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120-511: The Adivasi are heterogeneous tribal groups across the Indian subcontinent . The term is a Sanskrit word coined in the 1930s by political activists to give the tribal people an indigenous identity by claiming an indigenous origin. The Constitution of India does not use the word Adivasi , instead referring to Scheduled Tribes and Janjati. The government of India does not officially recognise tribes as indigenous people . The country ratified

240-551: A concept of reincarnation . Tribals have their own distinct religions based in nature worship , certain Hindutva ideological groups such as BJP and Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) are proselytising them to Hinduism. Some tribal ancestor worshippers have raised objections to be being labelled as Hindu, Muslim, or Christian. Animism (from Latin animus, -i " soul , life ") is the worldview that non-human entities (animals, plants, and inanimate objects or phenomena) possess

360-488: A massive population decline due to disease within four years of the establishment of a colonial presence on the island in 1789. Land dispossession by the zamindars or interference by the colonial government resulted in a number of Adivasi revolts in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, such as the Bhumij rebellion of 1767-1833 and Santal hul (or Santhal rebellion ) of 1855–56. Although these were suppressed by

480-440: A mountain community some distance from where they work. Forestry and traditional agriculture is declining in the mountain areas of Japan, Europe and the eastern United States as government subsidies are withdrawn. Outside Europe and Japan the human population in mountains is rising as they are used as refuges, sources of minerals, for tourism, and for commercial forestry, farming and animal husbandry. Colonization and immigration in

600-597: A nation-state (today the Republic of India). According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the term subcontinent signifies a "subdivision of a continent which has a distinct geographical, political, or cultural identity" and also a "large land mass somewhat smaller than a continent". Its use to signify the Indian subcontinent is evidenced from the early twentieth century when most of the territory

720-521: A part of South Asia, is usually not included in the Indian subcontinent. Maldives, an island country consisting of a small archipelago southwest of the peninsula, while largely considered a part of the Indian subcontinent, sometimes is mentioned by sources, including the International Monetary Fund , as a group of islands away from the Indian subcontinent in a south-western direction. The population of Indian subcontinent

840-604: A part of the subcontinent, while excluding the British Indian Ocean Territory which is geologically associated with the subcontinent. Geologically, the subcontinent originates from Insular India , an isolated landmass that rifted from the supercontinent of Gondwana during the Cretaceous and merged with the landmass of Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, forming the Himalayas. It

960-415: A river or a no man's land . The precise definition of an "Indian subcontinent" in a geopolitical context is somewhat contested as there is no globally accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or the Indian subcontinent. Whether called the Indian subcontinent or South Asia, the definition of the geographical extent of this region varies. Afghanistan , despite often considered as

1080-479: A spiritual essence. The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Society estimates that 1–5% of India's population is animist. India's government recognises that India's indigenous subscribe to pre-Hindu animist-based religions. Animism is used in the anthropology of religion as a term for the belief system of some indigenous tribal peoples , especially prior to the development of organised religion. Although each culture has its own different mythologies and rituals, "animism"

1200-736: Is about 1.912 billion which makes it the most populated region in the world. It is socially very mixed, consisting of many language groups and religions, and social practices in one region that are vastly different from those in another. [REDACTED] Media related to Indian subcontinent at Wikimedia Commons [REDACTED] Africa [REDACTED] Antarctica [REDACTED] Asia [REDACTED] Australia [REDACTED] Europe [REDACTED] North America [REDACTED] South America [REDACTED] Afro-Eurasia [REDACTED] Americas [REDACTED] Eurasia [REDACTED] Oceania Mountain people People have used or lived in

1320-461: Is an Indian holy man, and a title of a devotee or ascetic, especially in north and east India. Generally, a holy or saintly person is referred to as a mahatma, paramahamsa, or swami, or given the prefix Sri or Srila before their name. The term is sometimes misrepresented in English as " Hindu saint ", although "sant" is unrelated to "saint". Some Hindus do not believe that Indian tribals are close to

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1440-609: Is classified as mountain, including plateaus. This accounts for 20% of the total. Mountain regions in a 2003 study by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations follow the WCMC classification. Mountain environments vary depending on their latitude and their proximity to the edge of a landmass. The windward side will have greater rainfall than the leeward. The mountain environment can be harsh, particularly in

1560-945: Is difficult to predict how well the mountain populations will adapt to changes in the resources on which they rely for subsistence, although it seems clear that there will be increased competition for use of the land for different purposes. People have lived in mountain regions for thousands of years. Some may have sought refuge from persecution or from changing climate, while others may have migrated in search of food. New arrivals sometimes settled and developed prosperous farming communities. Streams, rivers and lakes that provide water for agriculture and domestic use are often found in valleys with flat ground suitable for cultivation of crops. These are prime locations for settlements. The streams could also be harnessed by mills to process grain. More recently they are used for hydroelectric plants, which provide overall social benefits but can be very disruptive locally. The difficulty of movement between valleys in

1680-535: Is dominated by Munda tribes like the Bhumijs , Hos and Santals . Roughly 75% of the total tribal population live in this belt, although the tribal population there accounts for only around 10% of the region's total population. Further south, the region near Bellary in Karnataka has a large concentration of tribals, mostly Boyas/ Valmikis . Small pockets can be found throughout the rest of South India. By far

1800-666: Is dominated by Indo-Aryan speaking tribes like the Bhils . The central region, covering eastern Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, western and southern Chhattisgarh, northern and eastern Telangana, northern Andhra Pradesh and western Odisha is dominated by Dravidian tribes like the Gonds and Khonds . The eastern belt, centred on the Chhota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand and adjacent areas of Chhattisgarh, Odisha and West Bengal,

1920-552: Is marked by the dominance and interplay with spirit worship, witch doctors and animal sacrifice. Some historians and anthropologists assert that many Hindu practices might have been adopted from Adivasi culture. This also includes the sacred status of certain animals such as monkeys , cows, fish (matsya), peacocks , cobras ( nagas ) and elephants and plants such as the sacred fig ( pipal ), Ocimum tenuiflorum ( tulsi ) and Azadirachta indica ( neem ), which may once have held totemic importance for certain adivasi tribes. A sant

2040-575: Is no strong evidence that people who live at high elevations have become genetically adapted to the low levels of oxygen. They are not genetically isolated from the people of the lowlands, and typically move through a much wider range of elevations than other mountain species. However, studies have shown that some positive selected genes or gene regions do contribute to adaptation to high altitude in Andeans and Tibetans. Studies in Peru of aerobic capacity ,

2160-829: Is not yet evidence that inheritance is a strong factor in high-altitude adaptation in humans . The people of the tropical high mountains experience more exposure to solar irradiance than lowlanders, and must adapt to wider temperature extremes between day and night. Seasonal weather imposes periods of low and high activity, and of scarce and plentiful food. Unpredictable droughts, periods of intense cold, plant and animal disease, and so on make food availability uncertain. An estimated 245 million mountain people are thought to be at risk of food shortages. 87% of these live below 2,500 metres (8,200 ft). Water boils at lower temperatures at higher altitudes, so it takes longer to cook food and requires more water and fuel. Gathering fuel in turn requires energy. Compared to non-mountain populations,

2280-718: Is one of the most populated regions in the world, holding roughly 20–25 percent of the global population. Geographically, the peninsular region in Southern Asia is located below the Third Pole , delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Indo-Burman Ranges in the east. The neighboring geographical regions around the subcontinent include the Tibetan Plateau to

2400-460: Is practical to grow cash crops such as carrots , cabbage , beans , garlic and apples for sale in distant markets. In Africa there is strong pressure on the mid-elevation environment from commercial and subsistence farming. Rapid population growth in East Africa is mainly concentrated in the fertile farmlands of the mountain regions. Although the public has come to value the presence in

2520-414: Is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples' "spiritual" or "supernatural" perspectives. The animistic perspective is so fundamental, mundane, everyday and taken-for-granted that most animistic indigenous people do not even have a word in their languages that corresponds to "animism" (or even "religion"); the term is an anthropological construct rather than one designated by

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2640-506: Is the literature composed by the tribals of the Indian subcontinent. It is composed in more than 100 languages. The tradition of tribal literature includes oral literature and written literature in tribal languages and non-tribal languages. The basic feature of tribal literature is the presence of tribal philosophy in it. Prominent tribal writers include Nirmala Putul , Vahru Sonawane , Temsula Ao , Mamang Dai , Narayan , Rose Kerketta , Ram Dayal Munda , Vandana Tete , Anuj Lugun etc. In

2760-766: The 2011 census , and 2 million people in Bangladesh according to the 2010 estimate. Though claimed to be among the original inhabitants of India, many present-day Adivasi communities formed after the decline of the Indus Valley civilisation , harboring various degrees of ancestry from ancient hunter-gatherers , Indus Valley civilisation , Indo-Aryan , Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman language speakers. Tribal languages can be categorised into seven linguistic groupings, namely Andamanese ; Austro-Asiatic ; Dravidian ; Indo-Aryan ; Nihali ; Sino-Tibetan ; and Kra-Dai . Tribals of East, Central, West and South India use

2880-598: The Appalachians and mining for metal ores in the western mountains resulted in growth of settlements between 1850 and 1930. Many of these were abandoned during the Great Depression , but mining is still an important part of the mountain economy of the Americas. Although mining in the mountains has a very long history, the local communities often resent the exploitation of common lands by mining companies and

3000-490: The Census of India from 1871 to 1941, tribal people and their religions were described in several ways: Forest tribe (1891); animist (1901); tribal animist (1911); hill and forest tribe (1921); primitive tribe (1931); and tribes (1941). However, since the census of 1951, the tribal population has been recorded separately. Some Adivasis have been converted to Christianity starting with British period and after independence. During

3120-524: The Constitution of India . Tribal people constitute 8.6% of India 's population and 1.1% of Bangladesh 's. One concentration lies in a belt along the northwest Himalayas: consisting of Jammu and Kashmir , where are found many semi-nomadic groups, to Ladakh and northern Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand , where are found Tibeto-Burman groups. In the northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh , Meghalaya , Mizoram , and Nagaland , more than 90% of

3240-695: The Cretaceous . Insular India subsequently drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian Plate nearly 55 million years ago, during the Eocene , forming the Indian subcontinent. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains geologically active, prone to major earthquakes. Physiographically , it is a peninsular region in South Asia delineated by the Himalayas in

3360-412: The Himalayas . Geographically, it spans the countries of Bangladesh , Bhutan , the British Indian Ocean Territory (United Kingdom), India , Maldives , Nepal , Pakistan , and Sri Lanka . Although the terms "Indian subcontinent" and "South Asia" are often used interchangeably to denote the region, the geopolitical term of South Asia frequently includes Afghanistan , which is not considered

3480-802: The International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention 107 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples of the United Nations (1957) and refused to sign the ILO Convention 169 . Most of these groups are included in the Scheduled Tribe category under constitutional provisions in India. They comprise a substantial minority population of India and Bangladesh, making up 8.6% of India 's population and 1.1% of Bangladesh 's, or 104.2 million people in India, according to

3600-448: The International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention 107 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples of the United Nations (1957). In 1989, India refused to sign the ILO Convention 169 . The term Adivasi, in fact, is a modern Sanskrit word specifically coined in the 1930s by tribal political activists to give a differentiated indigenous identity to tribals by alleging that Indo-European and Dravidian speaking peoples are not indigenous. The word

3720-641: The Jagirdari system and then under the zamindari system. Beginning with the Permanent Settlement imposed by the British in Bengal and Bihar, which later became the template for a deepening of feudalism throughout India, the older social and economic system in the country began to alter radically. Land, both forest areas belonging to adivasis and settled farmland belonging to non-adivasi peasants,

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3840-618: The Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar , there are Brahmin and Badu (tribal) priests. The Badus have the most intimate contact with the deity of the temple, and only they can bathe and adorn it. The Bhils are mentioned in the Mahabharata . The Bhil boy Ekalavya 's teacher was Drona , and he had the honour to be invited to Yudhishthira 's Rajasuya Yajna at Indraprastha . Indian tribals were also part of royal armies in

3960-544: The Marma , Chakma , Bawm , Tripuri , Mizo , Mru , Rakhine and more. In Bangladesh most Adivasis are Buddhists who follow the Theravada school of Buddhism , Animism and Christianity are also followed in fact Buddhism has affected Adivasis so much that it has influenced local Animistic beliefs of other Adivasis. Though claimed to be the original inhabitants of India, many present-day Adivasi communities formed after

4080-712: The Munda , the Ho , the Santali , the Khuruk , and the others. The Munda, Ho, Santhal and Oraon tribe followed the Sarna religion, where Sarna means sacred grove. Their religion is based on the oral traditions passed from generation-to-generation. It involves worship of village deity, Sun and Moon. Animist hunter gatherer Nayaka people of Nilgiri hills of South India. Animism is the traditional religion of Nicobarese people ; their religion

4200-462: The Partition of India , citizens of Pakistan (which became independent of British India in 1947) and Bangladesh (which became independent of Pakistan in 1971) often perceive the use of the Indian subcontinent as offensive and suspicious because of the dominant placement of India in the term. As such it is being increasingly less used in those countries. Meanwhile, many Indian analysts prefer to use

4320-655: The Peruvian Andes and the Central Nepal Himalaya shows strong similarities. At low elevations crops in all three regions include fruits, and at mid elevations they all include cereals such as barley and wheat, and maize and rice in the Andes and Himalaya. Higher up the production gives way to tubers such as potatoes, then to forest, and then at high elevations to pasture for sheep , cattle , goats , and in Peru for camelids . The people of

4440-727: The Ramayana and in the Arthashastra . Shabari was a Bhil woman who offered Rama and Lakshmana jujubes when they were searching for Sita in the forest. Matanga, a Bhil, became a Brahmana. Bhangya Bhukya notes that during the final years of the British Raj , while education introduced Westernization in the hilly areas of central India, the regions also parallelly underwent the Hinduization and Rajputization processes. The Gond people and their chiefs started doing

4560-494: The alpine regions above the tree line at higher elevations and in the drier climates outside the tropics. No more than 3% of world's land that is highly suitable for agriculture lies in the mountain regions. Temperatures tend to always be high on the lower slopes near the equator, and there is often heavy rainfall year-round. Higher up and outside the tropics, temperatures can soar in the daytime and plummet at night. Usually there are strong winds, frequent freezing and thawing at

4680-527: The spread of Buddhism out of the subcontinent into other parts of Asia. The Islamic expansion arrived into the subcontinent in two ways: through Afghanistan on land, and to the Indian coast through the maritime routes on the Arabian Sea. In terms of modern geopolitical boundaries, the subcontinent constitutes Bangladesh , Bhutan , India, Nepal , and Pakistan , besides, by convention, the island country of Sri Lanka and other nearby island nations of

4800-472: The "caste–Hindu practices" and frequently claimed the " Rajput , and thus kshatriya status". The British government used to support these claims as they viewed the adivasi society to be less civilized than the caste society and believed that adivasi peoples' association with the castes would make the adivasis "more civilized and sober" and "easier for the colonial state to control". Bhukya also points out that central India's "Raj Gond families" had already adopted

4920-635: The Adivasi origins of Valmiki , who composed the Ramayana , were acknowledged, as were the origins of Adivasi tribes such as the Garasia and Bhilala , which descended from mixed Rajput and Bhil marriages. Unlike the subjugation of the Dalits, the Adivasis often enjoyed autonomy and, depending on region, evolved mixed hunter-gatherer and farming economies, controlling their lands as a joint patrimony of

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5040-660: The Adivasis and the rest of Indian society is patchy. There are references to alliances between Ahom Kings of Brahmaputra valley and the hill Nagas. This relative autonomy and collective ownership of Adivasi land by Adivasis was severely disrupted by the advent of the Mughals in the early 16th century. Rebellions against Mughal authority include the Bhil Rebellion of 1632 and the Bhil-Gond Insurrection of 1643 which were both pacified by Mughal soldiers. With

5160-462: The Alps. The rugged mountains of the island of Papua New Guinea contain fertile valleys with temperate climates that are densely farmed using traditional techniques. The 7.6 million people of the island speak almost 1,300 languages, many of which are spoken by only a few hundred people. The cultural groups that live in the mountains are often minorities within their countries, although they may be in

5280-414: The Andes maintain what John Victor Murra calls "vertical control", in which groups of people use kinship and other arrangements to access the resources of a range of ecological zones at different elevations, and thus to access a variety of crops and animals. This gives more security than dependence on a single resource. The volcanic mountain region of Java supports dense populations who take advantage of

5400-575: The Hinduization of tribal areas". Some Adivasi organisations have demanded that a distinct religious code be listed for Adivasis in the 2011 census of India. The All India Adivasi Conference was held on 1 and 2 January 2011 at Burnpur, Asansol, West Bengal. 750 delegates were present from all parts of India and cast their votes for Religion code as follows: Sari Dhorom  – 632, Sarna  – 51, Kherwalism  – 14 and Other Religions – 03. Census of India . Tribal communities in India are

5520-511: The Indian Ocean, such as Maldives and the British Indian Ocean Territory . Unlike "South Asia", sometimes the expression "Indian subcontinent" may exclude the islands of Maldives and Sri Lanka. According to Pawan Budhwar, Arup Varma, and Manjusha Hirekhan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan constitute the Indian subcontinent. Budhwar, Varma, and Hirekhan also maintain that with Afghanistan and Maldives included

5640-798: The Indian Plate along with the Chagos–Laccadive Ridge , a submarine ridge that was generated by the northern drift of the Indian Plate over the Réunion hotspot during the Cretaceous and early Cenozoic times. The Maldives archipelago rises from a basement of volcanic basalt outpourings from a depth of about 2000 m forming the central part of the ridge between Laccadives and the Great Chagos Bank . According to anthropologist Patrap C. Dutta, "the Indian subcontinent occupies

5760-563: The Indian context. Adivasi is the collective term for the tribes of the Indian subcontinent , who are claimed to be the indigenous people of India prior to the Dravidians and Indo-Aryans. It refers to "any of various ethnic groups considered to be the original inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent." However, Tribal and Adivasi have different meanings. Tribal means a social unit whereas Adivasi means ancient inhabitants. India does not recognise tribes as indigenous people. India ratified

5880-638: The South Asian mountains work in other countries such as the Gulf States and send part of their earnings home. Men in the Andes often find seasonal work in the lowland farms and oilfields, or work in developed countries such as Spain. This creates a fragile economy where the old people, women and children who remain behind depend on remittances from the men. The situation in Europe and North America used to be similar, but with improved transportation today

6000-593: The Southern Hemisphere. Historically, the region surrounding and southeast of the Indus River was often simply referred to as "India" in many historical sources. Even today, historians use this term to denote the entire Indian subcontinent when discussing history up until the era of the British Raj. Over time, however, "India" evolved to refer to a distinct political entity that eventually became

6120-821: The Western Fold Belt along the border (between the Sulaiman Range and the Chaman Fault) is the western boundary of the Indian Plate, where, along the Eastern Hindu Kush, lies the Afghanistan–Pakistan border. In the east, it is bounded by Patkai , Naga , Lushai and Chin hills. The Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea form the boundary of the Indian subcontinent in the south, south-east and south-west. Given

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6240-413: The abundant timber for fire and shelter. The Dayaks of Kalimantan still follow a traditional hunting and gathering lifestyle, although they are under growing pressure from the outside world. Later human settlers in the mountains practiced a combination of hunting and gathering, raising crops and tending livestock, with most families involved in all these activities. As specialist workers have emerged,

6360-574: The advent of the Kachwaha Rajputs and Mughals into their territory, the Meenas were gradually sidelined and pushed deep into the forests. As a result, historical literature has completely bypassed the Meena tribe. The combined army of Mughals and Bharmal attacked the tribal king Bada Meena and killed him damaging 52 kots and 56 gates. Bada's treasure was shared between Mughals and Bharmal. During

6480-516: The associated environmental damage. So far, there has been relatively little mining in the Hindu Kush , Karakoram and Himalayas , although this seems likely to change. Many of the mountain people in developing countries are poor and depend on scarce or diminishing food resources from agriculture or livestock. They may be partially employed in forestry, mining and service jobs. In the past Gurkhas , Swiss and Scottish highlanders served as mercenaries in foreign countries. Today many people from

6600-438: The body's ability to obtain oxygen, show that there is little difference between natives born at high elevations and lowlanders who move to high elevations when they were young children, although the lowlanders had more European ancestry than the high elevation natives. Aerobic capacity was lower with migrants who moved up in their adolescence, and lower again in those who moved as adults. Genetics are obviously important, but there

6720-806: The case of Bangladesh , most Adivasi groups are found in the Chittagong hill tracks along the border with Myanmar , in Sylhet and in the Northwest of Bangladesh . In Sylhet and in the north west you can find groups such as the Sauria Paharia , Kurukh , Santal , Munda and more, and other groups such as the Pnar , Garo , Meitei , Bishnupriya Manipuri and more. In the Chittagong Hill tracts you can find variouse Tibeto-Burman groups such as

6840-410: The colonial period. In 2006, India finally made a law to "undo the historical injustice" committed to the Adivasis. Tribals of North East India don't use the term adivasi for themselves and use the word tribe. In Assam , the term adivāsi applies only to the Tea-tribes imported from Central India during colonial times. A substantial list of Scheduled Tribes in India are recognised as tribal under

6960-496: The critical density of 25 people per km . The growing mountain population in developing and transition countries is creating serious environmental problems in forest and grazing lands. Some of the forest or grazing land could be converted to crops for subsistence or cash, but 78% is unsuitable for this purpose, or only marginally suitable. Paleolithic hunters and gatherers followed the mountain fauna as they moved from summer to winter pastures, fished, gathered edible plants and used

7080-636: The decline of the Indus Valley civilisation , harboring various degrees of ancestry from ancient hunter-gatherers , Indus Valley civilisation , Indo-Aryan , Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman language speakers. Only tribal people of Andaman Islands remained isolated for more than 25000 years. According to linguist Anvita Abbi , tribes in India are characterized by distinct lifestyle and are outside of caste system . Although considered uncivilised and primitive, Adivasis were usually not held to be intrinsically impure by surrounding populations (usually Dravidian or Indo-Aryan ), unlike Dalits , who were. Thus,

7200-399: The developed world the mountain people are generally prosperous, and the mountains may be used for tourism and outdoor recreation. Mining is also widespread and dates back to the pre-Christian era. In parts of the developing world the mountain communities depend on remittances from young men who have gone to work in the lowlands or overseas. Although 70% of mountain people live in rural areas,

7320-426: The difficulty of passage through the Himalayas, the sociocultural, religious and political interaction of the Indian subcontinent has largely been through the valleys of Afghanistan in its northwest, the valleys of Manipur in its east, and by maritime routes . More difficult but historically important interaction has also occurred through passages pioneered by the Tibetans . These routes and interactions have led to

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7440-417: The emerging tea plantations in Assam . There were tribal reform and rebellion movements during the period of the British Empire , some of which also participated in the Indian independence movement or attacked mission posts. There were several Adivasis in the Indian independence movement including Birsa Munda, Dharindhar Bhyuan, Laxman Naik, Jantya Bhil, Bangaru Devi and Rehma Vasave, Mangri Oraon. During

7560-417: The forests and resources they traditionally depended on and sometimes coerced to pay taxes, many adivasis were forced to borrow at usurious rates from moneylenders, often the zamindars themselves. When they were unable to pay, that forced them to become bonded labourers for the zamindars. Often, far from paying off the principal of their debt, they were unable even to offset the compounding interest, and this

7680-487: The formal definition. 22% of the world's land, or 29,000,000 square kilometres (11,000,000 sq mi) is classified as a mountain region, of which about half is below 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). Rugged land is considered a mountain region if it is at least 300 metres (980 ft) above sea level, but plateaus and broad valleys running through the mountains below 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) are not considered mountain regions. All land above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft)

7800-524: The fragile soil. Often human activity has degraded the mountain environments. Humans have reduced biodiversity in many of the world's mountain regions. Areas with high biodiversity where the environment is under intense stress include California 's montane ecoregions ( California montane chaparral and woodlands ), the mixed forest ecoregion in the Caucasus , and in northwest South America the Magdalena Valley montane forests , Magdalena–Urabá moist forests and Western Ecuador moist forests . Almost 28% of

7920-542: The governing British authority (the East India Company prior to 1858, and the British government after 1858), partial restoration of privileges to adivasi elites (e.g. to Mankis , the leaders of Munda tribes ) and some leniency in levels of taxation resulted in relative calm in the region, despite continuing and widespread dispossession from the late nineteenth century onwards. The economic deprivation, in some cases, triggered internal adivasi migrations within India that would continue for another century, including as labour for

8040-627: The higher levels, snow, sleet and heavy rainfall in some areas, causing steady erosion. The thin soils on the slopes do not retain water, and only support drought-resistant plants . Often these plants are low and store energy in spreading roots, with relatively little vegetation above ground. This vegetation may be cleared for cultivation or road building, or may be overgrazed, resulting in rapid soil loss through erosion. People have both adapted to mountain conditions and modified those conditions. For example, farmers in many areas use terracing to retain soil and water. Contour ploughing also helps stabilize

8160-515: The highest percentages of mountain people are Bhutan (89%), Rwanda (75%), Lesotho (73%), Armenia (70%), Guatemala (64%), Costa Rica (63%) and Yemen (61%). About 70% of the mountain population is rural and relies on farming, fishing and extraction from local forests. The permanent mountain population also includes itinerant mineral prospectors, miners, loggers, construction workers and others who move from place to place. Better roads and vehicles may allow these people to live permanently in

8280-420: The lack of roads may be seen as evidence of discrimination. Today, new transport and communications technologies are bringing goods, services, infrastructure and information to even the most remote parts of the mountains. The mountain communities are being forced to integrate with the larger global society. The Food and Agriculture Organization estimated in their 2003 report that around 720 million, or 12% of

8400-683: The largest of these pockets is in found in the region containing the Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu , Wayanad district of Kerala and nearby hill ranges of Chamarajanagar and Mysore districts of southern Karnataka . Further south, only small pockets of tribal settlement remain in the Western and Eastern Ghats. The scheduled tribe population in Jharkhand constitutes 26.2% of the state. Tribals in Jharkhand mainly follow Sarnaism , an animistic religion. Chhattisgarh has also over 80 lakh scheduled tribe population. Assam has over 60 lakh Adivasis primarily as tea workers. Adivasis in India mainly follow Animism , Hinduism and Christianity . In

8520-628: The last 400 years have been causing steady population growth in formerly less populated mountain areas in Africa, Australia, New Zealand, South America, Canada and the Western United States, also in some places such as Talysh people lands in Iran there are people who still live on mountains . Many of the high-elevation people grow slowly and have small bodies. This may reduce their energy requirements without affecting their ability to handle hypoxia , cold and work demands. Long term high-elevation residents have expanded lungs and hearts, higher levels of hemoglobin in their blood and shorter limbs. There

8640-449: The last two decades Adivasi from Odisha , Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand have converted to Protestantism , as a result of increased presence of missionaries. Adivasi beliefs vary by tribe, and are usually different from the historical Vedic religion , with its monistic underpinnings, Indo-European deities (who are often cognates of ancient Iranian, Greek and Roman deities, e.g. Mitra / Mithra / Mithras ), lack of idol worship and lack of

8760-854: The least educationally developed. First generation learners have to face social, psychological and cultural barriers to get education. This has been one of the reasons for poor performance of tribal students in schools. Poor literacy rate since independence has resulted in absence of tribals in academia and higher education. The literacy rate for STs has gone up from 8.5% (male – 13.8%, female – 3.2%) in 1961 to 29.6% (male – 40.6%, female – 18.2%) in 1991 and to 40% (male – 59%, female – 37%) in 1999–2000. States with large proportion of STs like Mizoram, Nagaland and Meghalaya have high literacy rate while states with large number of tribals like Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh have low tribal literacy rate. Tribal students have very high drop-out rates during school education. Extending

8880-513: The major landmass of South Asia." According to historian B. N. Mukherjee , "The subcontinent is an indivisible geographical entity." According to geographer Dudley Stamp , "There is perhaps no mainland part of the world better marked off by nature as a region or a 'realm' by itself than the Indian subcontinent." This natural physical landmass in South Asia is the dry-land portion of the Indian Plate , which has been relatively isolated from

9000-880: The majority in their region. This is true of the Tibetans , Naxi , Miao , Yi and Uyghurs in China, the Kurds in the north of Iraq and the east of Turkey , the Amhars in Ethiopia and the Quechua and Aymara in the Andes. Often the mountain people are marginalized both politically and economically. The isolated mountain regions of the Atlas, Peru and Cuba have served as bases for guerrilla rebels. While mountain areas are more isolated than lower or flatter lands, when measured by

9120-413: The members of each household perform fewer activities, but there are more occupations within the community as a whole. This trend has accelerated in the last 400 years, driven by the industrial revolution and colonialism, the transition to commercial produce such as furs and minerals, and the recent growth of tourism. During this period large numbers of Han Chinese settlers migrated to the mountain areas in

9240-500: The mountain forests so as to reduce flooding and erosion. The impact of climate change on mountain environments is not well understood, but they seem to be more sensitive than the lowlands. The higher-level ecosystems will be forced up the mountains as temperatures rise, shrinking in size and at some point disappearing. Threats include environmental stress during adaptation to higher mean annual temperatures, changes to precipitation patterns and more frequent extreme weather events. It

9360-476: The mountain people are quite prosperous. The mountains are visited seasonally by nomadic pastoralists such as the Gaddis and Gurjars in the western Himalayas. A similar seasonal pattern was followed by North American hunters and gatherers in the past. Other semi-permanent residents in the developed countries include young people who find jobs in the ski resorts or as tree planters and people with second homes in

9480-414: The mountain people suffer more from malnutrition due to food shortage and deficiencies in micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), and suffer from respiratory diseases caused by the severe climate and smoke in their shelters during the cold periods. These problems are compounded by poor access to primary health care. Based on a detailed GIS survey, in mountain regions of developing and transitional countries

9600-544: The mountains for thousands of years, first as hunter-gatherers and later as farmers and pastoralists . The isolated communities are often culturally and linguistically diverse. Today about 720 million people, or 12% of the world's population, live in mountain regions, many of them economically and politically marginalized. The mountain residents have adapted to the conditions, but in the developing world they often suffer from food insecurity and poor health. They depend on crops, livestock and forest products, and tend to be poor. In

9720-764: The mountains in Latin America include Mexico City at 2,250 metres (7,380 ft), with about 21 million people, Bogotá at 2,650 metres (8,690 ft), Quito at 2,850 metres (9,350 ft), La Paz at 3,500 to 3,800 metres (11,500 to 12,500 ft), Caracas and Santiago . In North America they include Denver , Vancouver and Calgary . Geneva and Zürich are among European mountain cities, and Addis Ababa and Nairobi among African mountain cities. The list in Asia includes Tehran , Bandung , Chandigarh , Dehradun , Siliguri , Kathmandu , Chengdu and Kunming . The large cities are more or less influenced by

9840-479: The mountains of large predators such as bears , wolves and snow leopards , the local people tend not share that view, since the wildlife preys upon their livestock and crops. Mining has been an important part of mountain economies throughout history, with prospectors seeking precious stones, ores, coal and salt in the mountains of Europe and the Americas. In many places rock, gravel and sand quarries are also economically important. In North America, coal mining in

9960-519: The mountains they use for recreation. In South and East Asia, much of the labor for construction, road building and road maintenance is supplied by poor laborers from the lowlands. The Sherpas in the region near Mount Everest can often afford to employ Rai workers for most manual tasks. Almost 30% of mountain people live in towns or cities. The largest cities are on the margins of the mountains, or are on high plateaus, sometimes very high. Examples of large (over 1 million people) cities in or beside

10080-471: The mountains, including the low-lying Vancouver and Chandigarh, but to a lesser degree than the smaller cities and towns within the mountains. The smaller cities, typically in mountain valleys, are more closely linked to the mountain culture, although they have often diversified into tourism and recreation services, mineral processing, manufacturing, administration and services. The mountain cities, particularly in developing countries, are magnets to migrants from

10200-605: The north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east. It extends southward into the Indian Ocean with the Arabian Sea to the southwest and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast. Most of this region rests on the Indian Plate and is isolated from the rest of Asia by large mountain barriers. Laccadive Islands , Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago are three series of coral atolls , cays and Faroes on

10320-760: The north, the Indochinese Peninsula to the east, the Iranian Plateau to the west, and the Indian Ocean to the south. Apart from Maritime Southeast Asia (the Malay Archipelago ), the maritime region of the subcontinent ( littoral South Asia ) is the only subregion of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere : the British Indian Ocean Territory two of the 26 atolls of the Maldives lie entirely within

10440-507: The past has isolated mountain communities and contributed to high levels of cultural diversity. Nearby communities may have different languages and dialects, traditions, costumes, cuisine and economic systems. This is seen in the Andes and the western mountains of Canada. In the central Karakoram there are speakers of Shina , Urdu , Waki and Burushaski . Many distinct dialects of French , German , Italian and Romansch are spoken in

10560-482: The people themselves. Donyi-Polo is the designation given to the indigenous religions , of animistic and shamanic type, of the Tani , from Arunachal Pradesh , in northeastern India. The name "Donyi-Polo" means "Sun-Moon". Sarnaism or Sarna (local languages: Sarna Dhorom , meaning "religion of the holy woods") defines the indigenous religions of the Adivasi populations of the states of Central- East India , such as

10680-749: The percentage of the population that lives more than 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from a road the difference is not great as might be expected. Thus in Ethiopia 50% of mountain people and 40% of non-mountain people live more than 5 kilometres from a road. In Afghanistan and China 30% of mountain people live more than 5 kilometres from a road, compared to 20% of non-mountain people. In Peru the respective ratios are 20% and 13%. Population densities in inaccessible places are usually similar to accessible places. In Ethiopia and Afghanistan they are higher. The mountain people want land that can be farmed using traditional methods more than ease of travel to distant places. However,

10800-491: The period of British rule , the colonial administration encroached upon the adivasi tribal system, which led to widespread resentment against the British among the tribesmen. The tribesmen frequently supported rebellions or rebelled themselves, while their raja looked negatively upon the British administrative innovations. Beginning in the 18th century, the British added to the consolidation of feudalism in India, first under

10920-430: The period of British rule, India saw the rebellions of several then backward castes , mainly tribal peoples that revolted against British rule. These were: There are more than 700 tribal groups in India. The major Scheduled Tribes (Adivasi) are; Tribal languages can be categorised into five linguistic groupings, namely Andamanese ; Austro-Asiatic ; Dravidian ; Indo-Aryan ; and Sino-Tibetan . Adivasi literature

11040-409: The politically assertive term Adivasi , while Tribals of North East India use 'Tribal' or 'Scheduled Tribe' and do not use term 'Adivasi' for themselves. Adivasi studies is a new scholarly field, drawing upon archaeology, anthropology, agrarian history, environmental history, subaltern studies , indigenous studies, aboriginal studies, and developmental economics . It adds debates that are specific to

11160-539: The population is tribal. However, in the remaining northeast states of Assam , Manipur , Sikkim , and Tripura , tribal peoples form between 20 and 30% of the population. The largest population of tribals lives in a belt stretching from eastern Gujarat and Rajasthan in the west all the way to western West Bengal, a region known as the tribal belt . These tribes correspond roughly to three regions. The western region, in eastern Gujarat, southeastern Rajasthan, northwestern Maharashtra as well as western Madhya Pradesh ,

11280-472: The primary level, in the students' native language. In some regions, tribal children entering school must begin by learning the official regional language, often one completely unrelated to their tribal language. Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia , mostly situated on the Indian Plate , projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from

11400-456: The professions and high-ranking administrative posts. tribal children in middle and high schools and higher education institutions are central to government policy, but efforts to improve a tribe's educational status have had mixed results. Recruitment of qualified teachers and determination of the appropriate language of instruction also remain troublesome. Commission after commission on the "language question" has called for instruction, at least at

11520-512: The purposes of this constitution". The term Adivasi is also used for the ethnic minorities of Bangladesh , the Vedda people of Sri Lanka and the native Tharu people of Nepal . Another Nepalese term is Adivasi Janjati ( Nepali : आदिवासी जनजाति ; Adivāsi Janajāti ), although the political context differed historically under the Shah and Rana dynasties. In India, opposition to the usage of

11640-420: The region is referred to as South Asia. The periphery of the subcontinent, including Bangladesh, Pakistan, and the island chains of Maldives, features large Muslim populations, while the heartland, including most of India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, are overwhelmingly Hindu or Buddhist. Since most of these countries are located on the Indian Plate, a continuous landmass , the borders between countries are often either

11760-465: The religious and social traditions of the Rajputs before the British Raj in India, and there were "matrimonial relations" between a number of Gond and Rajput Rajas. However, the British governments' policies of offering " zamindari rights, village headships and patelships " fueled the process. According to Patit Paban Mishra, "the 'ksatriyaization' of tribal rulers and their surroundings, resulted in

11880-534: The rest live in cities, including large cities such as Mexico City, with a population of around 21 million. The cities attract temporary or permanent migrants from the rural areas. The smaller cities are more connected to the mountain culture and economy than the larger ones. Under the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) classification, mountain regions include both hills and mountains. See " Classes of mountain region " for

12000-516: The rest of Eurasia. The Himalayas (from Brahmaputra River in the east to Indus River in the west), Karakoram (from Indus River in the east to Yarkand River in the west) and the Hindu Kush mountains (from Yarkand River westwards) form its northern boundary. In the west it is bounded by parts of the mountain ranges of Hindu Kush , Spīn Ghar (Safed Koh), Sulaiman Mountains , Kirthar Mountains , Brahui range, and Pab range among others, with

12120-524: The rich soils and diverse altitude-based ecological zones. They accept a trade-off against the high potential for disastrous eruptions. Near the equator the sun is almost overhead all year, so the orientation of slopes is unimportant. Further away, the amount of sunlight varies considerably. In the Alps the south-facing slopes are preferred for settlements and farming, while the north-facing slopes are used for forestry and ski resorts. In mountain regions with seasonal climates, including Europe, North America,

12240-493: The romantic ideal of the ancient silvan culture of the Vedic people. Madhav Sadashiv Golwalkar said: The tribals "can be given yajñopavîta (...) They should be given equal rights and footings in the matter of religious rights, in temple worship, in the study of Vedas, and in general, in all our social and religious affairs. This is the only right solution for all the problems of casteism found nowadays in our Hindu society." At

12360-527: The rural areas of the mountains seeking work, security and other benefits. Many are ringed by densely-populated squatter communities. Mountain regions are classified by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) based on absolute elevation, slope and Local Elevation Range (LER), which is the range of elevations within a 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) radius, and indicates how hilly the land is. The 2003 FAO report gives

12480-515: The southern Andes and most of the Himalayas, high pastures can only be used in the summer and the people work in the lower forest zones during the winter. Nearer the equator in the central Andes, East Africa and Southeast Asia there may be less seasonal variation, and permanent settlements as high as 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) are practical, with economies based on herding and cold-resistant grains and tubers. Where crops were previously grown only for local consumption, with improved transportation it

12600-488: The southwest and west of China, while European settlers moved into South and North America. The indigenous people were often forced to work in commercial agricultural and mining enterprises. This transition was not entirely negative, but devastated many of the traditional mountain communities. Maize , millet , potatoes , tomatoes and wheat have their origins in mountain regions, as do tea , coffee and quinoa . A comparison of crops grown in southern Switzerland ,

12720-558: The subcontinent around the world e.g. " Australia's tour of the subcontinent". The word is also sometimes used as an adjective in this context e.g. "subcontinental conditions". The Indian subcontinent was formerly part of Gondwana , a supercontinent formed during the late Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic . Gondwana began to break up during the Mesozoic , with Insular India separating from Antarctica 130-120 million years ago and Madagascar around 90 million years ago, during

12840-412: The system of primary education into tribal areas and reserving places for needing them, they say, to work in the fields. On the other hand, in those parts of the northeast where tribes have generally been spared the wholesale onslaught of outsiders, schooling has helped tribal people to secure political and economic benefits. The education system there has provided a corps of highly trained tribal members in

12960-481: The term because of the socio-cultural commonalities of the region. The region has also been called the "Asian subcontinent", the "South Asian subcontinent", as well as "India" or " Greater India " in the classical and pre-modern sense. The sport of cricket is notably popular in India , Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Nepal and Bangladesh . Within a cricket context, these countries are often referred to simply as

13080-426: The term is varied. Critics argue that the "original inhabitant" contention is based on the fact that they have no land and are therefore asking for land reform. The Adivasis argue that they have been oppressed by the "superior group" and that they require and demand a reward, more specifically land reform. Adivasi issues are not related to land reforms but to the historical rights to the forests that were alienated during

13200-537: The tribe. In some areas, securing Adivasi approval and support was considered crucial by local rulers, and larger Adivasi groups were able to sustain their own kingdoms in central India. The Bhil , Meenas and Gond Rajas of Garha-Mandla and Chanda are examples of an Adivasi aristocracy that ruled in this region, and were "not only the hereditary leaders of their Gond subjects, but also held sway over substantial communities of non-tribals who recognized them as their feudal lords." The historiography of relationships between

13320-432: The types of land cover and actual land use are: 17% of the mountain population grows crops or combines crop, livestock and tree farming. 19% subsist from sparsely vegetated barren land, protected areas and closed forests. 44% of mountain land is used for grazing and is home to 64% of rural mountain people. At a global level, the average population density on grazing land below 3,500 metres (11,500 ft) meets or exceeds

13440-406: The usage of the term South Asia is becoming more widespread since it clearly distinguishes the region from East Asia. While South Asia , a more accurate term that reflects the region's contemporary political demarcations, is replacing the Indian subcontinent , a term closely linked to the region's colonial heritage, as a cover term, the latter is still widely used in typological studies. Since

13560-430: The use of word Adivasi as they believe the word unites the tribal people of India. Although terms such as atavika , vanavāsi ("forest dwellers"), or girijan (" mountain people ") are also used for the tribes of India, adivāsi carries the specific meaning of being the original and autochthonous inhabitants of a given region, and the self-designation of those tribal groups. The Constitution of India doesn't use

13680-642: The word Adivasi, and directs government officials to not use the word in official documents. The notified tribals are known as Scheduled Tribes and Janjati in the Constitution. The constitution of India grouped these ethnic groups together "as targets for social and economic development. Since that time the tribe of India have been known officially as Scheduled Tribes ." Article 366 (25) defined scheduled tribes as "such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for

13800-528: The world population, live in the mountains. Of these, no more than 10% are in developed countries. About half of all mountain people are in Asia, and there are large and rapidly growing populations in South and Central America. 70% live below 1,500 metres (4,900 ft), and less than 10% above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft). A very small number of people in the Himalayas and the Andes live permanently at elevations over 4,500 metres (14,800 ft). The countries with

13920-596: The world's forests grow on mountains. Forests are important in regulating water flows and providing fuel and construction material. Before humans arrived, most mountains in tropical and temperate climates would have been forested up to the tree line. Deforestation is not new, and began 3,000 years ago in China. Mountain forests around the Mediterranean and in Britain had been cleared 1,500 years ago. More recently, in China and Europe there have been efforts to restore

14040-663: Was either part of the British Empire or allied with them. It was a convenient term to refer to the region comprising both British India and the princely states . The term has been particularly common in the British Empire and its successors, while the term South Asia is the more common usage in Europe and North America. According to historians Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal , the Indian subcontinent has come to be known as South Asia "in more recent and neutral parlance". Indologist Ronald B. Inden argues that

14160-487: Was made the justification for their children working for the zamindar after the death of the initial borrower. In the case of the Andamanese adivasis, their protective isolation changed with the establishment of a British colonial presence on the islands. Lacking immunity against common infectious diseases of the Eurasian mainland, the large Jarawa habitats on the southeastern regions of South Andaman Island experienced

14280-428: Was rapidly made the legal property of British-designated zamindars (landlords), who in turn moved to extract the maximum economic benefit possible from their newfound property and subjects. Adivasi lands sometimes experienced an influx of non-local settlers, often brought from far away (as in the case of Muslims and Sikhs brought to Kol territory) by the zamindars to better exploit local land, forest and labour. Deprived of

14400-566: Was used by Thakkar Bapa to refer to inhabitants of forest in 1930s. The word was used in 1936 and included in English dictionary prepared by Pascal. The term was recognised by Markandey Katju the judge of the Supreme Court of India in 2011. In Hindi and Bengali, Adivasi means "Original Inhabitants," from ādi 'beginning, origin'; and vāsin 'dweller' (itself from vas 'to dwell'), thus literally meaning 'beginning inhabitant'. Tribal of India and different political parties are continuing

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