poverty rates, poor and unequal educational outcomes, poor health outcomes, and high rates of crime and incarceration. At the same time, the available evidence provides little support for the view that U.S.-style labor market flexibility dramatically improves labor-market outcomes. Despite popular prejudices to
2260-418: Is at the center stage of economic policy debate across the globe, as government tax and spending policies have significant effects on income distribution. In advanced economies, taxes and transfers decrease income inequality by one-third, with most of this being achieved via public social spending (such as pensions and family benefits). While the "optimum" amount of economic inequality is widely debated, there
2373-523: Is considered medium; countries including Vietnam, Mexico, Poland, the United States, Argentina, Russia and Uruguay can be found in this category. A Gini index value lower than 30% is considered low; countries including Austria, Germany, Denmark, Norway, Slovenia, Sweden, and Ukraine can be found in this category. In the low-income inequality category (below 30%) is a wide representation of countries previously being part of Soviet Union or its satellites, like Slovakia, Czech Republic, Ukraine and Hungary. In 2012
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#17327733624202486-823: Is due to women not taking jobs due to marriage or pregnancy. A U.S. Census's report stated that in US once other factors are accounted for there is still a difference in earnings between women and men. A study done on three post-soviet countries Armenia , Georgia , and Azerbaijan reveals that gender is one of the driving forces of income inequality, and being female has a significant negative effect on income when other factors are held equal. The results show more than 50% gender pay gap in all three countries. These findings are because usually employers tend to avoid hiring women because of possible maternity leave. Other reason for this can be occupational segregation , which implies that women are usually accumulated in lower-paid positions and sectors, such as social services and education. There
2599-475: Is either stalling or erasing itself in the newest generation of blacks that seek education and improved transgenerational wealth. The economic status of one's parents continues to define and predict the financial futures of African and minority ethnic groups. Asian regions and countries such as China, the Middle East, and Central Asia have been vastly understudied in terms of racial disparity, but even here
2712-644: Is imperfect; information unevenly distributed; opportunities to acquire education and skills unequal; market failure results. Many such imperfect conditions exist in virtually every market. According to Joseph Stiglitz this means that there is an enormous potential role for government to correct such market failures. In the United States, real wages are flat over the past 40 years for occupations across income and education levels, e.g., auto mechanics, cashiers, doctors, and software engineers. However, stock ownership favors higher income and education levels, thereby resulting in disparate investment income. Another cause
2825-473: Is measured by Gini coefficient (expressed in percent %) that is a number between 0 and 1. Here 0 expresses perfect equality, meaning that everyone has the same income, whereas 1 represents perfect inequality, meaning that one person has all the income and others have none. A Gini index value above 50% is considered high; countries including Brazil, Colombia, South Africa, Botswana, and Honduras can be found in this category. A Gini index value of 30% or above
2938-510: Is measured by high rates of invention, there is a negative correlation between it and inequality. Countries with high invention rates – "as measured by patent applications filed under the Patent Cooperation Treaty" – exhibit lower inequality than those with less. In one country, the United States, "salaries of engineers and software developers rarely reach" above $ 390,000/year (the lower limit for
3051-417: Is similarly limited by factors like a lack of public transportation, child care, and communication and language barriers which result from the spatial and economic isolation of minority communities from redlining. Educational, income, and wealth gaps that result from this isolation mean that minority groups' limited access to the job market may force them to remain in fields that have a higher risk of exposure to
3164-745: Is that a lack of education leads directly to lower incomes, and thus lower aggregate saving and investment. Conversely, quality education raises incomes and promotes growth because it helps to unleash the productive potential of the poor. Access to education was in turn influenced by land inequalities. In the less industrialized parts of 19th century Europe, for example, landowners still held more political power than industrialists. These landowners did not benefit from educating their workers as much as industrialists did, since "educated workers have more incentives to migrate to urban, industrial areas than their less educated counterparts." Consequently, lower incentives to promote education in regions where land inequality
3277-482: Is the debt system which advanced the need for structural adjustment in the first place. In many countries, there is a gender pay gap in favor of males in the labor market . Several factors other than discrimination contribute to this gap. On average, women are more likely than men to consider factors other than pay when looking for work and may be less willing to travel or relocate. Thomas Sowell , in his book Knowledge and Decisions , claims that this difference
3390-406: Is the rate at which income is taxed coupled with the progressivity of the tax system. A progressive tax is a tax by which the tax rate increases as the taxable base amount increases. In a progressive tax system, the level of the top tax rate will often have a direct impact on the level of inequality within a society, either increasing it or decreasing it, provided that income does not change as
3503-602: The Aden Emergency and the final departure of British troops. British rule ended on 30 November 1967. The federation became the People's Republic of Southern Yemen , and in line with other formerly British Arab territories in the Middle East, it did not join the Commonwealth of Nations . Economic inequality Economic inequality is an umbrella term for a) income inequality or distribution of income (how
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3616-637: The Aden Settlement subordinate to the Bombay Presidency , and then as a Chief Commissioner's province ). In 1 April 1937, Aden was separated from British India to become a Crown colony under the Government of India Act 1935 , consisting of the city of Aden and its surrounding areas. The colony experienced rapid development due to its thriving port, but it was also marked by growing civil unrest. Economic inequality , labor strikes , and
3729-462: The COVID-19 pandemic has increased economic inequality substantially; the wealthiest people across the globe were impacted the least by the pandemic and their fortunes recovered quickest, with billionaires seeing their wealth increase by $ 3.9 trillion, while at the same time the number of people living on less than $ 5.50 a day likely increased by 500 million. According to economist Joseph Stiglitz ,
3842-680: The Federation of South Arabia as the State of Aden the unrest continued. In the federation the ATUC had a large influence in the new assembly and to prevent it seizing control of the federation in 1962 the former Colony of Aden had joined the Federation of South Arabia so that Aden's pro-British assembly members could counter the ATUC's influence. On 30 November 1967 the State of Aden became part of
3955-575: The Harvard Business School and Dan Ariely of the Department of Psychology at Duke University found this to be true in their research conducted in 2011. The actual wealth going to the top quintile in 2011 was around 84%, whereas the average amount of wealth that the general public estimated to go to the top quintile was around 58%. According to a 2020 study, global earnings inequality has decreased substantially since 1970. During
4068-562: The UAR the ATUC rose in importance when the political disturbances and the violence reached a head and political parties ceased to function. By 1959 it was the only entity representing nationalist aspirations in Aden and it used its leverage to boycott elections as the main grouping of the People's Union. In November 1960 the ATUC boycotted the Aden municipal elections. When Aden Colony became part of
4181-547: The United Arab Republic (UAR) were of primary consideration. Its 1958 establishment was described as having "increased the importance of Aden as a British military base in this troubled corner of the world". However even before the formation of the UAR, Arab nationalism had been growing in the awareness of Adeni's. "In 1946, Students protested that the anniversary of the founding of the Arab league had not been made
4294-513: The independence of India , Aden continued to be regarded as a vital asset in Britain's worldwide defence network. By 1958, Aden was the second-busiest harbour in the world, after New York City, described as having importance that "cannot be overestimated" while protecting British oil interests in the region. The Little Aden oil refinery was essential to the economy of Aden as it could process 5 million tons of crude oil annually and formed one of
4407-537: The world population over the period 1990–2015. In 2015, the OECD reported in 2015 that income inequality is higher than it has ever been within OECD member nations and is at increased levels in many emerging economies. According to a June 2015 report by the International Monetary Fund (IMF): Widening income inequality is the defining challenge of our time. In advanced economies, the gap between
4520-482: The 2000s and 2010s, the share of earnings by the world's poorest half doubled. Two researchers claim that global income inequality is decreasing due to strong economic growth in developing countries. According to a January 2020 report by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs , economic inequality between states had declined, but intrastate inequality has increased for 70% of
4633-682: The Aden Settlement under the Bombay Presidency, and then as a Chief Commissioner's province). Under the Government of India Act 1935 the territory was detached from British India, and was re-organised as a separate Crown colony of the United Kingdom; this separation took effect on 1 April 1937. Through the latter years of its existence, Aden Colony was plagued by civil unrest. On 27 April 1954, Queen Elizabeth II and her husband Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh visited
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4746-610: The British Prime Minister Edward Heath unilaterally reduced the sterling area to include only the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man , the Channel Islands and Ireland (and Gibraltar the following year). The South Yemen reciprocated immediately by introducing its own exchange controls and ending the fixed peg to sterling . South Yemen was still however listed in British law as being part of
4859-540: The Colony was a part, was receiving £12.6 million (£209 million in 2014) from the British government to support its 1966–67 Budget. The colony's population was 80,516 in the census of 1946; in its second census in 1955, the total had risen to 138,230. The 1955 census enumerated the colony's 103,879 Arabs as Aden Arabs (36,910), Protectorate Arabs (18,881) and Yemeni Arabs (48,088). The European population consisted of 3,763 British (including military) and 721 other Europeans. The colony's Somali population predated
4972-605: The Colony's only exports. The safety of this refinery was a clear priority for the government of Aden. "As a temporary expedient, the Aden base has the merits of a stabiliser at a moment when the Yemen is split by civil war, when the Saudi Royal house has not yet made itself a name for consistent rule, when the Iraqi and Syrian governments are prone to overnight revolutions and when Egypt's relations with both of them are uncertain". For much of Aden's later history, relations with
5085-523: The Gini index for income inequality for whole European Union was only 30.6%. Income distribution can differ from wealth distribution within each country. The wealth inequality is also measured in Gini index. There the higher Gini index signify greater inequality within the wealth distribution in country, 0 means total wealth equality and 1 represents situation, where everyone has no wealth, except an individual that has everything. For instance, countries like Denmark, Norway and Netherlands, all belonging to
5198-640: The OECD countries, has been driven mostly by increasing inequality in wages and salaries. Economist Thomas Piketty argues that widening economic disparity is an inevitable phenomenon of free market capitalism when the rate of return of capital (r) is greater than the rate of growth of the economy (g). According to an IMF report in 2016, after reviewing four decades of neoliberalism, it had warned that certain neoliberal policies including privatization, public spending cuts, and deregulation, have resulted in "increased inequality" and are stunting economic growth globally. In modern market economies , if competition
5311-717: The Protectorate were gathered in camps, from where they were airlifted on average 300 a day to Israel, in Operation Magic Carpet . Aden was located in a vital strategic location, on the main shipping routes between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. During the days of Empire, the value of the port was in providing key communications and bunkering facility between the Suez Canal and India. Even after
5424-698: The UN declaration for the creation of a Jewish state, there were serious riots in Aden Town, where at least 70 Jews were killed and much of the Jewish Quarter was burnt and looted. Until this point nearly all the refugees had been from Yemen and the Aden Protectorate, but now after the growing violence against Jews in the Town itself, most tried to leave. This was shown by the population figures which from
5537-429: The US national wealth, while in 2019 it is just over 1.5 percent. Mexican-Americans, while suffering less debilitating socioeconomic factors than black Americans, experience deficiencies in the same areas when compared to whites and have not assimilated financially to the level of stability experienced by white Americans as a whole. These experiences are the effects of the measured disparity due to race in countries like
5650-621: The US, the UK, France, Spain, Australia, etc. In the countries of the Caribbean, Central America, and South America, many ethnicities continue to deal with the effects of European colonization, and in general nonwhites tend to be noticeably poorer than whites in this region. In many countries with significant populations of indigenous races and those of Afro-descent (such as Mexico, Colombia, Chile, etc.) income levels can be roughly half as high as those experiences by white demographics, and this inequity
5763-496: The US, where studies show that in comparison to whites, blacks suffer from drastically lower levels of upward mobility , higher levels of downward mobility, and poverty that is more easily transmitted to offspring as a result of the disadvantage stemming from the era of slavery and post-slavery racism that has been passed through racial generations to the present. These are lasting financial inequalities that apply in varying magnitudes to most non-white populations in nations such as
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#17327733624205876-464: The United States for example, African American populations are more likely to drop out of high school and college, are typically employed for fewer hours at lower wages, have lower than average intergenerational wealth, and are more likely to use welfare as young adults than their white counterparts. The racial wealth gap in the US has been maintained throughout history. In 1863, two years prior to emancipation from slavery, Black people owned 0.5 percent of
5989-503: The World Institute for Development Economics Research at United Nations University reported that the richest 1% of adults alone owned 40% of global assets in the year 2000. The three richest people in the world possess more financial assets than the lowest 48 nations combined. The combined wealth of the "10 million dollar millionaires" grew to nearly $ 41 trillion in 2008. Oxfam 's 2021 report on global inequality said that
6102-607: The area surrounding it. Aden was notable in that sharia law was not used in the colony. "All suits, including those dealing with personal status and inheritance of Muslims, are entertained in the ordinary secular courts of the colony". Within Aden Colony, there were three local government bodies. The Aden municipality, which covered the town, Tawali, Ma'alla and Crater , the Township authority of Sheikh Othman and finally Little Aden had been established in recent years as
6215-578: The arrival of the British in Aden. The colony's Jewish population ( qv. ) had been over 7,000 in 1946, but dropped following the removal of most Jews to the new state of Israel in Operation Magic Carpet . The colony's estimated population grew to well over 200,000 in the 1960s. Trade unions formed the basis for most of the outlet of social dissatisfaction in Aden. The first union, the Aden Harbour Pilots Association, had been formed in 1952, quickly followed by two more by
6328-561: The artisans and craftsmen of these areas, but it was after the British occupation of 1839 that Aden became an important congregation. During the two World Wars the Jews in Aden had prospered while those in Yemen suffered. The Balfour declaration had encouraged increased Jewish immigration into the Holy Land , and as a result many of the Jewish communities from all over the Middle East sought
6441-435: The basic utility of the wealth or income is the expenditure. People experience the inequality directly in consumption, rather than income or wealth. There are various reasons for economic inequality within societies, including both global market functions (such as trade, development, and regulation) as well as social factors (including gender, race, and education). Recent growth in overall income inequality, at least within
6554-695: The causes for this rising inequality by investigating economic inequality in OECD countries; it concluded that the following factors played a role: The study made the following conclusions about the level of economic inequality: A 2011 OECD study investigated economic inequality in Argentina , Brazil , China , India , Indonesia , Russia , and South Africa . It concluded that key sources of inequality in these countries include "a large, persistent informal sector , widespread regional divides (e.g., urban-rural ), gaps in access to education, and barriers to employment and career progression for women." A study by
6667-503: The colony and its essential defence facilities". However, the population of Aden was urban, well educated, secular and generally left-wing while the population of the protectorates were rural, mostly illiterate, religious and generally conservative, making the proposed federation a mismatch. Federalism was first proposed by ministers from both the colony and protectorates, the suggested amalgamation would be beneficial they argued, in terms of economics, race, religion and languages. However
6780-624: The colony as part of their first Commonwealth tour. They were greeted by Governor of Aden Tom Hickinbotham and travelled to an enclosure to watch a military parade which included the RAF , Aden Protectorate Levies , Armed Police, Government Guards, the Hadhrami Bedouin Legion, and Somaliland Scouts . The visit saw Aden hold its first and only knighthood ceremony in which local leader Sayyid Abubakr bin Shaikh Al-Kaff
6893-408: The contrary, the U.S. economy consistently affords a lower level of economic mobility than all the continental European countries for which data is available." More recently, the International Monetary Fund has published studies which found that the decline of unionization in many advanced economies and the establishment of neoliberal economics have fueled rising income inequality. Contrary to
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#17327733624207006-466: The demand for unskilled labor while increasing the demand for skilled labor. Trade liberalization may shift economic inequality from a global to a domestic scale. When rich countries trade with poor countries, the low-skilled workers in the rich countries may see reduced wages as a result of the competition, while low-skilled workers in the poor countries may see increased wages. Trade economist Paul Krugman estimates that trade liberalisation has had
7119-616: The development towards self-government and greater local participation has been rather slow". Education was provided for all children, both boys and girls, until at least intermediate level. Higher education was available on a selective basis through scholarships to study abroad. Primary and Intermediate education was conducted in Arabic while Secondary and independent schools conducted their lessons in Arabic, English, Urdu , Hebrew and Gujarati . There were also Quranic schools for both boys and girls, but these were unrecognised. After 1937,
7232-442: The early 1960s, widespread dissatisfaction with British rule led to the Aden Emergency , a violent uprising against colonial authorities. In 1963, Aden Colony was reconstituted as the State of Aden within the newly created Federation of South Arabia in an attempt to grant limited self-governance, but the unrest continued. The British withdrew in 1967, and the colony was succeeded by the People's Republic of Southern Yemen , marking
7345-421: The economy of Aden continued to be largely dependent on the city's role as an entrepôt for east–west trade. During the course of 1955, 5239 vessels called at Aden, making its harbour the second busiest in the world after New York. However, tourism declined over the last years of the Colony with the number of tourists landing dropping by 37% from 204,000 in 1952 to 128,420 in 1966. At the end of British rule in 1967,
7458-501: The effects of Western colonization provide similar results to those found in other parts of the globe. Additionally, cultural and historical practices such as the caste system in India leave their marks as well. While the disparity is greatly improving in the case of India, there still exists social stratification between peoples of lighter and darker skin tones that cumulatively result in income and wealth inequality, manifesting in many of
7571-526: The effects of such taxation. An important factor in the creation of inequality is variation in individuals' access to education. Education, especially in an area where there is a high demand for workers, creates high wages for those with this education. However, increases in education first increase and then decrease growth as well as income inequality. As a result, those who are unable to afford an education, or choose not to pursue optional education, generally receive much lower wages. The justification for this
7684-580: The end of 1954. By 1956 most trades had formed a Union. There had been an assumption that the British model of Trade Union development would be followed. However, in the local tangle of grievances, the nationalist and economic were difficult to differentiate. As a result, strikes and demonstrations were often politically motivated, rather than by purely economic reasons. The British Army returned to Aden in July 1955 after Yemeni-armed rebel tribesmen caused disturbances. Minor events continued into early 1956, when
7797-618: The end of British control after 128 years of rule. On 18 January 1839, the British East India Company landed Royal Marines at Aden . Their aims were to establish a supply port and stop attacks by Arab pirates against British shipping to India. The British Government thereafter considered Aden to be an important settlement due to its location, as the Royal Navy could easily access the port for resupply and repairs. Later, British influence extended progressively into
7910-610: The entrance to the Red Sea made it a vital stopover for ships traveling between Europe, India, and the Far East , especially after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Aden quickly became a major coaling station and transit hub for British shipping, and its significance to the British Empire grew throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. Prior to 1937, Aden had been governed as part of British India (originally as
8023-497: The evidence to the contrary. African countries, too, continue to deal with the effects of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade , which set back economic development as a whole for blacks of African citizenship more than any other region. The degree to which colonizers stratified their holdings on the continent on the basis of race has had a direct correlation in the magnitude of disparity experienced by nonwhites in
8136-412: The expense of increasing inequality within countries. The United Nations Development Programme in 2014 asserted that greater investments in social security, jobs, and laws that protect vulnerable populations are necessary to prevent widening income inequality. There is a significant difference in the measured wealth distribution and the public's understanding of wealth distribution. Michael Norton of
8249-471: The federation. Right from start, the federation was seen as illegitimate. On 18 January 1963, the colony was reconstituted as the State of Aden (Arabic: ولاية عدن Wilāyat ʿAdan ), within the new Federation of South Arabia . With this Sir Charles Johnston stepped down as the last Governor of Aden . Many of the problems that Aden had suffered in its time as a colony did not improve on federation. Internal disturbances continued and intensified, leading to
8362-567: The first gilded age a century ago." In 2016, the world's billionaires increased their combined global wealth to a record $ 6 trillion. In 2017, they increased their collective wealth to 8.9 trillion. In 2018, U.S. income inequality reached the highest level ever recorded by the Census Bureau . The existing data and estimates suggest a large increase in international (and more generally inter-macroregional) components between 1820 and 1960. It might have slightly decreased since that time at
8475-465: The highest per head revenue earners amongst Britain's smaller colonies behind only the Falkland Islands , Brunei and Bermuda . However, the benefit to the United Kingdom of this was tempered by their commitments to the Aden protectorates which had revenue per capita of only 2.5 pence (only 23p in 2014 prices). By the time British rule was ending the Federation of South Arabia , of which
8588-584: The hinterland, both west and east, leading to the establishment of the Aden Protectorate . Aden soon became an important transit port and coaling station for trade between British India and the Far East , and Europe. The commercial and strategic importance of Aden increased considerably when the Suez Canal opened in 1869. From then and until the 1960s, the Port of Aden was to be one of the busiest ship-bunkering, duty-free shopping, and trading ports in
8701-699: The independent People's Democratic Republic of Yemen , also known as South Yemen, and the ATUC became the main trade union of that state. When South Yemen united with the Yemen Arab Republic , also known as North Yemen, on 22 May 1990, the Aden Trade Union Congress merged with the General Confederation of Workers' Trade Unions in order to form the Yemeni Confederation of Labor Unions . The ATUC
8814-443: The inequality between nations, it has increased the inequality within the population in most nations. Income inequality between nations peaked in the 1970s, when world income was distributed bimodally into "rich" and "poor" countries. Since then, income levels across countries have been converging, with most people now living in middle-income countries . However, inequality within the population in most has risen significantly in
8927-426: The last 30 years, particularly among advanced countries . Research has generally linked economic inequality to political and social instability, including revolution , democratic breakdown and civil conflict . Research suggests that greater inequality hinders economic growth and macroeconomic stability, and that land and human capital inequality reduce growth more than inequality of income. Inequality
9040-432: The last category (below 30%, low-income inequality) also have very high Gini index in wealth distribution, ranging from 70% up to 90%. In economics , the consumption distribution or consumption inequality is an alternative to the income distribution or wealth distribution for judging economic inequality, comparing levels of consumption rather than income or wealth . This is an important measure of inequality as
9153-604: The main revenues of the Colony were the Port Trust with an annual gross revenue of £1.75 million (2014 prices: £28.4 million) and the British Petroleum refinery which made direct payments to the Aden Government of £1.135 million (2014 prices: £18.4 million). In 1956, Aden Colony had a revenue of £2.9 million (approximately £65 million in 2014 prices). This was equivalent to around £58 per capita, one of
9266-848: The nations that eventually rose from their colonial status. Former French colonies, for example, see much higher rates of income inequality between whites and nonwhites as a result of the rigid hierarchy imposed by the French who lived in Africa at the time. Another example is found in South Africa, which, still reeling from the socioeconomic impacts of Apartheid , experiences some of the highest racial income and wealth inequality in all of Africa. In these and other countries like Nigeria, Zimbabwe, and Sierra Leone, movements of civil reform have initially led to improved access to financial advancement opportunities, but data shows that for nonwhites this progress
9379-437: The nations where they experience the harshest disadvantage. As a result, they are often segregated either by government policy or social stratification, leading to ethnic communities that experience widespread gaps in wealth and aid. Redlining intentionally excluded black Americans from accumulating intergenerational wealth. The effects of this exclusion on black Americans' health continue to play out daily, generations later, in
9492-622: The need for labor across competing suppliers. Market concentration drives down labor's share of the GDP, increasing the wealth of capital and thereby exacerbating inequality. Economists have linked automation to increases in economic inequality, as automation raises the returns to wealth and contributes to stagnating wages at the lower end of the wage distribution. Several economists have suggested that automation has increased income inequality by causing low skill jobs to be replaced with machines operated by technologically skilled workers, thereby reducing
9605-487: The overseas sterling area, that being a list of scheduled territories which continued to enjoy some exchange control privileges with the United Kingdom right up until 1979 when Geoffrey Howe abolished all United Kingdom exchange controls. To solve many of the above problems, as well as continuing the process of self-determination that was accompanying the dismantling of the Empire, it was proposed that Aden Colony should form
9718-403: The pandemic's "most significant outcome" will be rising economic inequality in the United States and between the developed and developing world. The 2024 Oxfam report found a significant increase in inequality as roughly five billion people have become poorer while at the same time the fortunes of the five richest individuals have doubled. The report warns that current trends are paving the way for
9831-452: The peak of western imperialism in the early 20th century." According to the report, the bottom half of the population owns 2% of global wealth, while the top 10% owns 76% of it. The top 1% owns 38%. The wealth is calculated by various factors, for instance: liabilities , debts , exchange rates and their expected development, real estate prices, human resources , natural resources and technical advancements, etc. Income inequality
9944-402: The platform as an opportunity to increase their income by diversifying their activities outside employment, which tends to restrict the volume of work remaining for the minority of platform workers. In addition, there is an important phenomenon of labour substitution as manual tasks traditionally performed by workers without a degree (or just a college degree) integrated into the labour market in
10057-409: The presence of the tiny garrison, but from a lack of Arab poles of attraction for malcontents. However some contemporary writers, such as Elizabeth Monroe thought that the British presence in Aden may have been self-defeating, as it provided a casus belli for Arab nationalists. So rather than supporting British peace efforts in the region, Aden was actually the cause of much anti-British sentiments in
10170-400: The present day. The global South is considered to be particularly victimized by this phenomenon, though the exact socioeconomic manifestations change across different regions. While the progression of civil rights movements and justice reform has improved access to education and other economic opportunities in politically advanced nations, racial income and wealth disparity still exists. In
10283-480: The proponents of neoliberalism, trickle-down economics have been proven to not be effective in resolving economic inequalities but have instead worsened it. The growth in importance of information technology has been credited with increasing income inequality. Technology has been called "the main driver of the recent increases in inequality" by Erik Brynjolfsson, of MIT . In arguing against this explanation, Jonathan Rothwell notes that if technological advancement
10396-582: The region. "As in Kuwait prosperous older men appreciate the advantages of the British connection, but young Arab nationalists and a vigorous trade union movement think it humiliating". Being an extension of British India , the British Indian rupee was the currency of Aden until shortly after India gained independence in 1947. In 1951, the rupee was replaced by the East African shilling which
10509-734: The rich and poor is at its highest level in decades. Inequality trends have been more mixed in emerging markets and developing countries (EMDCs), with some countries experiencing declining inequality, but pervasive inequities in access to education, health care, and finance remain. In October 2017, the IMF warned that inequality within nations, in spite of global inequality falling in recent decades, has risen so sharply that it threatens economic growth and could result in further political polarization . The Fund's Fiscal Monitor report said that "progressive taxation and transfers are key components of efficient fiscal redistribution." In October 2018 Oxfam published
10622-463: The rise of Arab nationalism contributed to increasing tensions, which were intensified by the anti-colonial sentiment in the Middle East . During this period, Aden became important for British military and commercial purposes in the region, as well as a base for the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force . The colony's surrounding hinterland, was governed separately as the Aden Protectorate . By
10735-589: The same communities. This is evident currently in the disproportionate effects that COVID-19 has had on the same communities which the HOLC redlined in the 1930s. Research published in September 2020 overlaid maps of the highly affected COVID-19 areas with the HOLC maps, showing that those areas marked "risky" to lenders because they contained minority residents were the same neighborhoods most affected by COVID-19. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) looks at inequities in
10848-540: The social determinants of health like concentrated poverty and healthcare access that are interrelated and influence health outcomes with regard to COVID-19 as well as quality of life in general for minority groups. The CDC points to discrimination within health care, education, criminal justice, housing, and finance, direct results of systematically subversive tactics like redlining which led to chronic and toxic stress that shaped social and economic factors for minority groups, increasing their risk for COVID-19. Healthcare access
10961-541: The southern part of modern-day Yemen . It consisted of the port city of Aden and also included the outlying islands of Kamaran , Perim and the Khuria Muria archipelago with a total area of 192 km (74 sq mi). Initially a key port for the British East India Company , it was annexed by the British in 1839 to secure maritime routes and prevent piracy in the Arabian Sea . Its strategic position at
11074-429: The step was illogical in terms of Arab Nationalism, for it was taken just prior to some impending elections, and was against the wishes of Aden Arabs, notably many of the trade unions. An additional problem was the huge disparity in political development, as at the time Aden colony was some way down the road to self-government and in the opinion of some dissidents, political fusion with the autocratic and backward Sultanates
11187-459: The tones of revolutionary Arab Nationalism. Men who had long lived in isolation now found a common political language and a breathtaking, liberating community of sentiment across the Arab world". In December 1963 there was a grenade attack by an unidentified assailant on the high commissioner who was unharmed; however, three bystanders were killed. There had been Jewish tribes in Aden and Yemen for millennia, where they had primarily constituted
11300-445: The top 1% earners). Some researchers, such as Juliet B. Schor, highlight the role of for-profit online sharing economy platforms as an accelerator of income inequality and calls into question their supposed contribution in empowering outsiders of the labour market. Taking the example of TaskRabbit, a labour service platform, she shows that a large proportion of providers already have a stable full-time job and participate part-time in
11413-444: The total sum of money paid to people is distributed among them), b) wealth inequality or distribution of wealth (how the total sum of wealth owned by people is distributed among the owners), and c) consumption inequality (how the total sum of money spent by people is distributed among the spenders). Each of these can be measured between two or more nations, within a single nation, or between and within sub-populations (such as within
11526-629: The traditional economy sectors are now performed by workers with a high level of education (in 2013, 70% of TaskRabbit's workforce held a bachelor's degree, 20% a master's degree and 5% a PhD). The development of platforms, which are increasingly capturing demand for these manual services at the expense of non-platform companies, may therefore benefit mainly skilled workers who are offered more earning opportunities that can be used as supplemental or transitional work during periods of unemployment. It has also been proposed that information technologies contribute to "winner take most" market concentration, reducing
11639-422: The views of the local labour force, the British pushed much of the Arab population into opposition against their rule, who previously had been by no means captivated by Nasser ". At the time much of the blame for these disturbances was placed on the broadcasts from Radio Cairo encouraged by Nasser's anti-imperialist and Arab Nationalist regime there, as claimed by author R. J. Gavin: "Radio Cairo began to speak in
11752-506: The virus, without options to take time off. Finally, a direct result of redlining is the overcrowding of minority groups into neighborhoods that do not boast adequate housing to sustain burgeoning populations, leading to crowded conditions that make prevention strategies for COVID-19 nearly impossible to implement. As a general rule, races which have been historically and systematically colonized (typically indigenous ethnicities) continue to experience lower levels of financial stability in
11865-465: The world's first trillionaire within a decade and global poverty eradication being postponed for 229 years. According to PolitiFact , the top 400 richest Americans "have more wealth than half of all Americans combined." According to The New York Times on July 22, 2014, the "richest 1 percent in the United States now own more wealth than the bottom 90 percent". Inherited wealth may help explain why many Americans who have become rich may have had
11978-472: The world. In 1937, Aden was separated from British India to become a Crown colony , a status that it retained until 1963. It consisted of the port city of Aden and its immediate surroundings (an area of 192 km [74 sq mi]). The Aden Settlement, and later Aden Colony, also included the outlying islands of Kamaran ( de facto ), Perim and Kuria Muria (see map). Prior to 1937, Aden had been governed as part of British India (originally as
12091-436: Was a step in the wrong direction. In the federation, Aden colony was to have 24 seats on the new council, while each of the eleven sultanates was to have six. While the federation as a whole would have financial and military aid from Britain. The federation was opposed by the majority of the people of Aden, leading to a series of strikes and protest marches while the elections for the council were rigged in favour of supporters of
12204-575: Was affiliated to the World Federation of Trade Unions . This article related to an Asian trade union is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Yemen -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Aden Colony Aden Colony ( Arabic : مُسْتْعَمَرَةْ عَدَنْ , romanized : Musta'marat 'Adan ) was a crown colony of the United Kingdom from 1937 to 1963 located in
12317-573: Was bombed by the Houthi movement in 2015, but remains open due to a UAE -funded restoration project. The fundamental law for the Crown colony of Aden was the Order of Council 28 September 1936, which follows the usual lines of basic legislation for British colonies . The town of Aden was noted as being tied "much more closely into the fabric of the British Empire", with a faster rate of development, than
12430-540: Was high led to lower levels of numeracy in these regions. John Schmitt and Ben Zipperer (2006) of the CEPR point to economic liberalism and the reduction of business regulation along with the decline of union membership as one of the causes of economic inequality. In an analysis of the effects of intensive Anglo-American liberal policies in comparison to continental European liberalism, where unions have remained strong, they concluded "The U.S. economic and social model
12543-398: Was knighted whilst kneeling on a chair instead of bowing due to his Muslim faith. The Queen also knighted Claude Pelly , who was Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Air Force in the Middle East . A bronze plaque marks the foundation stone Elizabeth II laid for Al Jumhuriyah hospital during the visit. The hospital which was originally named after her until the end of British rule in 1967
12656-660: Was on par with the shilling sterling . Then with the advent of the South Arabian Federation , a new South Arabian dinar was introduced in 1965 which was on par with the pound sterling . The South Arabian dinar was a decimal unit divided into fils. Aden became independent as the South Yemen on 30 November 1967 without joining the Commonwealth , but the South Arabian dinar continued at the one-to-one parity with sterling until 1972. In June 1972,
12769-493: Was reached that they should "seek some form of close association with each other". In May 1958 a state of emergency was declared and there were a number of bombings until the arrest of the principal instigators in July. However, in October 1958 there was a general strike, which was accompanied by widespread rioting and disorder which ended in the deportation of 240 Yemenis from Aden, as claimed by author Gillian King: "By ignoring
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