117-631: Aditya II (942 CE – 971 CE), also known as Aditha II or Adithya Karikalan, was a Chola prince who lived in the 10th century in India. He was born in Tirukoilur and was the eldest son of Parantaka Chola II . He was the elder brother of Rajaraja Chola I and Kundavai . He was called Virapandiyan Thalai Konda Koparakesari Varman Karikalan . Aditha Karikalan was the elder son of the Chola king Parantaka II (alias Sundara) and queen Vanavan Mahadevi. He
234-442: A circular garba griha (where the deity resides) within a square prakara - circumbulatory corridor. Above this rises the vimana or the tower in four diminishing storeys of which the lower three are square and the top circular. Each level is separated from the next by a cornice. The whole structure is surmounted by a dome which in turn is topped with a stone kalasa - a crest. Very faint traces of paintings can be seen inside on
351-449: A daily wage. All cultivable land was held in one of the three broad classes of tenure; peasant proprietorship called vellan-vagai , service tenure, and eleemosynary tenure resulting from charitable gifts. The vellan-vagai were the ordinary ryotwari village of modern times, having direct relations with the government and paying a land-tax liable to periodic revision. The vellan-vagai villages fell into two broad classes; one directly paid
468-515: A darshan and admired their beloved deity for the lavish depiction of the figure and the grand costumes and jewelry. Although bronze casting has a long history in south India, a much larger and a much greater number of bronze sculptures in all sizes ranging from massive to miniature were cast during the Chola period than before, further attesting to the importance of bronze sculpture during this period. When in worship, these images are bedecked in silk costumes, garlands, and gem encrusted jewels, befitting
585-644: A descendant of the Early Cholas , reestablished resp. founded the Chola empire in 848 CE. Vijayalaya took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Pandya and Pallava empires in c. 850, captured Thanjavur from Muttarayar , and established the imperial line of the medieval Chola dynasty. Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial Chola empire. Under Aditya I , the Cholas along with
702-455: A fort, whose walls are later additions built in the 16th century by the Nayaks of Tanjore . The towering vimanam is about 200 feet in height and is referred to as Dakshina Meru (Southern Mountain). The octagonal Shikharam (crest) rests on a single block of granite weighing 81 tons. It is believed that this block was carried up a specially built ramp built from a site 6 kilometres away from
819-427: A life that throbs and pulsates and thereby enlivens the bronze sculpture. By means of the facial expressions, the gestures or mudras the overall body posture and other accompanying bronzes we can imagine the surroundings and the religious context of the figure of the god or goddess; what instrument or weapon he or she is holding; what he or she is leaning on; and what he or she is doing or about to do. For example, in
936-653: A major role in inter-regional and overseas trade. The best-known guilds were the Manigramam and Ayyavole , who followed the conquering Chola armies. The encouragement of the Chola court furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations and guilds into Southeast Asia and China. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya Empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were
1053-573: A major role in the army; the empire had numerous war elephants that carried houses or huge howdahs on their backs. These howdahs were full of soldiers who shot arrows at long range and fought with spears at close quarters. The Chola army was mostly composed of Kaikolars —men with strong arms who were royal troops receiving regular payments from the treasury. Chola rulers built several palaces and fortifications to protect their cities. The fortifications were mostly made of bricks but other materials like stone, wood, and mud were also used. According to
1170-495: A number of temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. These temples were much smaller in comparison to the huge monumental structures of the later Cholas and were probably brick structures rather than stone. The Vijayalaya Choleeswaram near Pudukkottai in Tamil Nadu is an example of a surviving early Chola building. The style of this structure clearly shows Pallava influences in the design. It has an unusual arrangement of
1287-483: A storehouse of murals and sculptures. The temple is built entirely of granite in a place where there is no source of granite. Though the temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram follows the plan of the great temple of Thanjavur in most details it has characteristics of its own. From the remains it may be seen that it had only one enclosure wall and a gopura while the Thanjavur temple has two gopuras and enclosures. It
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#17327938136251404-555: A variable annual revenue to the state and the other paid fixed-rate dues to public institutions like temples to which they were assigned. The prosperity of an agricultural country depends to a large extent on the facilities provided for irrigation. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, Chola rulers built large, stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut channels to distribute water over large tracts of land. Rajendra Chola I dug near his capital an artificial lake that
1521-509: A very large number of temples. Of these two large temples are worthy of comparison to those of Rajaraja and Rajendra. The Airavateswara temple at Darasuram near Thanjavur built during the reign of Rajaraja II is a magnificent structure typical of the stage of architectural development reached in the 12th century CE. This temple has artistic stone pillars and decorations on its walls, in a style bordering on mannerism, with an emphasis on elongated limbs and polished features. Best among them are
1638-541: Is Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur , a UNESCO World Heritage Site , which the Rajaraja commissioned in 1010. They were also well known for their patronage of art. The development of the sculpting technique used in Chola bronzes of Hindu deities that were built using a lost wax process, was pioneered in their time. The Chola tradition of art spread, and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia. Vijayalaya ,
1755-475: Is an example of such a building. However, such buildings were of perishable materials such as timber and fired bricks and have not survived the ravages of time. Pallavas were the first recognisable South Indian dynasty who indulged in the pursuit of architectural innovations. The first seeds of Chola temple architecture in Tamil Nadu were possibly sown during this period. The temple architecture evolved from
1872-617: Is broken by Siva's matted locks. Shiva as Nataraja or Adavallar is also accompanied by his consort Sivakami. Notable collections of the bronzes are held by the museum inside the Thanjavur Maratha Palace , the Government Museum, Chennai , Pondicherry Museum , and Indian Museum, Kolkata . Outside India, Chola bronze sculptures are owned by the British Museum , New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art ,
1989-405: Is in this temple that one notices for the first time two gopuras (gateway towers, here oriented in the same direction). They are architecturally coeval with the main vimana and are referred to in inscriptions as Rajarajan tiruvasal and Keralantakan tiruvasal . In spite of the massive size of the gopuras , the vimana , rising majestically to a height of 190 feet, continues to dominate and it
2106-454: Is larger in plan though not as tall, the vimana being 100 feet square at the base and 186 feet high. The temple, which forms a large rectangle 340 feet long and 110 feet wide occupies the middle of an immense walled enclosure mainly built for defensive purposes. The vimana has the same construction as in Thanjavur, but the number of tiers making up the pyramidal body is only eight as against 13 in Thanjavur. The most important difference lies in
2223-546: Is located in Thirubuvanai , a village, located 23 km (14 mi), in the outskirts of Puducherry. Constructed in the Dravidian style of architecture , the temple is a storehouse of Chola architecture and built by Parantaka I (907-950 CE). The temple has inscriptions from the time of Parantaka I , Rajaraja Chola (985–1014 CE), Rajadhiraja I (c. 1048 CE) and is indicated as an educational institution operating in
2340-714: Is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu . Rajendra also completed the conquest of the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and took the Sinhala king Mahinda V a prisoner; he also conquered Rattapadi —territories of the Rashtrakutas, Chalukya country, Talakkad , and Kolar , where Kolaramma temple still has his portrait statue—in Kannada country. Rajendra's territories included
2457-607: Is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas , was a medieval thalassocratic empire based in southern India that was ruled by the Chola dynasty , and comprised overseas dominions, protectorates and spheres of influence in southeast Asia . The power and the prestige the Cholas had among political powers in South, Southeast, and East Asia at its peak is evident in their expeditions to the Ganges , naval raids on cities of
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#17327938136252574-454: Is only in the subsequent period that a change in the gradation of magnitude takes place. Epigraphic evidence reveals that Rajaraja started building this temple in his 19th regnal year and it was completed on 275th day of his 25th regnal year (1010), taking only 6 years. Rajaraja named this temple as Rajarajesvaram and the deity Shiva in Linga form as Peruvudaiyar , the temple is also known in
2691-558: Is said to have dispatched Nagama's son Viswanatha, who defeated his father and restored Madurai to Vijayanagara rule. The fate of Virasekhara Chola, the last of the line of Cholas, is not known. It is speculated he either fell in battle or was executed along with his heirs during his encounter with Vijayanagara. The Government of the Chola empire was monarchical , similar to the Sangam age . The empire consisted of various kingdoms, vassals, chiefdoms and areas of influence owning alliance to
2808-501: Is similar to the temples at Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram and Darasuram. The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. Among the existing specimens in the various museums of the world and in the temples of South India, may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms accompanied by his consort Parvati and the other gods, demigods and goddesses of the Saivaite pantheon, Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi ,
2925-604: Is that of Nataraja or Adavallar. The symbolism presents Shiva as lord of the cosmic dance of creation and destruction . He is active, yet aloof, like the gods on the Parthenon Frieze . Surrounding Shiva, a circle of flames represents the universe , whose fire is held in Shiva's left rear palm. His left front arm crosses his chest, the hand pointing in "elephant trunk" position ( gaja hasta ) to his upraised left foot, which signifies liberation. His right foot tramples
3042-620: Is the Tiruvalisvaram temple near Tirunelveli . The temple is covered with exquisite well composed sculptures and friezes some containing comic figures. The entire cornice of the temple tower is embellished with designs of creepers and foliage. Other examples of such temples can be seen at the Vaidyanatha Temple at Tirumalavadi and the Uttara Kailasa Temple at Thanjavur . The maturity and grandeur to which
3159-478: Is then cleaned, finer details are added, blemishes are removed, smoothened, and polished well. Hence each bronze icon is unique and the mould cannot be used to create copies. Chola bronzes have little intricate ornamentation in comparison with the subsequent bronzes of the Vijayanagar and Nayaka period. There is gentle grace, a restrained and quiet elegance, an ethereal, out-worldly beauty, and above all else -
3276-944: The Norton Simon Museum , in Pasadena , the Asian Art Museum in San Francisco and Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. In 1931, Chola frescoes were discovered within the circumambulatory corridor of the Brihadisvara Temple, by S.K. Govindasamy, a professor at the Annamalai University . These are the first Chola paintings discovered. The passage of the corridor is dark and the walls on either side are covered with two layers of paintings from floor to ceiling. Researchers have discovered
3393-537: The Rishabaandhika or the Vrishabavahana murthy pose, we see Shiva standing with one leg youthfully crossed across the other and his arm elegantly flexed and raised as if resting or leaning on something. In this elegant posture, it can be surmised that the youthful and athletic Shiva is leaning on his bull-vahana, Nandhi, on whose shoulders He is resting His arm. The most famous of all the bronze icons
3510-467: The Srivijaya Empire on the island of Sumatra , and their repeated embassies to China. The Chola fleet represented the peak of ancient Indian maritime capacity . Around 1070, the Cholas began to lose almost all of their overseas territories but the later Cholas (1070–1279) continued to rule portions of southern India. The Chola empire went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with
3627-481: The caste system played a role in Chola governance. According to Kathleen Gough , the Vellalars , the dominant aristocratic caste, provided taxes and tribute to the monarchy and military Temples in the Chola era acted as both places of worship and centres of economic activity, benefiting the community. Some of the output of villages was given to temples, which reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to
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3744-498: The lost wax technique . It is known in artistic terms as "Cire Perdue". The Sanskrit Shilpa texts call it the Madhu Uchchishtta Vidhana . Beeswax and kungilium (a type of camphor ) are mixed with a little oil and kneaded well. The figure is sculpted from this mixture fashioning all the minute details. This is the original wax model. The entire figure is then coated with clay made from termite hills until
3861-514: The 10th to 11th centuries because Chola rulers like Chembian Maadevi extended their patronage to metal craftsmen. Wootz steel was a major Chola export. Farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society. These were the Vellalar community, who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and were an economically powerful group. Agriculture was the principal occupation for many people besides landowners. The Vellalar community
3978-674: The 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in Kannada country but they also faced constant trouble from the Seunas and the Kalachuris, who were occupying the Chalukya capital. The Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly relations with the Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala Veera Ballala II, who had subsequent marital relations with
4095-565: The Chalukyas. Virarajendra then marched against Vengi and probably killed Saktivarman II, son of Vijayaditya VII. In the midst of this, in 1063, Rajendra II died; because his son Rajamahendra had predeceased him, Virarajendra returned to Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was crowned the Chola king (1063–1070). Virarajendra split the Western Chalukya kingdom by persuading Chalukya prince Vikramaditya IV to become his son-in-law and to seize
4212-667: The Chola Empire's main trading partners. The Chola dynasty played a significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. The empire's market structure and economic policies were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song dynasty . A Chola record gives their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with villages and decent dwellings in
4329-411: The Chola Empire. Kulottunga Chola I administered the province through his sons, whom he sent there as viceroys. There was a prolonged fight between Kulottunga Chola I and Vikramaditya VI. Kulothunga's long reign was characterized by unparalleled success and prosperity; he avoided unnecessary wars and earned the admiration of his subjects. Kulottunga's successes resulted in the well-being of the empire for
4446-410: The Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two magnificent temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram . The magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur , completed around 1009 is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples, it is a masterpiece constituting the high-water mark of South Indian architecture . It
4563-402: The Chola empire, Justice was mostly a local matter; minor disputes were settled at village level. Minor crimes were punished with fines or a direction for the offender to donate to a charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. The king heard and decided crimes of the state, such as treason; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or
4680-480: The Chola monarch. This continued during the time of Rajaraja Chola III, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola III The Hoysalas played a divisive role in the politics of Tamil country during this period. They exploited the lack of unity among the Tamil kingdoms and alternately supported one Tamil kingdom against the other, thereby preventing the Cholas and Pandyas from rising to their full potential. During
4797-708: The Chola period several guilds, communities, and castes emerged. The guild was one of the most significant institutions of south India and merchants organised themselves into guilds. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds though other guilds such as Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar were also in existence. Members of the Vellalar caste were sent to northern Sri Lanka by the Chola rulers as settlers. The Ulavar caste were agricultural workers and peasants were known as Kalamar. The Kaikolar community were weavers and merchants who also maintained armies. During
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4914-425: The Chola period, they had predominant trading and military roles. During the reign of the Imperial Chola rulers (10th–13th centuries), there were major changes in the temple administration and land ownership. There was more involvement of non- Brahmin peoples in temple administration. This can be attributed to the shift in financial power. Skilled classes like weavers and merchants had become prosperous. Land ownership
5031-439: The Cholas recovered the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III; the Cholas also recovered Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Chola empire, though not as strong as between 850 and 1150, was still largely territorially intact under Rajaraja II (1146–1175) a fact attested to by the construction of the third grand, chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam . Up to 1215, during
5148-540: The Cholas was caused by the Pandyas in 1279. The Pandyas steadily gained control of Tamil country and territories in Sri Lanka, southern Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II and his able successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan , before inflicting several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola III, and the Hoysalas under Someshwara, his son Ramanatha. Fromn 1215,
5265-618: The Eastern Chalukyan princes had married into the imperial Chola family and felt they belonged to it as much as to the Eastern Chalukya dynasty. The Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya of Vengi had "spent his childhood days in Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was a familiar favourite to the princes and the people of the Chola country" according to Kalingathuparani , an epic written in praise of him. Following
5382-632: The Emperor. Several of these vassalages had some degree of autonomy. Several historians have described the governmental system of the Cholas as a form of Feudalism . However, others including Burton Stein reject this due to differences between the governance of the Cholas and that of traditional feudalism in contemporary Europe . The Chola empire was divided into several provinces called mandalams which were further divided into valanadus , which were subdivided into units called kottams or kutrams . At local government level, every village
5499-605: The Ganges–Hooghly–Damodar basin, as well as Rajarata of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Diplomatic missions were sent to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077. From the period of Rajaraja, the Cholas engaged in a series of conflicts with the Western Chalukyas . The Old Chalukya dynasty had split into two sibling dynasties,
5616-516: The Hoysalas and the Cholas, and dispossessed the Hoysalas, defeating them under Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan at Kannanur Kuppam. At the close of Rajendra's reign, the Pandyan empire was at the height of its prosperity and had replaced the Chola empire in the view of foreign observers. The last-recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279; there is no evidence he was immediately followed by another Chola prince. In around 1279, Kulasekhara Pandiyan routed
5733-484: The Hoysalas from Kannanur Kuppam and in the same war, the last Chola emperor Rajendra III was routed and the Chola empire ceased to exist. The Chola empire was completely overshadowed by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity by the end of the 13th century until period of the Vijayanagara Empire . In the early 16th century, Virasekhara Chola, king of Tanjore , rose out of obscurity and plundered
5850-528: The Later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja III to the last emperor Rajendra III , was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850 and 1215. Around 1118, the Cholas lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore ) districts to the Hoysala Empire . Immediately after the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I,
5967-500: The Nayanmars, other Saiva saints and many more. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptor could also exercise his imagination within the boundaries of the canonical Hindu iconography and worked in greater freedom during the eleventh and the twelfth centuries. As a result, the sculptures and bronzes show classic grace, grandeur and taste. The best example of this can be seen in
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#17327938136256084-728: The Pallavas defeated the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in 885, occupied large parts of Kannada country, and had marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty . Later, Aditya I defeated the Pallavas and occupied the Tondaimandalam . In 925, Aditya's son Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka, which was then-known as Ilangai. Parantaka I also defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty under Krishna II in the Battle of Vallala. Later, Parantaka I
6201-775: The Pandyans gradually became a major force in Tamil country and consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam-southern Chera country and the Kanyakumari belt, and had been steadily increasing their territories in the Kaveri belt between Dindigul, Tiruchy, Karur, and Satyamangalam and in the Kaveri Delta , Thanjavur, Mayuram, Chidambaram, Vriddhachalam, and Kanchi. The Pandyans marched to Arcot ; Tirumalai, Nellore, Visayawadai, Vengi, and Kalingam by 1250. The Pandyas steadily routed
6318-648: The Western Chalukyan dominions and set fire to the Kollipaka fort on the frontier between the Kalyani and Vengi territories. This brought relief for Rajaraja Narendra, who was now firmly in control at Vengi, with Rajadhiraja I proceeding to the Chalukyan capital, displacing the Chalukyan king Someshvara I, performing his coronation at Manyakheta, and collecting tribute from the defeated king, who had fled
6435-673: The Western and Eastern Chalukyas . Rajaraja's daughter Kundavai was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Vimaladitya, who ruled from Vengi. The Western Chalukyas felt the Vengi kingdom was in their natural sphere of influence. Cholas inflicted several defeats on the Western Chalukyas. The frontier mostly remained at the Tungabhadra River for both kingdoms and resulted in the death of king Rajadhiraja . Rajendra's reign
6552-595: The administration was improved and the Emperors were able to exercise closer control over the parts of the empire. The administrative structure expanded, particularly during and after the reign of Rajaraja. The government at this time had a multi-tiered, large, land-revenue department that was largely concerned with maintaining accounts. Corporate bodies such as the Ur, Nadu, Sabha, Nagaram, and sometimes local chieftains, undertook The assessment and collection of revenue, and passed
6669-414: The ancient Tamil text Silappadikaram , Tamil kings defended their forts with catapults that threw stones, huge cauldrons of boiling water or molten lead, and hooks, chains, and traps. Chola soldiers used weapons such as swords, bows, javelins, spears, and steel shields. Several Chola weapons utilized Wootz steel . The Chola navy was the zenith of ancient India sea power. It played a vital role in
6786-409: The bases of many of these sculptures are for the poles that were used to carry the heavy images. The deities in bronze who participated in such festivities were sumptuously clothed and decorated with precious jewellery. Their every need and comfort were catered to by a battery of temple priests, musicians, cooks, devadasis, administrators and patrons. The lay public thronged the processional route to have
6903-507: The battlefield. While the Chalukyans kept creating trouble through Vijayaditya VII, Vengi remained firmly under the control of the Cholas. Someshvara I again launched an attack on Vengi and then the Cholas in 1054. After Rajadhiraja died, Rajendra II crowned himself on the battlefield. He galvanized the Chola army, defeating the Chalukyas under Someshvara I. The Chalukya king again fled the battlefield, leaving behind his queen and riches in
7020-449: The central and southern vimanams (towers) are now extant. Of the third or the northern shrine, the basement alone remains. The architectural style of these shrines exhibit clear concordance with the later Chola temples. Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I . A number of smaller shrines were built during the early phase of this period. Notable amongst these
7137-608: The city, by affording them daily audience, presents and allowing them profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies." Chola architecture The period of the imperial Cholas (c. 850 CE – 1250 CE) in South India was an age of continuous improvement and refinement of Chola art and architecture . They utilised the wealth earned through their extensive conquests in building long-lasting stone temples and exquisite bronze sculptures, in an almost exclusively Dravidian cultural setting. The Cholas built their temples in
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#17327938136257254-444: The confiscation of property. The Chola military had four elements; the cavalry, the elephant corps, several divisions of infantry, and a navy. The Emperor was the supreme commander. There were regiments of bowmen and swordsmen, the latter of which were the most-permanent and most-dependable troops. The Chola army was spread all over the country and was stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams . Elephants played
7371-488: The consent of the Kalyani court, established himself permanently in the kingdom. Meanwhile, prince Rajendra Chalukya, son of Rajaraja Narendra through the Chola princess Ammangai, was brought up in the Chola harem. Rajendra Chalukya married Madhurantakidevi, the daughter of RajendraII. To restore him on the Vengi throne, RajendraII sent his son Rajamahendra and brother ViraRajendra against the Western Chalukyas and Vijayaditya VII. Chola forces marched against Gangavadi and repelled
7488-430: The course of trade. These corporations had mercenary armies for the protection of their merchandise. There were also local organisations of merchants called " nagaram " in big centres of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram. Hospitals were maintained by the Chola kings, whose government gave lands for that purpose. The Tirumukkudal inscription shows a hospital was named after Virarajendra . Many diseases were cured by
7605-570: The dark black basalt figures in the temple niches of Dakshinamurti, the image on the southern side of Shiva in a teaching attitude, and to the west, Shiva erupting out of the pillar of light to convince Brahma and Vishnu of his superiority. The front mandapam is in the form of a huge chariot drawn by horses. The final example of this period is the Kampaheswarar temple at Tribhuvanam near Kumbakonam which has survived in good repair as built by Kulothunga III . The architecture of this temple
7722-400: The day-to-day administration of the temple. The inscriptions give, apart from a comprehensive history of the times, a full enumeration of all the metallic images set up in the temple. Numbering about sixty-six, these icons are referred to with a description of the minutest details of size, shape and composition. This alone is a mine of information for the art historian. The temple stands within
7839-407: The death of the death of Adhirajendra, Rajendra Chalukya established himself on the Chola throne as Kulottunga I (1070–1122), beginning the Later Chola or Chalukya-Chola period. Kulothunga I reconciled himself with his uncle Vijayaditya VII and allowed him to rule Vengi for the rest of his life. The Eastern Chalukya line came to an end with Vijayaditya's death in 1075 and Vengi became a province of
7956-439: The decree of Raja Raja confiscating the lands of the murderers. As per epigraphs, the inquiry into the death was completed in the second year of Rajaraja Chola I 's reign and the lands of certain officials were confiscated for their complicity in the murder of "Karikala Chola who took the head of the Pandya". Historians are divided as to whether the inscription says that the confiscation was a direct royal order of RajaRaja or that
8073-459: The decree was giving permission for selling the land confiscated earlier from the killers. According to archaeologist Kudavayil Balasubramanian , "Dr K T Tirunavukkarasu in his collection of historical essays titled "Arunmozhi Aiyvu Thogudi", comprehensively ruled out Madurantaka Uttama's role in Aaditha Karikala's murder. In the said article, basing his view on a number of historical data points, Dr Tirunavukkarasu has gone on to explain that there
8190-428: The deity's name as Peruvudaiyarkovil . In later period Maratha and Nayaks rulers constructed various shrines and gopurams of the temple. In later period when the Sanskrit language was more popular during the Maratha rule the temple was named in Sanskrit as Brihadisvaram and the deity as Brihadisvara. This temple carries on its walls the engraved evidence of the elaborate administrative and financial procedures concerning
8307-405: The doctors of the hospital, which was under the control of a chief physician, who was paid annually eighty kalams of paddy, eight kasus , and a grant of land. Apart from the doctors, other remunerated staff included a nurse, a barber who performed minor operations, and a waterman. The Chola queen Kundavai established a hospital at Tanjavur and gave land for its perpetual maintenance. During
8424-592: The dominions of the Pandya prince in the south. The Pandya, who was under the protection of the Vijayanagara , appealed to the emperor and the Raya accordingly directed his agent ( Karyakartta ) Nagama Nayaka, who was stationed in the south, to put down the Chola. Nagama Nayaka then defeated the Chola but the once-loyal officer of Krishnadeva Raya defied the emperor and decided to keep Madurai for himself. Krishnadeva Raya
8541-431: The dwarf Apasmara , who represents ignorance . Shiva's right front hand is raised in the "fear-not" gesture of benediction ( abhaya mudra ), while his right rear hand holds a drum with which he beats the measure of the dance. The snake , an emblem of Siva, curls around his arm. His hair holds the crescent moon - another emblem - and a small image of Ganges , the river-goddess whose precipitous fall from heaven to earth
8658-576: The early cave temples and monolith temples of Mamallapuram to the Vaikunta Perumal temple of Kanchipuram . This architecture style formed the foundation from which the Cholas, who were in close contact with the Pallavas during their periods of decline, took some valuable lessons according to Nilakanta Sastri, in his A History of South India . The early Cholas built numerous temples. Aditya I and Parantaka I were prolific builders for their faith. Inscriptions of Aditya I record that he built
8775-674: The entire Malabar Coast (the Chea country) in addition to Lakshadweep and the Maldives islands. Rajaraja Chola I was an energetic ruler who applied himself to the task of governance with the same zeal he had shown in waging wars. He integrated his empire into a tight, administrative grid under royal control and strengthened local self-government. In 1000, Rajaraja conducted a land survey to effectively marshall his empire's resources. He built Brihadeeswarar Temple in 1010. Rajendra conquered Odisha and his armies continued north and defeated
8892-412: The entire state of Tamil Nadu as also adjoining parts of modern Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. In the evolution of the Chola temple architecture we can roughly see three major phases, beginning with the early phase, starting with Vijayalaya Chola and continuing till Sundara Chola, the middle phase of Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola when the achievements scaled heights never reached before or since and
9009-470: The expansion of the empire, including the conquest of the Sri Lanka islands and naval raids on Srivijaya. The navy grew both in size and status during the medieval Cholas reign. Chola admirals commanded much respect and prestige, and naval commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances. From 900 to 1100, the navy grew from a small entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in Asia, but
9126-468: The final phase during the Chalukya Chola period of Kulottunga I till the demise of the Chola empire. The Cholas in addition to their temples, also built many buildings such as hospitals, public utility buildings and palaces. Many such buildings find mention in their inscriptions and in contemporary accounts. The golden palace that Aditya Karikala supposedly built for his father Sundara Chola
9243-646: The forces of the Pala dynasty of Bengal , and reached the Ganges river in northern India. Rajendra built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India. Rajendra I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia, which led to the decline of the empire there. This expedition left such an impression on the Malay people of the medieval period his name
9360-556: The form of Nataraja , the Divine Dancer. While the stone sculpture and the inner sanctum image empowering the temple remained immovable, changing religious concepts during the period around the 10th century demanded that the deities take part in a variety of public roles similar to those of a human monarch. As a result, large bronze images were created to be carried outside the temple to participate in daily rituals, processions, and temple festivals. The round lugs and holes found on
9477-412: The inscribers had a high level of literacy and education. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children, although there is no evidence of systematic education system for
9594-424: The introduction of curves in the place of the strong straight lines of the Thanjavur vimana . The pyramidal body is slightly concave in its outline at its angles while the sides are curved to produce a somewhat convex outline. These curves enhance the beauty of form of the vimana though they distract from its stateliness and power. The Chola style continued to flourish for a century longer and expressed itself in
9711-450: The king royal justice would ensure a happy future for him, and that injustice would lead to divine punishment. The Cholas, who were in possession of parts of the west and east coasts of peninsular India, engaged in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. South Indian guilds played
9828-414: The local economy and as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for international trade. At the top of this economy were elite merchant groups ( samayam ) who organised and dominated the regions international maritime trade. The Chola Empire's main export was cotton cloth. Uraiyur, the capital of the early Chola rulers, was a centre for cotton textiles Tamil poets praised. Chola rulers encouraged
9945-453: The masses. Vocational education was through hereditary training, in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; monasteries ( matha or gatika ) were centres of learning and received government support. Under Chola kings, there was generally an emphasis on a fair justice system, and the kings were often described as sengol-valavan , the king who established just rule; and priests warned
10062-444: The mould is of a necessary thickness. Then the whole thing is dried and fired in an oven with cow-dung cakes. The wax model melts and flows out, while some of it vapourises. The metal alloy of bronze is melted and poured into the empty clay-mould. This particular bronze alloy is known as Pancha Loham . When the metal has filled all crevices and has settled and hardened and cooled, the mould is broken off. The bronze figure thus obtained
10179-514: The next 100 years but Kulothunga lost the territories in the island of Lanka and began to lose control of the Pandya territories. Under Rajaraja Chola III and his successor Rajendra Chola III, the Later Cholas were quite weak and experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I held Rajaraja Chola III as a hostage for some time. At the close of
10296-438: The particular avatar and religious context. Decorating temple bronzes in this way is a tradition at least a thousand years old and such decorations are referred to in 10th-century Chola inscriptions. In recent times, many of these priceless Chola bronzes have been stolen from their temples or museums, smuggled out of India and have found their way into the private museums of art collectors. Chola period bronzes were created using
10413-454: The possession of the victorious Chola army. The Cholas consolidated their hold on Vengi and Kalinga. Although there were occasional skirmishes with the Chalukyas, they were repeatedly defeated by both the Cholas and the Vengi princes, who openly professed loyalty to the Chola empire. Following the death of Rajaraja Narendra in 1061, another opportunity for the Kalyani court to strengthen its hold on Vengi arose. Vijayaditya VII seized Vengi and with
10530-517: The reign of Rajaraja III, the Hoysalas sided with the Cholas, and defeated the Kadava chieftain Kopperunjinga and the Pandyas, and established a presence in Tamil country. Rajendra Chola III, who succeeded Rajaraja III, was a more competent ruler who led successful expeditions to the north, as attested to by his epigraphs found as far as Cuddappah. He also defeated two Pandya princes, one of whom
10647-650: The resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India. A lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war, in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war, and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa and Pallavarayanpettai inscriptions. For three generations,
10764-457: The revenue to the centre. Rajaraja's reign initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment, and the empire was reorganised into units known as valanadus . The executive officer first communicated the order of the King to the local authorities. Afterwards, the records of the transaction was drawn up and attested by witnesses, who were either local magnates or government officers. In
10881-546: The rise of the Pandyan dynasty , which ultimately caused the Chola's downfall. The Cholas established a centralized form of government and a disciplined bureaucracy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal for building temples resulted in some of the greatest works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders, and regarded temples in their kingdoms as both places of worship and of economic activity. A prime example of Chola architecture
10998-416: The rule of Kulothunga Chola III, Chola administration and territorial integrity was stable and very prosperous, but during his rule, Chola power started declining following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–1216. Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control of the island of Sri Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. The decline of the Cholas was also marked by
11115-424: The settlements. Before the reign of Rajaraja I, huge parts of Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and local princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. Thereafter, until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133, when Chola power was at its peak, these hereditary lords and local princes almost vanished from Chola records, and were either replaced with or became dependent officials, through whom
11232-468: The technique used in these frescoes. A smooth batter of limestone mixture is applied over the stones, which took two to three days to set. Within that short span, such large paintings were painted with natural organic pigments. During the Nayak period, the Chola paintings were painted over. The Chola frescos lying underneath have an ardent spirit of saivism expressed in them. They probably synchronised with
11349-469: The temple is counted among the four early extant temples of the Chola Empire. Muvarkovil Temple in the Pudukkottai area was built by a feudatory of Parantaka II during the second half of the tenth century. As the name suggests, the temple complex has three main shrines standing side by side in a row dedicated to Lord Shiva , along the north-south direction, facing west. Out of these three, only two,
11466-555: The temple teaching the Vedas and Shastras . There is also mention of the remuneration to the teachers and students in the form of paddy. The temple is maintained and administered by the Archaeological Survey of India as a protected monument. The Koranganatha Temple dedicated to Lord Ranganatha (a form of Maha Vishnu ) at Srinivasanallur near Thottiyam is an example of the period of Parantaka I . The temple
11583-650: The temple. Huge Nandis (figures of the sacred bull) dot the corners of the Shikharam, and the Kalasam on top by itself is about 3.8 metres in height. Hundreds of stucco figures bejewel the Vimanam, although it is possible that some of these may have been added on during the Maratha period. The main deity is a lingam and is a huge, set in a two storeyed sanctum, and the walls surrounding the sanctum delight visitors as
11700-612: The throne of Kalyani for himself. When Virarajendra died in 1070, he was succeeded by his son Adhirajendra, who was assassinated a few months later, leaving the Chola dynasty was without a lineal successor in the Vijayalaya Chola line. Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya, and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi
11817-552: The traditional way of the Pallava dynasty , who were themselves influenced by the Amaravati school of architecture. The Chola artists and artisans further drew their influences from other contemporary art and architectural schools and elevated the Chola temple design to greater heights. The Chola kings built numerous temples throughout their kingdom, which normally comprised the plains, Central and Northern Tamil Nadu and at times
11934-514: The walls. There are carvings and rock cut temples similar to the Pallava architecture dedicated to Lord Vishnu . There are 12 Life sized sculptures of Maha Vishnu present in the temple. These paintings are dated not earlier than the 17th century. The little temple of Nageswara at Kumbakonam is also of the same period. The Varadharaja Perumal Temple is dedicated to the Hindu god Maha Vishnu . It
12051-490: The weaving industry and derived revenue from it. During this period, weavers started to organise themselves into guilds. Weavers had their own residential sector in all towns; the most important weaving communities in early medieval times were the Saliyar and Kaikolar . During the Chola period, silk weaving attained a high degree of skill and Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk. Metalcrafts peaked during
12168-421: Was Maravarman Sundara Pandya II, and briefly made the Pandyas submit to Chola control. The Hoysalas, under Vira Someswara, were quick to intervene and sided with the Pandyas, and repulsed the Cholas to counter the latter's revival. In South India, the Pandyas had become a great power that banished the Hoysalas from Malanadu and Kannada country; the Hoysalas were allies of the Cholas on Tamil country. The demise of
12285-489: Was a delay in apprehending the perpetrators immediately thereafter and it was only during Rajaraja I 's second regnal year that the culprits were brought to book . Suspicions were pointed to Uttama Chola , but confiscations of land belonging to culprits started before Raja Raja's period, suggesting that Uttama Chola did not spare the plotters. Among the punished were Ravidasan, Soman and Parameshwaran who were all government officials. Chola The Chola Empire , which
12402-535: Was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a kurram , nadu or kottam , depending on the area. A number of kurrams constituted a valanadu . These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period. Aside from the early capital at Thanjavur and the later one at Gangaikonda Cholapuram , Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals where occasional courts were held. Similar to other medieval Indian societies,
12519-571: Was assassinated in a political plot. After Parantaka II, Uttama Chola became the Chola emperor and was followed by Raja Raja Chola I , the greatest Chola monarch. Under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I , the Chola Empire reach its Imperial state. At its peak, the empire stretched from the northern parts of Sri Lanka northwards to the Godavari – Krishna river basin, up to the Konkan coast in Bhatkal,
12636-500: Was constructed by the Medieval Cholas . The temple is protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). This temple is situated on the banks of the river Kaveri, and is a small temple with beautiful sculptures on every surface. The base of the wall has a row of sculpted mythical animals that were a unique feature of Chola architecture. The first floor is made of bricks which have been plastered.According to historian Harle,
12753-480: Was defeated by Rashtrakutas under Krishna III and the Cholas' heir apparent Rajaditya Chola was killed in the Battle of Takkolam , in which the Cholas lost Tondaimandalam region to Rashtrakutas. The Cholas recovered their power during the reign of Parantaka II . The Chola army under the command of crown prince Aditha Karikalan defeated the Pandyas and expanded the kingdom to Tondaimandalam . Aditha Karikalan
12870-587: Was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers. An internal trade in several articles was carried out by organised mercantile corporations. The metal industries and the jewellers' art had reached a high degree of excellence. Sea salt was made under government supervision and control. Merchants organised into guilds that were described sometimes by the terms nanadesis ; these were powerful, autonomous corporations of merchants that visited other countries in
12987-409: Was followed by those of three of his sons in succession; Rajadhiraja I , Rajendra II , and Virarajendra . In his eagerness to restore Chola hegemony over Vengi to its former absolute state, Rajadhiraja I (1042–1052) led an expedition into Vengi country in 1044–1045. He fought a battle at Dhannada, and compelled the Western Chalukyan army and Vijayaditya VII to retreat in disorder. Rajendra then entered
13104-557: Was gradually reduced in significance when Cholas fought land battles to subjugate the Chalukyas of the Andhra-Kannada area in South India. Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income. Chola rulers issued coins in gold, silver, and copper. The Chola economy was based on three tiers; at the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns nagaram , which acted as redistribution centres for externally produced items bound for consumption in
13221-563: Was made the co-regent and heir apparent to the Chola throne even though Uttama Chola , the son of Gandaradita Chola, had more right to the throne. Aditha Karikalan was assassinated. Aditha was succeeded by Uttama Chola. The Udaiyarkudi stone inscriptions in Anandheeswarar temple at present day Udaiyarkudi in Tamil Nadu names the killers - Soman Sambavan, Ravidasan alias Panchavan Brammadhirajan, Parameswaran alias Irumudichozha Brammadhirajan and Malaiyanooran. The inscription also mentions
13338-615: Was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra . In 1070, Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga Devi and Rajaraja Narendra , ascended the Chola throne, beginning the Later Chola dynasty. The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga I, his son Vikrama Chola , and other successors Rajaraja II , Rajadhiraja II , and Kulothunga III , who conquered Kalinga, Ilam , and Kataha . The rule of
13455-474: Was no longer a privilege of the Brahmins (priest caste) and the Vellalar land owners. There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign. The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and contented life but there are reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities. The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates
13572-456: Was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy, and the upper ranks of the peasantry. In almost all villages, the distinction between persons paying the land tax ( iraikudigal ) and those who did not was clearly established. There was a class of hired day-labourers who assisted in agricultural operations on estates of other people and received
13689-524: Was the elder brother of Rajaraja Chola and Kundavai. He led the Chola expedition against the Pandyas and defeated the Pandya king Veerapandyan at the Battle of Chevur. He killed Veerapandiyan after chasing him on the banks of Vaigai river .According to the Esalam bronze and copper plates discovered at Esalam village in Tamil Nadu, Aditha Karikalan conquered the Pandya ruler in battle and beheaded him. Aditha
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