161-537: Gaspard de Coligny, seigneur de Châtillon ( French pronunciation: [ɡaspaʁ də kɔliɲi] ; 16 February 1519 – 24 August 1572), was a French nobleman, Admiral of France , and Huguenot leader during the French Wars of Religion . He served under kings Francis I and Henry II during the Italian Wars , attaining great prominence both due to his military skill and his relationship with his uncle,
322-553: A nation primarily located in Western Europe that share a common French culture , history , and language , identified with the country of France . The French people, especially the native speakers of langues d'oïl from northern and central France, are primarily descended from Romans (or Gallo-Romans , western European Celtic and Italic peoples ), Gauls (including the Belgae ), as well as Germanic peoples such as
483-487: A Protestant devotional book, as a way to console his brother during his time in captivity. The timing of Coligny's conversion to Calvinism is unclear, but by September 1558 he had received a letter about his salvation from Calvin. The priest Viret spoke highly of Coligny, praising him as a man of Christian virtue. Coligny's religious allegiance was suspect at court by 1559, the English ambassador noting his absence at Mass. For
644-578: A Protestant gentleman of Périgord , perhaps with the indirect encouragement of Louis of Bourbon, Prince of Condé , organized a palace coup , the conspiracy of Amboise , to seize the person of the Duke of Guise and his brother Charles , the Cardinal of Lorraine. When the ill-organized plot was put off for six days, it was discovered by the court well ahead of time. On 12 March 1560, the Huguenots stormed
805-593: A chance to cross examine Poltrot, to disprove these accusations. However Poltrot was hurriedly executed on 18 March, so that he would not be covered by the amnesty featured in the Edict of Amboise . Poltrots testimony would inflame the Guise who angrily called for vengeance. Condé and Montmorency defended Coligny at council on 15 May. With the support of the Montmorency, the old power struggle between Guise and Montmorency
966-466: A colonial venture, this time the colony of Fort Caroline in Spanish Florida led by Jean Ribault , it would prove a failure. The edict of Saint-Germain was the final straw for the lieutenant general, Navarre, who broke with the regency and urged Guise to hurry back so they could represent a united front against Catherine's policy. Having lost Navarre, Catherine's government was left with only
1127-646: A community of French Huguenots settled in South Africa . Most of these originally settled in the Cape Colony , but have since been quickly absorbed into the Afrikaner population. After Champlain's founding of Quebec City in 1608, it became the capital of New France . Encouraging settlement was difficult, and while some immigration did occur, by 1763 New France only had a population of some 65,000. From 1713 to 1787, 30,000 colonists immigrated from France to
1288-422: A defender of the princes against this house that was the son of a baron. The princes at court voted against Lorraine's motion, and the crown was able to compel Lorraine and Coligny to exchange the kiss of peace. This was confirmed in a declaration of Coligny's innocence established in edict on 29 January 1566. Coligny took no part in the negotiations of the Edict of Amboise , and blamed Condé for failing to achieve
1449-474: A direction agreed, the conference turned to planning specifics, with risings to take place in each baillage , the king to be seized at Meaux and Lorraine to be killed. While the plan would be a better kept secret than Amboise, word would eventually leak out, and the court, having heard of cavalry being assembled in the nearby villages, made a plan to head for Paris in the night quickly. Caught off guard by this sudden withdrawal Condé and Coligny pursued with only
1610-503: A major step towards the anti-Spanish alliance Coligny dreamed of. Yet once again he would run against the near unanimous opposition of the royal council to his plans. The fiasco of the Genlis expedition, which in July had crossed the border with 4000 infantry only to be crushed and slaughtered by Spanish troops, only worsened the outlook for Coligny's plans. The involvement of Coligny and even
1771-570: A majority of French people had other first languages (local languages such as Occitan , Catalan , Alsatian , West Flemish , Lorraine Franconian , Gallo , Picard or Ch'timi and Arpitan ). Today, many immigrants speak another tongue at home. According to historian Eric Hobsbawm , "the French language has been essential to the concept of 'France'," although in 1789, 50 percent of the French people did not speak it at all, and only 12 to 13 percent spoke it fairly well; even in oïl languages zones, it
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#17327983709211932-534: A military reformer, the regulations he drew up for maintaining infantry discipline being formally sanctioned by the king in 1551. Shortly thereafter he was further elevated with a position as a Knight of the Order of St. Michel. That year he married Charlotte de Laval (d. 1568). At this time he was close friends with two of the other leading men at court Francis, Duke of Guise and Piero Strozzi . Office continued to flow to him due to his uncles close relationship with
2093-512: A possible operation in support of Mary of Guise in Scotland against Elizabeth I . It was this endeavour that consumed Coligny and Andelot during the period of the conspiracy. In the wake of the conspiracy, Coligny wrote to Catherine, lending his support to the Edict of Amboise (1560) . In April, Coligny was sent to Normandy to continue preparations for the Scottish campaign. Conscious of
2254-510: A price of 50,000 écus on his head. Soon after the failures of the siege the rebels were dealt a far more devastating blow than Jarnac at the Battle of Moncontour . During the course of the battle Coligny received a pistol shot to the face and while he survived he had to withdraw from the field. The loss of their leader left the army confused and directionless, dooming it. While the Huguenot army
2415-550: A settlement that took advantage of what he felt was their advantageous position. He would remain largely uninvolved in the interpretative declarations that modified the peace over the next several years. He turned his attention to international enterprises, first concerning the colonial project in Florida, and then commercial activity in the North Sea. These enterprises would come to little. Having largely been absent from court over
2576-499: A siege. With the threat on the capital removed and Blois recently retaken, the royal army dispersed flying columns to clear the area around Paris. The main force marched on Bourges, quickly reducing it in early September. Condé and Coligny meanwhile, had been negotiating the Treaty of Hampton Court (1562) with Queen Elizabeth; which offered Le Havre to the queen, in return for military support. Coligny's knowledge of this particular term of
2737-421: A softer tone, arguing that the faiths should be brought back together through reform and the summit ended with an agreement to call a council. Coligny was among those in the assembly who argued in favour of an estates general, decrying the seclusion of the king from his people. While Coligny had failed to win over the assembly, he had marked himself out as the most eloquent leader of the reform party. In September,
2898-457: A third of the cavalry they had intended to bring, thrice charging at the phalanxes of Swiss that guarded the king as he fled, never able to break their line, forcing them to retreat. The king was safe, if furious in Paris, and the rebels were left with a dilemma of how to proceed. Hoping not to waste the initiative of the attack, Condé decided to starve Paris into submission, hoping he could capture
3059-486: Is also widely spoken, arguably the largest minority language in France as of the 21st century (a spot previously held by Breton and Occitan ). Modern French society is a melting pot . From the middle of the 19th century, it experienced a high rate of inward migration , mainly consisting of Spaniards , Portuguese , Italians , Arab-Berbers , Jews , Sub-Saharan Africans , Chinese , and other peoples from Africa ,
3220-623: Is estimated that 20,000 settlers were living in Saigon in 1945, and there were 68,430 European settlers living in Madagascar in 1958. 1.6 million European pieds noirs settlers migrated from Algeria , Tunisia and Morocco . In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 pied noir settlers left Algeria in the most massive relocation of population in Europe since the World War II . In
3381-399: Is happening as part of a background evolution and recent studies confirmed the results of their assimilation, showing that "North Africans seem to be characterized by a high degree of cultural integration reflected in a relatively high propensity to exogamy " with rates ranging from 20% to 50%. According to Emmanuel Todd the relatively high exogamy among French Algerians can be explained by
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#17327983709213542-498: Is my home". Indeed, the country has long valued its openness , tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renunciation of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries (for instance, this is the case with Switzerland : one can be both French and Swiss). The European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in
3703-602: Is such a thing as a "French ethnic group". The discourse of ethno-nationalist groups such as the Front National (FN), however, advances the concept of Français de souche or "indigenous" French. The conventional conception of French history starts with Ancient Gaul, and French national identity often views the Gauls as national precursors, either as biological ancestors (hence the refrain nos ancêtres les Gaulois ), as emotional/spiritual ancestors, or both. Vercingetorix ,
3864-509: Is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture. Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques (including oui , the word for "yes"), sound changes, and influences in conjugation and word order. Today, the last redoubt of Celtic language in France can be found in
4025-638: The Americas , with the exception of the Huguenots , due to a lower birthrate than in the rest of Europe. However, significant emigration of mainly Roman Catholic French populations led to the settlement of the Province of Acadia , Canada (New France) and Louisiana , all (at the time) French possessions, as well as colonies in the West Indies , Mascarene islands and Africa . On 30 December 1687,
4186-642: The Château d'Amboise , to which the Guises had moved the young king and queen for safety. The uprising was violently suppressed, with 1,200 executed, many within sight of the castle. In the immediate aftermath Condé was obliged to flee the court, and the power of the Guises was supreme. The discourse which Coligny , leader of the Huguenots , pronounced against les Guises in the Assembly of Notables at Fontainebleau (August 1560), did not influence King Francis II in
4347-612: The Count of Enghien , commanding a regiment, and was knighted on the Field of Ceresole . Returning to France, he took part in different military operations, including Strozzi's expedition to England in 1545. Upon the ascension of the dauphin Henri II , Montmorency returned to favour from disgrace, and Coligny quickly benefitted, being made colonel-general of the infantry a month into Henri's reign. He exhibited great capacity and intelligence as
4508-525: The Danelaw in the region known today as Normandy in the 9th and 10th centuries. This later became a fiefdom of the Kingdom of France under King Charles III . The Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process. The Normans, two centuries later, went on to conquer England and Southern Italy . Eventually, though, the largely autonomous Duchy of Normandy
4669-528: The Edict of Saint-Maur outlawing Protestantism in the kingdom. On 8 October Anjou took the field. Conscious both of their more precarious position, and the failure of their prior campaigns to achieve decisive success Condé and Coligny took a new approach to the conflict they faced. Instead of hinging around the Loire, they would operate out of the Huguenot heartlands in the south, fortifying towns such as Angoulême and Cognac . As they moved south in early 1569,
4830-1169: The Franks , the Visigoths , the Suebi and the Burgundians who settled in Gaul from east of the Rhine after the fall of the Roman Empire , as well as various later waves of lower-level irregular migration that have continued to the present day. The Norsemen also settled in Normandy in the 10th century and contributed significantly to the ancestry of the Normans . Furthermore, regional ethnic minorities also exist within France that have distinct lineages, languages and cultures such as Bretons in Brittany , Occitans in Occitania , Basques in
4991-865: The French Basque Country , Catalans in northern Catalonia , Germans in Alsace , Corsicans in Corsica and Flemings in French Flanders . France has long been a patchwork of local customs and regional differences, and while most French people still speak the French language as their mother tongue , languages like Picard , Poitevin-Saintongeais , Franco-Provencal , Occitan , Catalan , Auvergnat , Corsican , Basque , French Flemish , Lorraine Franconian , Alsatian , Norman , and Breton remain spoken in their respective regions. Arabic
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5152-568: The French Constitution , according to which "French" is a nationality , and not a specific ethnicity. France sits at the edge of the European peninsula and has seen waves of migration of groups that often settled owing to the presence of physical barriers preventing onward migration. This has led to language and regional cultural variegation, but the extent to which this pattern of migrations showed up in population genetics studies
5313-548: The French West Indies ( French Caribbean ), and in foreign countries with significant French-speaking population groups or not, such as the United States ( French Americans ), Canada ( French Canadians ), Argentina ( French Argentines ), Brazil ( French Brazilians ), Mexico ( French Mexicans ), Chile ( French Chileans ) and Uruguay ( French Uruguayans ). To be French, according to
5474-835: The House of Bourbon-Montpensier and both families would be outmanoeuvred by the Guise. Frustrated at the loss of his pre-eminence, Montmorency withdrew from court. When he was approached to partake in the Conspiracy of Amboise Coligny rebuffed the advances, being on good terms with Guise, even staying at his palace in Nanteuil during the Autumn of 1559. In January 1560 he resigned his governorship of Picardy, frustrated his request for funding of fortifications for several towns had been denied. Coligny visited court in February to gain details about
5635-475: The Industrial Revolution . The pace of industrial growth attracted millions of European immigrants over the next century, with especially large numbers arriving from Poland , Belgium , Portugal , Italy , and Spain . In the period from 1915 to 1950, many immigrants came from Czechoslovakia , Hungary , Russia , Scandinavia and Yugoslavia . Small but significant numbers of Frenchmen in
5796-691: The Middle East and East Asia , and the government, defining France as an inclusive nation with universal values, advocated assimilation through which immigrants were expected to adhere to French values and cultural norms. Nowadays, while the government has let newcomers retain their distinctive cultures since the mid-1980s and requires from them a mere integration , French citizens still equate their nationality with citizenship as does French law. In addition to mainland France, French people and people of French descent can be found internationally, in overseas departments and territories of France such as
5957-514: The Po Valley with 16,000 men. Instructed to take Parma, he assessed that as unviable, and instead proposed attacking Florence to secure lines south. The duke of Tuscany , fearing such a possibility, diplomatically reached out to Henri II and Guise was informed of the negotiations. Advancing into Naples in April, his troops became restless from lack of pay. Hearing reports Alba was marching along
6118-677: The Saint-Domingue . In 1805, when the French were forced out of Saint-Domingue ( Haiti ), 35,000 French settlers were given lands in Cuba . By the beginning of the 17th century, some 20% of the total male population of Catalonia was made up of French immigrants. In the 18th century and early 19th century, a small migration of French emigrated by official invitation of the Habsburgs to the Austro-Hungarian Empire , now
6279-543: The United States Census , French people are not asked to define their ethnic appartenance, whichever it may be. The usage of ethnic and racial categorization is avoided to prevent any case of discrimination; the same regulations apply to religious membership data that cannot be compiled under the French Census. This classic French republican non- essentialist conception of nationality is officialized by
6440-553: The de facto leader of their military efforts after Condé's death during the third civil war. Due to accusations levelled at him by the assassin of the Catholic Francis, Duke of Guise , in 1563 the powerful Guise family accused him of responsibility for the assassination , and unsuccessfully tried to bring a case against him. Coligny was assassinated at the start of the St Bartholomew's Day massacre , in 1572, on
6601-472: The siege of Orleans in 1563. Born in Bar-le-Duc ( Lorraine ), François was the son of Claude de Lorraine (created Duke of Guise in 1527), and his wife Antoinette de Bourbon . His sister, Mary of Guise , was the wife of James V of Scotland and mother of Mary, Queen of Scots . His younger brother was Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine . He was the youthful cousin of Henry II of France , with whom he
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6762-401: The 1789 French Revolution . It replaced the ancient kingdom of France, ruled by the divine right of kings . The 1870 Franco-Prussian War , which led to the short-lived Paris Commune of 1871, was instrumental in bolstering patriotic feelings; until World War I (1914–1918), French politicians never completely lost sight of the disputed Alsace-Lorraine region which played a major role in
6923-590: The 1970s, over 30,000 French settlers left Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge regime as the Pol Pot government confiscated their farms and land properties. In the 1960s, a second wave of immigration came to France, which was needed for reconstruction purposes and for cheaper labour after the devastation brought on by World War II . French entrepreneurs went to Maghreb countries looking for cheap labour, thus encouraging work-immigration to France. Their settlement
7084-432: The 5 year truce, which he would do at Vaucelles in February 1556. During 1556 however, he would lose his governorship of the capital to François de Montmorency, who Henri had promised Anne would receive it. With war resumed in late 1556, Coligny made an abortive surprise attack on Douai on 6 January, timed to coincide with the feast of Epiphany. With this a failure, he changed course, sacking Lens, Pas-de-Calais , ravaging
7245-641: The 7th century BCE or earlier, and non-Celtic peoples including the Ligures , Aquitanians and Basques in Aquitaine. The Belgae , who lived in the northern and eastern areas, may have had Germanic admixture; many of these peoples had already spoken Gaulish by the time of the Roman conquest. Gaul was militarily conquered in 58–51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar , except for
7406-598: The Admiral?" Coligny retorted "Yes I am him, But you are too young a soldier to speak thus to an old captain. At least have respect for my age." Before being pushed from the window the final words Coligny heard were "I am old enough to put you to rest." French people France: 67,413,000 French diaspora and ancestry : c. 30 million Asia Middle East Europe North America South America Oceania The French people ( French : Les Français , lit. 'The French') are
7567-516: The Adriatic coast with an army of 18,000 aiming to cut his supply, Guise sought battle, but Alba was evasive. Guise was now instructed by Henri to break off his Naples campaign and return to campaign in Lombardy . This order in turn was superseded by the disastrous defeat of Montmorency at the Battle of St. Quentin . Guise was recalled to France, and hurriedly made Lieutenant-General . Taking
7728-548: The Châtillons and Condé as a basis for support. Conscious of the increasing hostility, Coligny in turn withdrew from court to his estates on 22 February, abandoning Catherine. On his way back to Paris, the Duke of Guise's men were responsible for a massacre at the town of Wassy . Arriving in Paris on 16 March to a heroes welcome for his deeds, Condé heavily outnumbered in the city by the dukes men, would depart on 23 March. The prince headed to Orléans, where, on 2 April he raised
7889-452: The Châtillons and Montmorency, troubled by the disturbances that still plagued France in the wake of Amboise, withdrew to their estates. On 4 October he was appointed governor of Honfleur and Le Havre . His family would play no part in the arrest of Condé for his involvement in the Lyon conspiracy. In November, Francis II became sick, troubled by an ear infection, which gradually worsened until
8050-644: The Duke of Guise lived in retirement on his estates. The regent, Catherine de' Medici , was at first inclined to favour the Protestants. To defend the Catholic cause, the Duke of Guise, together with his old enemy, the Constable de Montmorency and the Maréchal de Saint-André formed the so-called triumvirate opposed to the policy of concessions which Catherine de' Medici attempted to inaugurate in favour of
8211-445: The Duke of Württemberg at Saverne , and convinced him that if the conference at Poissy had failed, the fault was that of the Calvinists. As Guise passed through Wassy-sur-Blaise on his way to Paris (1 March 1562), a massacre of Protestants took place. It is not known to what extent he was responsible for this, but the Massacre of Vassy kindled open military conflict in the French Wars of Religion . The siege of Bourges in September
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#17327983709218372-431: The Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France. The other major Germanic people to arrive in France, after the Burgundians and the Visigoths , were the Norsemen or Northmen . Known by the shortened name " Norman " in France, these were Viking raiders from modern Denmark and Norway . They settled with Anglo-Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons from
8533-413: The French Revolution, it divided social classes, with the peasants identifying with the native Gauls while the aristocracy identified with the Franks. During the early nineteenth century, intellectuals began using the identification with Gaul instead as a unifying force to bridge divisions within French society with a common national origin myth . Myriam Krepps of the University of Nebraska-Omaha argues that
8694-448: The French against the real enemy, the Habsburgs . This plan appealed greatly to Charles, and he grew rapidly in favour with the young, impressionable king. He would not however stay at court long, and, failing to convince the council of his plans, he would withdraw after 5 weeks again to his estates. Henry, Duke of Guise, spent his time lobbying the court to re-open the investigation into the assassination of his father, but, as with Coligny,
8855-415: The Gastines Cross from Paris in 1571 in line with the 1570 peace. Coligny seemed fairly unbothered by whether the memorial was removed or not. Increasingly he was consumed in the construction of an anti-Spanish alliance, hoping to bring in a large coalition from the German princes to the Ottoman Empire to bring down Spain. French rapprochement with England in April 1572, in the Treaty of Blois (1572) seemed
9016-500: The Gaulish chieftain who tried to unite the various Gallic tribes of the land against Roman encroachment but was ultimately vanquished by Julius Caesar , is often revered as a "first national hero". In the famously popular French comic Asterix , the main characters are patriotic Gauls who fight against Roman invaders while in modern days the term Gaulois is used in French to distinguish the "native" French from French of immigrant origins. However, despite its occasional nativist usage,
9177-403: The Gaulish identity has also been embraced by French of non-native origins as well: notably, Napoleon III , whose family was ultimately of Corsican and Italian roots, identified France with Gaul and Vercingetorix, and declared that "New France, ancient France, Gaul are one and the same moral person." It has been noted that the French view of having Gallic origins has evolved over history. Before
9338-430: The Huguenot supporters of Condé when he was wounded on 18 February 1563 by the Huguenot assassin, Jean de Poltrot de Méré , and died six days later, bled to death by his surgeons, at Château Corney. It was not the first plot against his life. A hunting accident—Guise had been appointed Grand Veneur of France in 1556—had been planned, as Sir Nicholas Throckmorton informed Queen Elizabeth I of England in May 1560, but
9499-405: The Lutheran princes of Germany to induce them to abandon the idea of covertly backing the French Protestants. About July 1561, Guise wrote to this effect to the Duke of Württemberg . The Colloquy at Poissy (September and October 1561) between theologians of the two confessions was fruitless, and the conciliation policy of Catherine de' Medici was defeated. From 15 to 18 February 1562, Guise visited
9660-681: The North and Northeast regions have relatives in Germany and Great Britain . Between 1956 and 1967, about 235,000 North African Jews from Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco also immigrated to France due to the decline of the French empire and following the Six-Day War. Hence, by 1968, Jews of North African origin comprised the majority of the Jewish population of France. As these new immigrants were already culturally French they needed little time to adjust to French society. French law made it easy for thousands of settlers ( colons in French), national French from former colonies of North and East Africa , India and Indochina to live in mainland France. It
9821-509: The Parlement jurisdiction. Shortly thereafter the council suspended judgement until the king came of age, and ordered both parties to suspend their hostilities. In November, Coligny responded in kind, entering Paris in force with a large host of his supporters. Fearing the two sides might come to blows Catherine summoned both to the Louvre on 6 December to try and calm things down. Throughout December however there would be isolated acts of violence perpetrated by both sides. At last on 5 January 1564
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#17327983709219982-433: The Protestants. His former military hero's public image was changing: "he could not serve for long as the military executive of this extreme political, ultra-montane , pro-Spanish junta without attracting his share of odium," N. M. Sutherland has observed in describing the lead-up to his assassination. The plan of the Triumvirate was to treat with Habsburg Spain and the Holy See , and also to come to an understanding with
10143-412: The Roman army and obtained important commands. Their language is still spoken as a kind of Dutch ( French Flemish ) in northern France ( French Flanders ). The Alamans , another Germanic people immigrated to Alsace , hence the Alemannic German now spoken there. The Alamans were competitors of the Franks, and their name is the origin of the French word for "German": Allemand . By the early 6th century,
10304-421: The US and the UK) but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration. Historically, the heritage of the French people is mostly of Celtic or Gallic , Latin ( Romans ) origin, descending from the ancient and medieval populations of Gauls or Celts from the Atlantic to the Rhone Alps , Germanic tribes that settled France from east of the Rhine and Belgium after
10465-457: The army under the nominal command of Anjou caught their rear-guard, led by Condė while crossing a river. He would be captured, and while under armed guard without weapons, executed. Despite this heavy strategic blow to the rebel cause, the loss of the prince of the blood. Coligny was able to hold the rest of the army together, and withdraw in good order with only minimal casualties. While the young Navarre and Condé would inherit nominal command of
10626-418: The assembly with 50,000 signatures. Coligny argued there could not be tranquillity and order in the realm, unless such a step was taken, on at least a temporary basis, until a religious council could sort out matters. Guise snapped back that it was best to leave such church matters to more learned men, Lorraine retorted he could find one million signatures for a counter-petition. Lorraine however went on to strike
10787-404: The attack. Supporters of this argument highlight the house Maurevert was in was owned by Guise. Still others have argued in favour of the Parlement of Paris, the Duke of Anjou, de Retz, Philip II of Spain, the Duke of Alba and Maurevert working independently to satisfy a personal grudge. The King sent his own physician to treat Coligny and even visited him. Coligny meanwhile, furiously petitioned
10948-421: The attempt on Coligny's life, a fear only compounded by the 4000 troops Téligny had stationed outside the city. It was decided over the course of three council meetings on 23 August to pre-emptively assassinate their leadership, in what became known as the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre . The original proposer of the plan is unknown, but consent on the council from Catherine, the king, Retz , Nevers , Guise, Anjou
11109-404: The capital could turn the tide of the war. Coligny meanwhile proposed marching their forces up into Normandy, reclaiming the lost towns there, and receiving the money they were owed by Elizabeth to keep their troops paid. As overall commander Condé took the army on a march south, the royal army shadowed their approach, and after some delays, pushed them north into Normandy, where the two sides met at
11270-399: The capital for several days, hoping to resolve several matters with the king of violations of the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye . Leaving a mass for Marguerite on 22 August Coligny noticed the Huguenot banners lost at Moncontour hanging from the Notre-Dame, and commented that he felt those should be taken down and placed somewhere more appropriate to their honour. The same day after the end of
11431-505: The cause; their young age meant Coligny would be the de facto military leader. In May 1569 Coligny's brother Andelot would die of an illness on campaign. To revitalise his army, Coligny sought, and was able to achieve juncture between his forces and those of his German ally the duke of Zweibrücken and he turned to attack the smaller army under Strozzi, defeating him at the Battle of La Roche-l'Abeille . With confidence restored through this battle, Coligny settled in to besiege Poitiers where
11592-447: The centuries to France, creating a variegated grouping of peoples. Thus the historian John F. Drinkwater states, "The French are, paradoxically, strongly conscious of belonging to a single nation, but they hardly constitute a unified ethnic group by any scientific gauge." The modern French are the descendants of mixtures including Romans , Celts , Iberians , Ligurians and Greeks in southern France, Germanic peoples arriving at
11753-484: The city , Coligny marched north with some of the remaining forces at their disposal to seize back Normandy. Finally able to secure 8000 crowns from his English allies to pay his mutinous troops, he captured first Caen and then Bayeux while the only royal forces in the region were tied down sieging Le Havre. Soon though peace, negotiated by the captive Condé and Montmorency was declared. As the siege of Orléans reached its climax in early 1563, with reports that Guise's victory
11914-471: The classics, including Cicero and Ptolemy. Both Bérauld and Louise came from a humanist background and had friendships with Protestant figures, such as Louis de Berquin and Michelle de Saubonne , and it was in this milieu that Coligny grew up. Coligny distinguished himself in the campaign of 1543 where he was wounded at the sieges of Montmédy and Bains . In 1544 he served in the Italian campaigns under
12075-529: The colonial link between France and Algeria. A small French descent group also subsequently arrived from Latin America ( Argentina , Chile and Uruguay ) in the 1970s. Most French people speak the French language as their mother tongue , but certain languages like Norman , Occitan languages , Corsican , Euskara , French Flemish and Breton remain spoken in certain regions (see Language policy in France ). There have also been periods of history when
12236-520: The coming year, his son being baptised in the Protestant fashion in February 1561. Some time early in the year he also appointed a Protestant minister to his household. At the same time as he was becoming more openly Protestant, his political fortunes rose with Catherine's regency. On 15 March the estates of the Prévóté of Paris were recommending him to be the supervisor of the young king's education. In
12397-502: The council voted him down. From December 1571 to May 1572 Coligny was again absent from court. Suspicious of the prospect of the Navarre-Valois marriage, one of the key components of the 1570 peace, Catherine pushed him into acceptance on the issue, both by presenting him the possibility of a war with Spain, and by implying it was necessary for him to be on good terms with the king. In the furore that accompanied attempts to remove
12558-627: The court that Alba was marching north along the Spanish Road to crush a Protestant uprising in the Spanish Netherlands Huguenots and Catholics alike were alarmed. The crown decided to hire 6000 Swiss to protect the country, in case Alba turned his army on the kingdom. However, the Protestant nobles claimed these Swiss were to be used in conjunction with Alba's forces for the genocidal operation. Coligny, having been passed over in favour of Filippo di Piero Strozzi to lead
12719-472: The crown. On returning into France, he outmanoeuvred the attempts of Saint André to intercept him, linking up with Coligny and Condé in Orléans. The main royal force meanwhile succeeded in reducing Rouen after a length siege, though at the cost of their overall nominal commander Navarre who was wounded, and died on his way back to Paris. Condé now advocated for marching on Paris, hoping a decisive thrust at
12880-600: The decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture: the Franks , from which the word "French" derives. The Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as laeti during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands and Germany between the 3rd and 7th centuries. Initially, they served in
13041-425: The definition of the French nation and therefore of the French people. The decrees of 24 October 1870 by Adolphe Crémieux granted automatic and massive French citizenship to all Jewish people of Algeria. Successive waves of immigrants during the 19th and 20th centuries were rapidly assimilated into French culture . France's population dynamics began to change in the middle of the 19th century, as France joined
13202-495: The early hours of the 24th, Guise's men mustered at the Hôtel d'Aumale. In total he had 60 men, including his uncle Aumale, and Anjou. Just before dawn they struck at Coligny's residence, Anjou's guards having withdrawn from the house to afford them access. Coligny ordered his household to escape across the roof. First to burst into his chambers was Johann von Janowitz who remarked "Oh Admiral, Admiral, You sleep too deeply... Are you not
13363-418: The edict of Amboise, which in 1567 included an expansion of the prohibition on Protestantism from Paris to the Île-de-France region. The main impetus would however be Spain. Rumours had been swirling in Huguenot circles that Alba's meeting with Catherine in 1566 during the royal tour, had not in fact been to discuss marriage proposals, but in fact, to plot the destruction of French Huguenots. When news reached
13524-416: The end of the Roman Empire such as the Franks and the Burgundians , and some Vikings who mixed with the Normans and settled mostly in Normandy in the 9th century. According to Dominique Schnapper , "The classical conception of the nation is that of an entity which, opposed to the ethnic group, affirms itself as an open community, the will to live together expressing itself by the acceptation of
13685-474: The failure of prior religious policy, and seeking a new direction for the country, Coligny was among those who pressured for the calling of an Assembly of Notables in late 1560. When the assembly met at Fontainebleau , hostility emerged between Coligny and François de Guise after Coligny derailed the Guise plans for the summit by proposing coexistence between the Protestantism and Catholicism, presenting
13846-473: The fall of the Roman Empire such as the Franks , Burgundians , Allemanni , Visigoths , and Suebi , Latin and Roman tribes such as Ligurians and Gallo-Romans , Basques , and Norse populations largely settling in Normandy at the beginning of the 10th century as well as " Bretons " (Celtic Britons) settling in Brittany in Western France . The name "France" etymologically derives from
14007-675: The field, he captured Calais from the English on 7 January 1558 —an enormous propaganda victory for France—then Thionville and Arlon that summer, and was preparing to advance into Luxembourg when the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis was signed. Throughout the reign of Henry II, Guise was one of the premier military figures of France, courteous, affable, and frank, and largely popular, the "grand duc de Guise" as his contemporary Brantôme called him. The accession of Francis II of France (10 July 1559), husband of Guise's niece Mary, Queen of Scots ,
14168-423: The field. Montmorency meanwhile was shot by Robert Stuart. The Swiss would win the day for the crown, and while casualties were fairly low for either side, Condé's forces were far smaller to begin with, and he withdrew eastwards towards the border. The crown followed, hoping the rebel army would disintegrate without the need for another engagement. Condé and Coligny were however able to keep it together, uniting with
14329-560: The first article of the French Constitution , is to be a citizen of France, regardless of one's origin, race, or religion ( sans distinction d'origine, de race ou de religion ). According to its principles, France has devoted itself to the destiny of a proposition nation , a generic territory where people are bounded only by the French language and the assumed willingness to live together, as defined by Ernest Renan 's " plébiscite de tous les jours " ('everyday plebiscite') on
14490-547: The frontier and returning with plunder. Henri, frustrated at the timing of the attack, ordered Coligny to return prisoners and goods taken in the raid on 17 January, much to the Admirals anger. In 1557 he was entrusted with the defence of Saint-Quentin which was besieged by a Spanish army that had come down from Flanders. With the crushing defeat of the relief army under Montmorency at the battle of Saint-Quentin Coligny assured
14651-459: The future constable , he had three sons, all of whom played an important part in the first period of the Wars of Religion : Odet , Gaspard and François . Born at Châtillon-sur-Loing in 1519, Gaspard was raised by Louise de Montmorency and his uncle Anne after the death of his father in 1522. Louise ensured he received an education at the hands of Nicolas Bérauld. Under Bérauld's guidance he studied
14812-415: The government. With decision made to overturn the peace. In early September the leading Huguenot aristocrats, including Coligny, were warned of a plot to arrest them by Tavannes who felt the process dishonourable. As a result, Coligny, Condé and the other aristocrats fled south in haste, arriving in the Protestant stronghold of La Rochelle on 18 September, and taking up arms. The crown meanwhile established
14973-525: The great Abbey of Cluny in June. Having bested a force under Cossé at Arney-le-Duc. he avoided the royal army at Autun, picked up further reinforcements at Sancerre and moved directly on Paris. This march would achieve its intended affect, and peace would be declared on favourable terms. Negotiations had been seriously ongoing between Coligny, Jeanne d'Albret and the crown since December 1569. There had been difficult over matters of public worship, which towns
15134-561: The important border district of Picardy , replacing the first prince of the blood Antoine of Navarre much to his frustration. In 1555, under the leadership of his friend and navy colleague, Vice-Admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon , he attempted to establish the colony of France Antarctique in Rio de Janeiro . They were afterwards expelled by the Portuguese, in 1567. His combined efforts with those of his uncle, persuaded Henri to attain
15295-424: The infantry played a key role under Guise's command in the French victory at Battle of Renty . Dispute between Coligny and Guise over who deserved credit for the victory almost ended in the drawing of swords, before Henri II oversaw the kiss of peace between them, nevertheless their friendship was jeapordised. In a testament to the extreme favour he was in at court, in 1555 he was awarded a second governorship, that of
15456-473: The initial months of conflict, the crown was caught on the back foot, and much negotiations followed in the coming months. Coligny defended his support of the rebellion in letters to both Catherine and his uncle Montmorency, castigating the Constable for allying himself with his families enemy, the Guise. By June the royal army was ready to take the offensive, their main force marching on Orléans, causing Condé to disperse his troops to avoid them being pinned down in
15617-509: The island of Saint-Martin hold French nationality even though they do not speak French as a first language, while their neighbouring French-speaking Haitian immigrants (who also speak a French-creole) remain foreigners. Large numbers of people of French ancestry outside Europe speak other first languages, particularly English, throughout most of North America (with Quebec and Acadians in the Canadian Maritimes being notable, not
15778-540: The king as he had the king's father and grandfather. When in July six masked men gunned down the lieutenant of Andelot's ordinance company, Coligny wrote bitterly to the king. In his letter he complained about his suspicions that not only was the attack orchestrated by the Confraternity of the Holy Ghost, but that therefore the provincial governors and the king had given tacit consent due to their cooperation with
15939-472: The king he had supplies to hold the town for eight weeks. However 9 days later on 29 August, the Spanish would break the towns defences, and he was imprisoned in the stronghold of L'Ecluse . His brother Francois de Coligny d'Andelot had also been among the towns defenders however he managed to escape. The king harshly criticised Coligny for failing to hold the town for longer. The condition of his imprisonment
16100-413: The king in this more involved fashion. The rebels quickly captured several strategic points around Paris from Charenton-le-Pont to Argenteuil to tighten his grip on the capital. Confident in his position, he negotiated with the crown aggressively, demanding the repeal of all taxes established since the time of Louis XII the expulsion of all Italian financiers and the free exercise of religion. The crown
16261-543: The king of Spain and the Duke of Savoy were convinced he was plotting against them from the city, his marriage to de Montbel d'Entremont only further convincing Savoy, due to her being an heiress in the kingdom. He found himself compelled to return in September 1571 however, in hopes of convincing the court of his plan to invade the Spanish Netherlands, with a cross-faith army led by Charles personally. Uniting
16422-487: The king passed away on 5 December. With the death of Francis, the Guise's hold on government collapsed, Coligny celebrated their misfortune. Several days after the king's death, Coligny and the duke of Guise got into a fierce argument. News of an uprising in Brittany had arrived at court. Coligny proposed understanding the rising's motives before acting, enraging Guise, who felt motive was irrelevant when they were violating
16583-466: The king to investigate who had shot him. The king promised to look into the matter and bring all perpetrators to justice. Senior Protestant nobles such as Téligny and Rochefoucauld began making dark threats to the court about taking revenge on those they suspected of being the perpetrators. Coligny meanwhile, though not joining in this talk, elected to stay in the city against the advice of many of his allies. The Catholics now feared Huguenot retaliation for
16744-431: The king took more definitive action, suspending judgement on the case for a further 3 years in a crushing blow to the Guise. Seeing their fortunes ebb the Guise took a new approach to their feud, trying to build a non confessional base of support, bringing Condé on side against the 'upstart' Montmorency. With him on side, the Guise planned a triumphal entry in force to Paris, which under its governor Francois de Montmorency
16905-533: The king's edicts. Guise lashed out at Coligny, saying to those present, were it not for the dignity of the court, he would have stabbed Coligny. The estates began their deliberations on the packages proposed by the government in December. Coligny, in attendance, faced criticism for his recent proposals at the Assembly of Notables, with one delegate rising to say that the king ought to punish those who had presented
17066-528: The king's favourite Anne de Montmorency . During the reign of Francis II he converted to Protestantism , becoming a leading noble advocate for the Reformation during the early reign of Charles IX . With the outbreak of civil war in 1562, Coligny joined the Huguenots in their fight against the Crown. He served as a lieutenant to Louis, Prince of Condé throughout the first two civil wars, before becoming
17227-465: The king's secret consent to the expedition of Genlis as a method of testing the water with Spain is a matter of debate. Coligny returned to Paris after a stay at his estates for the Navarre Valois marriage. His attendance at this event was critical, as it represented a key component of the reconciliation between Catholic and Huguenot factions. After the wedding was concluded, Coligny stayed in
17388-550: The king. In 1549 he was made sous-lieutenant of the Boulonnais , and then Boulogne-sur-Mer a year later. In 1551, he was made Governor of Paris , a much coveted office. A year later he followed this acquisition with that of the title of Admiral, inherited from the recently deceased Claude d'Annebaut . This post had little to do with naval affairs, but was second in prestige behind that held by his uncle Constable Montmorency . With war resumed in 1552 Coligny as Colonel-General of
17549-474: The least, but resulted rather in the imprisonment of Condé, at Charles's behest. However, the king died on 5 December 1560—making Mary, Queen of Scots a widow, and of little political importance. The Guises lost status alongside her, thus making a year full of calamity for the Guises both in Scotland and France. Within a year and a half, their influence waxed great and waned. After the accession of Charles IX ,
17710-504: The major pitch battle of the war Dreux . The battle would be bloody for both sides, with both Condé and Montmorency being captured at various stages, and Saint-André slain. Guise would lead the crown to victory but Coligny would be able to lead the cavalry off the field in a successful retreat back to Orléans. Through January Coligny begged Elizabeth to provide the promised infantry and money in repeated letters to little effect. Leaving Andelot in charge of Orléans as Guise moved in to besiege
17871-451: The mercenaries, and upon their re-entry to France, more troops from the south. Emboldened once more, Condė decided to besiege Chartres, hoping it would be a rich and symbolic prize for his troops. Condé would however, set up the rebel guns poorly, and the siege would drag on. Before it could conclude however, both sides came to truce on 13 March and then formal peace with the Peace of Longjumeau . Coligny, Andelot and Charles de Téligny were
18032-480: The mercenaries, joined Condé in leaving court. Meeting away from court, the leading Protestant nobles minds turned to conspiracy. At a conference at Coligny's chateau, in which Condé, the Coligny brothers, Rochefoucauld and other leading nobles were present Andelot argued strongly for taking military action. Coligny meanwhile championed the path of caution, but was eventually won over by the much larger war party. With
18193-451: The moment though Coligny maintained public silence on the matter. Following the sudden death of Henri, at a joust to commemorate the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis he participated in the conference between the House of Bourbon and House of Montmorency at Vendôme , to negotiate their respective places in the new order. The conference would achieve little, except for ending a Montmorency feud with
18354-656: The nations of Austria , Czech Republic , Hungary , Slovakia , Serbia and Romania . Some of them, coming from French-speaking communes in Lorraine or being French Swiss Walsers from the Valais canton in Switzerland , maintained for some generations the French language and a specific ethnic identity, later labelled as Banat (French: Français du Banat ). By 1788, there were eight villages populated by French colonists. The French First Republic appeared following
18515-476: The northwestern region of Brittany , although this is not the result of a survival of Gaulish language but of a 5th-century AD migration of Brythonic speaking Celts from Britain . The Vulgar Latin in the region of Gallia took on a distinctly local character, some of which is attested in graffiti, which evolved into the Gallo-Romance dialects which include French and its closest relatives. With
18676-467: The only, exceptions), Spanish or Portuguese in southern South America , and Afrikaans in South Africa . The adjective "French" can be used to mean either "French citizen" or "French-speaker", and usage varies depending on the context, with the former being common in France. The latter meaning is often used in Canada, when discussing matters internal to Canada. Generations of settlers have migrated over
18837-509: The orders of Henry, Duke of Guise . Coligny came of a noble family of Burgundy . His family traced their descent from the 11th century, and in the reign of Louis XI , were in the service of the King of France. Gaspard's father, Gaspard I de Coligny , known as the 'Marshal of Châtillon', served in the Italian Wars from 1494 to 1516, married in 1514, and was created Marshal of France in 1516, and from his wife, Louise de Montmorency , sister of
18998-459: The peace, with riots in Rouen, Toulouse and Orléans. In the south both sides would flout the peace openly, with the Huguenot populations of Castres and Montpellier refusing entry to their returning royal garrison. Several armies of the crown, including that of Guillaume de Joyeuse and Sommerive maintained presence in the field, capturing towns and besting Huguenot commanders in battle. Coligny
19159-415: The petition to him about Protestant rights to worship. Coligny, outraged at this attack protested to the king and Catherine, and shortly thereafter the speaker apologised, asserting he had of course, not meant the Admiral. The situation at court was much changed from the Guise regime, with Montmorency returning to the centre, and the Guise influence on the wane. Despite this decline in Guise fortunes, Catherine
19320-451: The plot was divulged by one of the conspirators who lost their nerve and his five co-conspirators fled. Guise's unexpected death temporarily interrupted open hostilities. In his testimony, Poltrot implicated Coligny and the Protestant pastor Théodore de Bèze . Though the assassin later retracted his statement and Coligny denied responsibility for Guise's death, a bitter feud arose between Guise's son Henry and Coligny, which culminated in
19481-416: The prime negotiators of Longjumeau for the rebels. They were not however able to achieve much more than Condé had at Amboise years previously despite Coligny's denunciations of that peace. The terms largely repeated those of the prior edict, but it was nominally intended as a permanent peace in contrast to the provisional nature of Amboise's terms. Much of the militant Catholic population reacted with disgust to
19642-474: The prior years, Coligny began to appear there more frequently from 1566. In 1566 Francisque and André d'Albaigne submitted to Coligny projects for establishing relations with the Austral lands. Although he gave favourable consideration to these initiatives, they came to naught. Tensions between the leading Huguenots and the crown escalated in 1567 as a result of several key factors. Firstly the modifications to
19803-457: The prorogued estates provided their consent to her governance in September 1561. Coligny initially held out hope for the success of the Colloquy of Poissy that met to discuss the religious question in the same month. However, he found himself frustrated by the intractability of both sides, covering his face when Beza remarked that the body of Christ was as far from the sacrament bread as heaven
19964-487: The rebels would receive as security. Eventually it was agreed that Protestantism would be tolerated on the model of the Edict of January, and that the Huguenots would receive Montauban , La Charité sur Loire , La Rochelle and Cognac as surety for two years. While Coligny had considerable influence on these terms it was not as total as Condé's had been for Amboise. Instead he, Albret and a council of nobles voted on agreement for
20125-421: The rules of a unified public domain which transcends all particularisms". This conception of the nation as being composed by a "will to live together," supported by the classic lecture of Ernest Renan in 1882, has been opposed by the French far-right , in particular the nationalist Front National ("National Front" – FN / now Rassemblement National - "National Rally" - RN) party which claims that there
20286-625: The same month he was admitted into the Conseil des Affairs where royal policy was formulated. On 1 April, Palm Sunday, Coligny hosted in his apartments a large Protestant service, throwing open his doors. In attendance was Condé with a large retinue, among other nobles. This aroused the disgust of Montmorency and Guise who protested to Catherine. Both she, and the Constable would reprimand Coligny for this audacious move. A few days later there would be further outrage, when, on Easter Sunday, Montmorency and Guise learned that Jean de Monluc would be giving
20447-530: The sermon. Tiring of hearing critiques of their cherished practices the two descended into the servants quarters to hear an obscure friar instead. Delighted at this reconciliation between the two bitter rivals, Cardinal Tournon oversaw the kiss of peace between the two grandees. Montmorency warned Coligny there could be no repeat of the events of Palm Sunday. In the subsequent days, both left court with their retinues, leaving Catherine and Coligny isolated. Coligny's support for Catherine's regency delivered fruit when
20608-540: The shaft were snapped off by the violence of the blow. He sat firm in his saddle, and rode back unassisted to his tent; and when the surgeon thought he would die of pain, when the iron was extracted, 'he bore it as easily as if it had been but the plucking of a hair out of his head.' The scar would earn him the nickname " Le Balafré " ("The Scarred One"). In 1548 he was magnificently wedded to Anna d'Este , daughter of Duke Ercole II d'Este of Ferrara and Princess Renée de France , daughter of King Louis XII . In 1551, he
20769-515: The south-east which had already been conquered about one century earlier. Over the next six centuries, the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture . In the late Roman era, in addition to colonists from elsewhere in the Empire and Gaulish natives, Gallia also became home to some immigrant populations of Germanic and Scythian origin, such as the Alans . The Gaulish language
20930-552: The standard of rebellion, seizing the city and issuing a manifesto denouncing the 'imprisonment of the king'. Coligny had linked up with him several days prior, their forces conjoining at Meaux on 27 March. He wrote to Catherine at this time, defending the arming of his men as being customary for a gentleman, and suggested they were necessary due to 'Guise's designs against him.' With the outbreak of civil war, many cities across France rose up and declared themselves for Condé's cause. These included Rouen , Tours , Blois , Lyon . During
21091-639: The state sector (though not as trainees in reserved branches, e.g., as magistrates ). Seeing itself as an inclusive nation with universal values, France has always valued and strongly advocated assimilation . However, the success of such assimilation has recently been called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves ( communautarisme ). The 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs ( les quartiers sensibles ) were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts (as appeared before in other countries like
21252-449: The subsequent days. Historians have taken many positions on the matter. Some have argued Catherine de' Medici, jealous of Coligny's influence over the young king and fearful of his plans for war with Spain orchestrated the assassination. Others have attacked this notion, arguing she was seeking internal peace in this period and this worked against her interests, proposing instead the Guise, trying to satisfy their long running vendetta arranged
21413-581: The town of Poissy and Montgomery to take the town of Pontoise . His sieging force thus further weakened Montmorency chose the moment to strike out of Paris. By now Coligny had at least returned to the main body, and at the Battle of Saint Denis he would be responsible for the right flank of Condé's army while Genlis handled the left. Condé's heavy cavalry was torn into by the experienced Swiss troops, but his cavalry had more success against Montmorency's inexperienced Parisian levies, exposing Montmorency's position. Condé would be unhorsed and have to be taken from
21574-518: The treaty is a matter of scholarly debate. Condé and Coligny created a shadow state, assigning Soubise as governor of Lyonnais and Saint-Gemne as governor of Poitiers among others. News of these negotiations persuaded the royal army to move north into Normandy, to seize the critical town of Rouen from the rebels. Meanwhile Coligny's brother Andelot was in Germany, raising a force of mercenaries to return Condé's force to numerical parity with that of
21735-420: The various leagues. Meanwhile the mood on the court was fast changing, with Hôpital out of favour, the moderates who had negotiated the peace began to be dominated by Catherine's new Italian favourites. This was compounded with the return of Lorraine. When, in search of financial relief for the kingdom, Pius V was approached. He proposed he would rescue the kingdoms finances in return for a war against heresy from
21896-462: The various terms. The bounty on Coligny's head was to be revoked, and he was to be restored to his office as Admiral, with all his property returned. In 1571 Coligny married Jacqueline de Montbel d'Entremont . For much of late 1570 and 1571, he remained wary of returning to court, little trusting the offers of safety provided to him by the king. Instead he kept himself south in La Rochelle, Both
22057-511: The view of "a unified territory (one land since the beginning of civilization) and a unified people" which de-emphasized "all disparities and the succession of waves of invaders" was first imprinted on the masses by the unified history curriculum of French textbooks in the late 1870s. Since the beginning of the Third Republic (1871–1940), the state has not categorized people according to their alleged ethnic origins. Hence, in contrast to
22218-406: The wedding festivities, Coligny was shot in the street on his way back to his residence, likely by a man called Maurevert from the top floor of a house. However, due to him bending down to tie his shoe the bullets only tore a finger from his right hand and shattered his left elbow. The would-be assassin escaped. No contemporary investigation would be conducted into responsibility due to the events of
22379-522: The willingness to live together, in Renan's 1882 essay " Qu'est-ce qu'une nation? "). The debate concerning the integration of this view with the principles underlying the European Community remains open. France has been historically open to immigration, although this has changed in recent years. Referring to this perceived openness, Gertrude Stein , wrote: "America is my country but Paris
22540-524: The word Francia , the territory of the Franks . The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire . In the pre-Roman era, Gaul (an area of Western Europe that encompassed all of what is known today as France, Belgium, part of Germany and Switzerland, and Northern Italy) was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes . Their ancestors were Celts who came from Central Europe in
22701-485: The young Henry, Duke of Guise had rushed on news of his approach to reinforce the weak garrison. After many heavy bombardments a breach was created, the siege appeared close to victory for Coligny, however the garrison was able to repulse the assaults through it, and Coligny lifted the siege on 7 September. On 12 September the Parlement of Paris declared Coligny a traitor, forfeited his titles and property and further put
22862-479: Was a Montmorency powerbase. Ignoring his insistence that arms were not allowed in the city, Lorraine and the young Henry, Duke of Guise entered in force; their retinue clashing with that of the Montmorency in a bloody failure. Humiliated Lorraine and Guise retreated to their residence, where they were taunted even by Catholic Parisians. In early January 1566 Lorraine travelled to the court at Moulins to appeal for proceedings against Coligny, characterising himself as
23023-404: Was a triumph for the Guise family. Montmorency, conscious there was no place for him in the new order, withdrew from court. The Duke of Guise and his brother, Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine were supreme in the royal council. Occasionally he signed public acts in the royal manner, with his baptismal name only. In reaction to the dominating power at court of the ultra-Catholic Guises, La Renaudie,
23184-540: Was also identified in the fourteenth century, consistent with the timing for the Black Death in Europe. Francis, Duke of Guise François de Lorraine, 2nd Duke of Guise, 1st Prince of Joinville, and 1st Duke of Aumale (17 February 1519 – 24 February 1563), was a French general and statesman. A prominent leader during the Italian War of 1551–1559 and French Wars of Religion , he was assassinated during
23345-550: Was created Grand Chamberlain of France . He won international renown in 1552 when he successfully defended the city of Metz from the forces of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , and defeated the imperial troops again at the Battle of Renty in 1554. but the Truce of Vaucelles temporarily curtailed his military activity. He led an army into Italy in 1557 to aid Pope Paul IV , operating in conjunction with Brissac to capture Valenza . There they parted ways. Guise continued east along
23506-548: Was from earth. While Navarre, Lorraine and the queen regent were trying to push a compromise to the religious question through the Confession of Augsburg in October, Coligny played little part. Throughout late 1561, Coligny continued to lobby the crown for the allowance of public worship. All the while he, and other Protestants at courts continued to attend Calvinist service. In the final weeks of 1561, Coligny's brother Andelot
23667-428: Was frustrated at what he felt was the crowns failure to abide by the peace. He wrote to Catherine in June to complain about various outrages and violations. Characterising it as an attack on the monarchy through disregard for its edicts he also mentioned assassination plots against his person. Catherine dismissed these concerns, writing back that he had no reason to be frightened, and encouraging him to live in obedience to
23828-598: Was harsh, the dampness and cold leaving him ill. On payment of a ransom of 50,000 crowns he recovered his liberty. Throughout this period, Protestantism was beginning to find converts in the upper echelons of the French aristocracy. Coligny's brother Andelot was an early convert, bringing the faith back with him from his captivity in Milan in 1556. He would not however be open in his newfound faith until attending services in 1558. In 1558, while imprisoned in Flanders, Andelot sent
23989-641: Was imminent, the Protestant assassin Poltrot de Méré infiltrated the dukes camp, and fatally wounded him. As Guise died, so too did the momentum of the siege. Poltrot would be caught, and under torture implicated Coligny, his story evolving and shifting between tortures, occasionally denying Coligny's involvement. Coligny, up in Normandy, learnt of the Dukes death on 28 February, but did not find out about Poltrots accusations for some further days. On 12 March he demanded
24150-484: Was incorporated back into the royal domain (i. e. the territory under direct control of the French king) in the Middle Ages . In the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem , founded in 1099, at most 120,000 Franks, who were predominantly French -speaking Western Christians, ruled over 350,000 Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians. Unlike elsewhere in Europe, France experienced relatively low levels of emigration to
24311-510: Was invited into the Conseil des Affairs further heightening the Protestant character of the government. This was followed, in mid January 1562 later by the seismic Edict of Saint-Germain which legalised on at least a temporary basis public Protestant worship under certain conditions across the kingdom. Synods and consistories would also be legal under royal supervision. Such an edict was the culmination of what Coligny had been pushing for throughout 1561. In early 1562 Coligny again tried to support
24472-440: Was not inclined to elevate the Montmorency or Châtillon to the place that they had filled, preferring to balance the various noble houses. Coligny found himself at the centre of Protestant hopes for the new administration, a new petition being brought through him to Catherine asking for permission for Protestant services to be held in private houses, it would however be rejected. Coligny increased in confidence in his new religion in
24633-500: Was not usually used except in cities, and even there not always in the outlying districts . Abroad, the French language is spoken in many different countries – in particular the former French colonies . Nevertheless, speaking French is distinct from being a French citizen. Thus, francophonie , or the speaking of French, must not be confused with French citizenship or ethnicity. For example, French speakers in Switzerland are not "French citizens". Native English-speaking Blacks on
24794-641: Was officialized with Jacques Chirac 's family regrouping act of 1976 ( regroupement familial ). Since then, immigration has become more varied, although France stopped being a major immigration country compared to other European countries. The large impact of North African and Arab immigration is the greatest and has brought racial , socio-cultural and religious questions to a country seen as homogenously European, French and Christian for thousands of years. Nevertherless, according to Justin Vaïsse , professor at Sciences Po Paris , integration of Muslim immigrants
24955-546: Was raised, and by birth a prominent individual in France, though his detractors emphasised his "foreign" origin (he was a prince étranger ), namely the Duchy of Lorraine . In 1545, Guise (he is henceforth referred to by his title) was seriously wounded at the Second Siege of Boulogne , but recovered. He was struck with a lance through the bars of his helmet. The steel head pierced both cheeks, and 15 cm (6 in) of
25116-506: Was savaged in the battle, it was not entirely annihilated and most of the cavalry was able to withdraw. Battle won Anjou led the royal army to besiege Saint-Jean d'Angely , the siege would prove a disaster for the royal army, consuming it in famine and disease. Coligny meanwhile regrouped what forces he had left, united with the Viscounts of Languedoc and began a circuitous march towards Paris. Coligny marched from Nîmes into Burgundy, sacking
25277-464: Was sparked once more. The Guise family planned an offensive against Coligny, launching a private suit on 26 April 1563. To ensure an appropriately partisan judge was chosen to manage the suit, the family brought a large retinue to pressure the Paris Parlement into selecting appropriately. This victory against Coligny would be short lived, as the king evoked the case to the royal council, denying
25438-406: Was the opening episode, then Rouen was retaken from the Protestants by Guise after a month's siege (October); the Battle of Dreux (19 December), at which Montmorency was taken prisoner and Saint-André slain, was in the end turned by Guise to the advantage of the Catholic cause, and Condé, leader of the Huguenots, was taken prisoner. In the fourth encounter, Guise was about to take Orléans from
25599-477: Was unanimous on the course of action. In the final meeting, at midnight, Guise, Aumale, Angoulême, Anjou and Montpensier drew up the kill lists and divided responsibility among themselves. Guise would strike at Coligny, before crossing to the left bank and taking out targets in the faubourg Saint-Germain. Montpensier would handle targets in the Louvre, including Navarre and Condé, who would be compelled to convert. In
25760-403: Was unclear until the publication of a study in 2019 that used genome wide data. The study identified six different genetic clusters that could be distinguished across populations. The study concluded that the population genetic clusters correlate with linguistic and historical divisions in France and with the presence of geographic barriers such as mountains and major rivers. A population bottleneck
25921-403: Was uninterested in these terms, and began assembling its forces in the city to break out. Coligny and La Noue were sent by Condé to intercept recruits from Savoy coming north under the command of Strozzi this would however be a failure and Strozzi would arrive near Paris in October. Meanwhile Condé, not appreciating the increasing danger he was in, sent Coligny's brother Andelot with troops to seize
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