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105-653: The Admiralty Navy War Council was a temporary war planning and naval strategy advising committee of the Admiralty established in October, 1909 under Admiral Fisher it existed until 1911 when it was later replaced by the Admiralty War Staff . In May 1909, the Director of Naval Intelligence , Rear-Admiral Alexander E. Bethell , submitted a written report for the creation of a "Navy War Council" following

210-548: A British Army officer in the 78th Highlanders , who had been an aide-de-camp to the former governor of Ceylon, Sir Robert Wilmot-Horton , and was serving as a staff officer at Kandy . Sophia's father Alfred Lambe was a wine merchant and Purveyor of Mineral Water to the King. She was brought up New Bond Street in Mayfair, London. Fisher commented, "My mother was a most magnificent and handsome, extremely young woman....My father

315-483: A Crimean War Victoria Cross holder. Donegal was a Conqueror -class ship of the line , with auxiliary screw propulsion. She plied between Portsmouth and Hong Kong, taking out relief crews and bringing home the crews they replaced. During this time he completed his torpedoes treatise. In May 1870, Fisher transferred, again as second in command, to HMS  Ocean , flagship of the China Station. It

420-405: A following of officers concerned with the poor offensive capabilities of the fleet, including John Jellicoe and Percy Scott . For the next 15 months he had no naval command and still suffered the effects of his illness. He took to visiting Marienbad , which was famous amongst notable society for its restoring climate, and went there regularly in later years. During June–July 1885, Fisher served

525-585: A gold cup for the ship which performed best at gunnery, and insisted upon shooting at greater range and from battle formations. He found that he too was learning some of the complications and difficulties of controlling a large fleet in complex situations, and immensely enjoyed it. Notes from his lectures indicate that, at the start of his time in the Mediterranean, useful working ranges for heavy guns without telescopic sights were considered to be only 2000 yards, or 3000–4000 yards with such sights, whereas by

630-558: A gunnery instructor, where he remained until 1869. Towards the end of his posting he became interested in torpedoes , which were invented in the 1860s, and championed their cause as a relatively simple weapon capable of sinking a battleship. His expertise with torpedoes led to his being invited to Germany in June 1869 for the founding ceremony of a new naval base at Wilhelmshaven , where he met King William I of Prussia (soon to become German emperor), Bismarck and Moltke . Perhaps inspired by

735-411: A hero. Shore duty had the unfortunate effect that Fisher became seriously ill with dysentery and malaria. He refused to take sick leave, but eventually was ordered home by Lord Northbrook, who commented, 'the Admiralty could build another Inflexible , but not another Fisher'. During this time he became a close friend of the future King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra . He was appointed a Companion of

840-567: A joke, Fisher arranged for anything that could go wrong with the lamps to do so, sending Colomb away disheartened over his invention (although Fisher officially reported favourably about the lamps). On another occasion, the naval hospital at Halifax requested some flags to fly for the Queen's birthday. Fisher obliged, but sent only yellow and black flags signifying plague and quarantine. On the other hand, he worked hard at improving his ship. As reported by his second in command, Commander Wilmot Fawkes ,

945-474: A large part of the male population knew about them from their service and thus they became somewhat popular even in civilian use. The company that makes them also sells them unaltered to the civilian market. They are said to have many properties, some jokingly assigned, such as the ability to combine them with standard issue shoe polish to create a flammable device, or to glue them onto vehicles to increase their armor protection. One quality, liked by many soldiers,

1050-731: A medley is considered a popular snack. Hardtack, baked with or without the addition of fat, was and still is a staple in Russian military rations, especially in the Navy, as infantry traditionally preferred simple dried bread when long shelf life was needed. Called galeta (галета) in Russian, it is usually somewhat softer and more crumbly than traditional hardtack, as most varieties made in Russia include at least some fat or shortening, making them closer to saltine crackers . One such variety, khlyebtsy armyeyskiye (хлебцы армейские), or "army crackers",

1155-445: A much greater firing rate and greater overall weight of broadside . The potentially much greater ranges of large guns was not an issue, because no one knew how to aim them effectively at such ranges. He argued that "the design of fighting ships must follow the mode of fighting instead of fighting being subsidiary to and dependent on the design of ships." As regards how officers needed to behave, he commented, " Think and act for yourself

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1260-415: A much more likely enemy. The correspondence revealed that Fisher remained uncertain how his views were being received at the Admiralty and an uncertainty on his part whether he would receive further promotions. He had already received approaches to become a director of Armstrong Whitworth , of Elswick (then Britain's largest armaments firm), at a considerably larger salary than that of an admiral and with

1365-519: A posting in England. In 1872, he returned to England to the gunnery school Excellent , this time as head of torpedo and mine training, during which time he split the Torpedo Branch off from Excellent , forming a separate establishment for it called HMS  Vernon . His duties included lecturing, and negotiating the purchase of the navy's first Whitehead torpedo . In order to promote

1470-547: A proponent of the new compass being designed by Sir William Thomson which incorporated corrections for the deviation caused by the metal in iron ships. From 9 January to 24 July 1879 Fisher commanded HMS  Pallas serving in the Mediterranean Command under Geoffrey Phipps Hornby . Pallas was in poor condition, having a chain passed around the ship to hold the armour plates in place. The tour included an official visit to Istanbul where Fisher dined with

1575-718: A pudding, to serve as dessert. Royal Navy hardtack during Queen Victoria 's reign was made by machine at the Royal Clarence Victualing Yard at Gosport , Hampshire , stamped with the Queen's mark and the number of the oven in which it was baked. When machinery was introduced into the process, the dough was thoroughly mixed and rolled into sheets about two yards (6 ft; 72 in; 183 cm) long and one yard (3 ft; 36 in; 91 cm) wide, which were then stamped in one stroke into about sixty hexagonal shaped biscuits. The hexagonal shape saved material and time and made them easier to pack compared to

1680-622: A pun on Panzerwaffe , the Wehrmacht armored motorized forces (the German words Panzer and Waffe mean "tank" or "armor" and "weapon", respectively). They are also popular amongst civilians, and are a common part of a meal in some regions. Hardtack remains popular today in Papua New Guinea . The Lae Biscuit Company, which is the most commonly found and popular brand in that country, makes multiple varieties of hardtack. Hardtack

1785-760: A series of nine meetings between 13 October 1909 and 10 June 1911 before it was abolished and replaced by the Admiralty War Staff in January 1912. The Council had of four members, including Primary source for this article is by *Harley, Simon and Lovell, Tony (2015). Navy War Council , dreadnoughtproject.org, Harley and Lovell. Admiral Fisher Admiral of the Fleet John Arbuthnot Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher , GCB , OM , GCVO (25 January 1841 – 10 July 1920), commonly known as Jacky or Jackie Fisher ,

1890-681: A short posting to HMS  Minotaur in the Baltic under Admiral Hornby, following the Panjdeh Incident , which led to fear of war with Russia. From November 1886 to 1890, he was Director of Naval Ordnance , responsible for weapons and munitions. He was responsible for the development of quick-firing guns to be used against the growing threat from torpedo boats, and particularly claimed responsibility for removing wooden boarding pikes from navy ships. The Navy did not have responsibility for manufacture and supply of weapons and ammunition, which

1995-407: A soldier in the 10th Massachusetts Battery , outlines many details on how hardtack was utilized during the war in his book Hard Tack and Coffee . With insect infestation common in improperly stored provisions, soldiers would break up the hardtack and drop it into their morning coffee. This would not only soften the hardtack but the insects, mostly weevil larvae , would float to the top, and

2100-568: A strong navy deterred other nations from engaging it in battle, thus decreasing the likelihood of war: "On the British fleet rests the British Empire." Fisher also believed that the risk of catastrophe in a sea battle was far greater than on land: a war could be lost or won in a day at sea, with no hope of replacing lost ships, but an army could be rebuilt quickly. When an arms race broke out between Germany and Britain to build larger navies,

2205-473: A success and more were ordered, but Fisher immediately ran into trouble by insisting that all shipbuilders, not just Yarrow's, should be invited to build boats to Yarrow's design. A similar (though opposite) difficulty with vested interests arose over the introduction of water tube boilers into navy ships, which held out the promise of improved fuel efficiency and greater speed. The first examples were used by Thornycroft and Yarrow in 1892, and then were trialled in

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2310-434: A thing is impossible, that there are insuperable objections, then is the time to fight like the devil . His next appointment was Third Naval Lord and Controller of the Navy , the naval officer with overall responsibility for provision of ships and equipment. He presided over the development of torpedo boat destroyers armed with quick-firing small-calibre guns (called destroyers at Fisher's suggestion). A suggestion for

2415-526: A tortuous layout that crew became lost. The sails were never used for propulsion, but because a ship's performance was partly judged on the speed with which a ship could set sails, Fisher was obliged to drill the crew in their use. In spring 1882 Inflexible was part of the Mediterranean Fleet and was assigned to protection of Queen Victoria during a visit to Menton on the Riviera . This

2520-532: Is a mainstay in parts of Canada. Purity Factories is one maker of traditional hardtack. They specialize in a high density, high caloric product that is well suited for use by expeditions. Located in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador , they currently produce three varieties of hardtack: Interbake Foods of Richmond, Virginia , produces most of the commercially available hardtack in the United States, under

2625-612: Is a significant source of food energy in a small, durable package. A store-bought 24- gram cracker can contain 100 calories (20 percent from fat) from 2 grams of protein but practically no fiber . Ma Bo mentioned hardtack as being a staple food of Chinese hard-labor workers in Inner Mongolia , during the Cultural Revolution . Hardtack was a staple of military servicemen in Japan and South Korea well into

2730-485: Is included in Russian military rations . Other brands enjoy significant popularity among the civilian population as well, both among campers and the general populace. In Genoa , hardtack was and still is a traditional addition to a fish and vegetable salad called cappon magro . In Germany , hardtack is included in every military ration and colloquially known as Panzerplatten (armor plates) or Panzerkekse (armor cookies/tank cookies). Due to conscription for many years

2835-464: Is its ability to hinder one's need to defecate , some claiming they did not need to defecate for three days after consuming large quantities of them. In Poland , hardtack wafers (known by their official name: Suchary Specjalne SU-1 or SU-2 – Special Hardtacks ) are still present in Polish Army military rations. In military slang they are jokingly called Panzerwaffel (tank or armor wafers),

2940-412: Is the motto for the future, not Let us wait for orders ." Lord Hankey , then a marine officer serving under Fisher, later commented, "It is difficult for anyone who had not lived under the previous regime to realize what a change Fisher brought about in the Mediterranean fleet. ... Before his arrival, the topics and arguments of the officers messes ... were mainly confined to such matters as

3045-708: The Admiralty in 1910 on his 69th birthday, but became First Sea Lord again in November 1914. He resigned seven months later in frustration over Churchill 's Gallipoli campaign , and then served as chairman of the Government's Board of Invention and Research until the end of the war. Fisher was five feet seven inches tall and stocky with a round face. In later years, some suggested that Fisher, born in Ceylon of British parents, had Asian ancestry due to his features and

3150-496: The First Hague Peace Convention in 1899. The peace conference had been called by Russia to agree to limits on armaments, but the British position was to reject any proposal which might restrict use of the navy. Fisher's style was to say little in formal meetings, but to lobby determinedly at all informal gatherings. He impressed many by his affability and style, combined with a serious determination to press

3255-687: The Gulf of Finland during the Crimean War , entitling Fisher to the Baltic Medal , before returning to Britain a few months later. The crew was paid off on 1 March 1856. On 2 March 1856, Fisher was posted to HMS  Agamemnon , and was sent to Constantinople (now Istanbul ) to join her. He arrived on 19 May, just as the war was ending. After a tour around the Dardanelles picking up troops and baggage, Agamemnon returned to England, where

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3360-504: The North America and West Indies Station , Astley Cooper Key , from 2 March 1877 to 4 June 1878. Bellerophon had been in the dockyard for repairs, so the new crew was less than perfect in carrying out their duties. Fisher told them I intend to give you hell for three months, and if you have not come up to my standard in that time you'll have hell for another three months. Midshipman (later Admiral) Gordon Moore recalled, Fisher

3465-606: The United States Navy had outlined that each sailor was to be given 14 ounces of bread per day as part of their daily ration while serving onboard in the form of hardtack. The procurement of these stores was the responsibility of the ship's Purser , and was not strictly outlined by the Board of Navy Commissioners . During the American Civil War (1861–1865), three-by-three-inch (7.6 by 7.6 cm) hardtack

3570-653: The sultan of the Ottoman Empire from gold cups and plates. He then returned to the UK for two months leave at half pay, visiting Bruges with his family. His next posting, starting 25 September 1879, was to HMS  Northampton as Flag Captain to Sir Leopold McClintock , commanding the North American squadron. Northampton was a new ship with a number of innovations, including twin screws, searchlights and telephones, as well as being armed with torpedoes. It

3675-493: The "Sailor Boy" label. As of January 2015, 98 percent of its production goes to Alaska . Alaskans are among the last to still eat hardtack as a significant part of their normal diet. Originally imported as a food product that could endure the rigors of transportation throughout Alaska, hardtack has remained a favored food even as other, less robust foods have become more readily available. Alaskan law requires all light aircraft to carry "survival gear", including food. Therefore,

3780-496: The "infamous" Alfred Dreyfus to France to foment trouble within the French army. It was Fisher's policy to conduct all manoeuvres at full speed while training the fleet, and to expect the best from his crews. He would socialise with junior officers so that they were not afraid to approach him with ideas, or disagree with him when the occasion demanded. Fisher was chosen by Prime Minister Lord Salisbury as British naval delegate to

3885-402: The Admiralty to obtain additional ships and supplies for the Mediterranean squadron. Beresford, who had established a career in politics alongside his naval one, continued a public campaign for greater funding of the fleet, which caused him to come into conflict with the Admiralty. While Fisher agreed with him as to the need for greater funding and instant readiness for war, he chose to stay out of

3990-613: The Bath (CB) in 1882. From January to April 1883, Fisher was on half pay recovering from his illness. In January, he was invited to visit Osborne House for a fortnight by Queen Victoria, concerned about the charming Captain Fisher. Fisher, having entered the navy penniless and unknown, was delighted. In April 1883, Fisher had recovered sufficiently to return to duty and was appointed commander of HMS  Excellent . He remained with Excellent for two years until June 1885, where he gained

4095-401: The British case with everyone he met. The conference ended successfully with limitations only upon dumdum bullets, poison gas and bombings from balloons, and Fisher was rewarded with appointment as Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet , 'the tip-top appointment of the fleet' . The German delegation summarised Britain's position: English world position depended upon the navy, the navy

4200-424: The British fleet, and the numerous French torpedo boats. Fisher's innovations were not universally approved, with some senior officers resenting the attention he paid to their juniors, or the pressure he placed on all to improve efficiency. A programme of realistic exercises was adopted including simulated French raids, defensive manoeuvres, night attacks and blockades, all carried out at maximum speed. He introduced

4305-551: The Commander of the Royal Naval War College acting as Joint Secretaries. Other Admiralty department heads could be summoned, to act as members of the council as and when their expertise was required. Its role acted as a precursor to the establishment of a professional naval staff function; it would initially devise on naval war plans, and also given an advisory role on naval strategy matters The council held

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4410-606: The German Kaiser commented, 'I admire Fisher, I say nothing against him. If I were in his place I should do all that he has done and I should do all that I know he has in mind to do'. John Arbuthnot Fisher was born on 25 January 1841 on the Wavendon Estate at Ramboda in Ceylon . He was the eldest of eleven children, of whom only seven survived infancy, born to Sophia Fisher and Captain William Fisher,

4515-527: The Royal Society in 1861) and he taught Fisher much about navigation, with spectacular later results. When Shadwell was replaced as captain following an injury in action, he gave Fisher a pair of studs engraved with his family motto 'Loyal au Mort', which Fisher was to use for the rest of his life. Fisher passed the seamanship examination for the rank of lieutenant, and was given the acting rank of mate , on his nineteenth birthday, 25 January 1860. He

4620-571: The baking of processed cereals, including the creation of flour, provided a more reliable source of food. Egyptian sailors carried a flat brittle loaf of millet bread called dhourra cake. A cracker called bucellatum is known in Ancient Rome. King Richard I of England left for the Third Crusade (1189–1192) with "biskit of muslin", which was a mixed grain compound of barley , bean flour, and rye . The more refined captain's biscuit

4725-572: The blue-and-white Sailor Boy Pilot Bread boxes are ubiquitous at Alaskan airstrips, in cabins, and in virtually every village. Unlike the traditional hardtack recipe, Sailor Boy Pilot Bread contains leavening and vegetable shortening . Hardtack is also a common pantry item in Hawaii, and The Diamond Bakery's "Saloon Pilot" cracker is available there in grocery and convenience stores. The round hardtack crackers are available in large- and small-diameter sizes. Those who buy commercially baked hardtack in

4830-447: The boats was brought to the Admiralty in 1892 by Alfred Yarrow of shipbuilders Thornycroft and Yarrow, who reported that he had obtained plans of new torpedo boats being built by the French, and he could build a faster boat to defend against them. Torpedo boats had become a major threat, as they were cheap but potentially able to sink the largest battleships, and France had built large numbers of them . The first destroyers were considered

4935-400: The cleaning of paint and brasswork. ... These were forgotten and replaced by incessant controversies on tactics, strategy, gunnery, torpedo warfare, blockade, etc. It was a veritable renaissance and affected every officer in the navy." Lord Charles Beresford , later to become a severe critic of Fisher, gave up a plan to return to Britain and enter parliament, because he had "learnt more in

5040-550: The contiguous US are often those who stock up on long-lasting foods for disaster survival rations , though these usually take the form of food ration bars or freeze dried meals rather than traditional hardtack. Many other people who currently buy or bake hardtack in the US are Civil War re-enactors . The 3rd US Regular Infantry Reenactors, for example, often cook many recipes during their reenacting camps, to include hardtack. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

5145-584: The crew was paid off. Promotion to midshipman came on 12 July 1856 and Fisher joined a 21-gun steam corvette , HMS  Highflyer , part of the China Station . He was to spend the next five years in Chinese waters, seeing action in the Second Opium War , 1856–1860. The Highflyer's captain, Charles Shadwell , was an expert on naval astronomy (subsequently being appointed a Fellow of

5250-445: The end of his time discussion centred on how to shoot effectively at 5000 yards. This was driven by the increasing range of the torpedo, which had now risen to 3000–4000 yards, necessitating ships fighting effectively at greater ranges. At this time he advocated relatively small main armaments on capital ships (some had 15 inch or greater), because the improved technical design of the relatively small (10 inch) modern guns allowed

5355-500: The end of the tour, Jones was impressed by Fisher. At the end of November 1861, Fisher sat his final lieutenant's examination in navigation at the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth, passing with flying colours. He had already received top grades in seamanship and gunnery, and achieved the highest score then attained under the recently introduced five-yearly scheme, with 963 out of 1,000 marks in navigation. For this, he

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5460-501: The first all-big-gun battleship, but he also believed that submarines would become increasingly important and urged their development. He became involved with the introduction of turbine engines to replace reciprocating engines , and with the introduction of oil fuelling to replace coal . He introduced daily baked bread on board ships, whereas when he entered the service it was customary to eat hard biscuits , frequently infested by biscuit beetles . He first officially retired from

5565-520: The first all-iron seagoing armoured battleship and the most powerful ship in the fleet. Built in 1859, she marked the beginning of the end of the Age of Sail and, coincidentally, was armed with both Armstrong guns (breech-loading) and Whitworth rifles (muzzle-loading). Fisher noted he was popular amongst his brother officers because he frequently stayed on board when others went ashore and could take duty for them. Fisher returned to Excellent in 1864 as

5670-795: The following day. Hardtack The name is derived from "tack", the British sailor slang for food. The earliest use of the term recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1830. It is known by other names including brewis (possibly a cognate with " brose "), cabin bread , pilot bread , sea biscuit , soda crackers , sea bread (as rations for sailors), ship's biscuit , and pejoratively as dog biscuits , molar breakers , sheet iron , tooth dullers , Panzerplatten (" armor plates "; Germany) and worm castles . Australian and New Zealand military personnel knew them with some sarcasm as ANZAC wafers (not to be confused with Anzac biscuit ). The introduction of

5775-511: The gunboat Sharpshooter . However, an attempt to specify similar boilers for new cruisers in 1894 led to questions in the House of Commons, and opposition from shipbuilders who did not want to invest in the new technology. The matter continued for several years after Fisher moved on to a new posting, with a parliamentary enquiry rejecting the new boilers. Eventually the new design was adopted, but only after another eighteen ships had been built using

5880-529: The hulk of the 26-gun steam frigate Ariadne provided accommodation. HMS  Vesuvius , a torpedo boat of 245 tons, was Vernon's experimental tender for the conduct of torpedo trials. They were moored in Portsmouth Harbour . In 1876, Fisher served on the Board of Admiralty 's torpedo committee. Fisher was appointed to command HMS  Bellerophon as flag captain to the Admiral of

5985-467: The last week than in the last forty years." Fisher implemented a program of banquets and balls for important dignitaries to improve diplomatic relations. The fleet visited Constantinople, where he had three meetings with the sultan and was awarded the Grand Cordon, Order of Osmanieh in November 1900, and the following year he was promoted to full Admiral on 5 November 1901. He lobbied hard with

6090-664: The late 20th century. It is known as Kanpan (乾パン) in Japan and geonbbang (geonppang, 건빵) in South Korea, meaning 'dry bread', and is still sold as a fairly popular snack food in both countries. (Canned kanpan is also distributed in Japan as emergency rations in case of earthquake, flood, or other disaster.) A harder hardtack than Kanpan, called Katapan (堅パン), is historically popular in Kitakyushu City, Fukuoka, Japan as one of its regional specialty foods. In Korea, geonppang (hardtacks) mixed with byulsatang (star candy) as

6195-465: The line . She was built of wood, in 1831, with 84 smooth-bore muzzle-loading guns arranged on two gun decks, and relied entirely on sail for propulsion. She had a crew of 700, and discipline was strictly enforced by the "hard-bitten Captain Robert Stopford". Fisher fainted when he witnessed eight men being flogged on his first day. Calcutta participated in the blockade of Russian ports in

6300-467: The navy rather than as a seagoing admiral involved in major battles, although in his career he experienced all these things. When appointed First Sea Lord in 1904 he removed 150 ships then on active service which were no longer useful and set about constructing modern replacements, developing a modern fleet prepared to meet Germany during the First World War . Fisher saw the need to improve

6405-651: The navy, via his godmother Lady Horton , widow of the governor of Ceylon to whom William Fisher had been Aide-de-camp . She prevailed upon a neighbour, Admiral Sir William Parker (the last of Nelson 's captains), to nominate John as a naval cadet. The entry examination consisted of writing out the Lord's Prayer and jumping naked over a chair. He formally entered the Royal Navy on 13 July 1854, aged 13, on board Nelson's former flagship, Victory , at Portsmouth. On 29 July he joined HMS  Calcutta , an old ship of

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6510-503: The new ironclad battleship HMS  Inflexible . Admiral McClintock commented, Everyone regrets the departure of Captain Fisher, but I fancy we shall not fully realize our loss until he is gone....Since his nomination to the Inflexible , his spirits have returned and daily increased, and now he almost requires wiring down. The ship was still building, so Fisher was temporarily appointed to HMS  Duke of Wellington , flagship of

6615-645: The older design, with consequent poorer performance than necessary. Fisher was knighted in the Queen's Birthday Honours of 1894 as a Knight Commander of the Bath , promoted to vice-admiral in 1896, and put in charge of the North America and West Indies Station in 1897. In 1898 the Fashoda Crisis brought the threat of war with France, to which Fisher responded with plans to raid the French West Indies including Devil's Island prison, and return

6720-1079: The outcome of the Beresford Inquiry and recommendations that followed; it was to be made up of the following personnel: the First Sea Lord as president; the Director of Naval Intelligence acting as vice-president; an "Assistant Director for War"; the President, and the Captain of the Royal Naval War College; the Naval Assistant to the First Sea Lord. The head of the War Division of the Naval Intelligence Department 's and

6825-797: The paddle- sloop HMS  Furious where he saw sufficient action to add the Taku Forts and Canton clasps to his China War Medal . Furious left Hong Kong and the China Station in March 1861 and, after a leisurely voyage home, paid off her crew in Portsmouth on 30 August. Captain Oliver Jones of the Furious was entirely different from Shadwell: Fisher wrote there was a mutiny on board within his first fortnight, that Jones terrorized his crew and disobeyed orders given to him. For his part, by

6930-430: The performance of the "revolutionary" Armstrong breech-loading guns against the conventional Whitworth muzzle-loading type. During free afternoons Fisher would walk the downs, shouting to practice his command voice. He spent 15 of the next 25 years in four tours of duty at Portsmouth concerned with development of gunnery and torpedoes . In March 1863, Fisher was appointed Gunnery Lieutenant to HMS  Warrior ,

7035-456: The point he was seeking to make, and on one occasion, the King asked him to stop shaking his fist in his face. He was considered a "man who demanded to be heard, and one who didn't suffer fools lightly". Throughout his life he was a religious man and attended church regularly when ashore. He had a passion for sermons and might attend two or three services in a day to hear them, which he would 'discuss afterwards with great animation'. However, he

7140-539: The port admiral at Portsmouth between 30 January and 4 July 1881. Fisher was considered sufficiently able, with recommendations following all of his postings, to be appointed captain of the newly completed battleship HMS  Inflexible . Inflexible had the largest guns and thickest armour of any ship in the navy, but still carried masts and sails and had slow, muzzle-loading guns. She had been seven years under construction and had many innovations built into her, including electric lighting and torpedo tubes, but with such

7245-470: The port of Alexandria as part of Admiral Seymour 's fleet. Fisher was placed in charge of a landing party which was quartered in the Khedive's palace. Lacking means of reconnaissance, he devised a plan to armour a train with iron plates, machine gun and cannon. This became celebrated and widely reported by correspondents, so that its inventor, Fisher, came to the attention of the public for the first time as

7350-460: The port of Boston . These were also used extensively as a source of food by the gold prospectors who migrated to the gold mines of California in 1849 . Since the journey took months, hardtack was stored in the wagon trains . Bent's company later sold the original hardtack crackers used by troops during the American Civil War . The G. H. Bent Company operated in Milton and sold these items to Civil War re-enactors and others until 2018. By 1818,

7455-411: The possibility of building privately new designs of ship which he believed would be needed to maintain the strength of the fleet. In early June 1902 Fisher handed over the command of the Mediterranean Squadron to Admiral Sir Compton Domvile , and returned to the UK to take up the appointment as Second Naval Lord in charge of personnel. He was read in at the Admiralty on 9 June, and took up his duties

7560-518: The practice of junior officers dancing on deck when the band was playing for senior officers' wardroom dinners. This practice spread through the fleet. He broke with the then ball tradition of dancing with a different partner for each dance, instead adopting the scandalous habit of choosing one good dancer as his partner for the evening. His ability to charm all comers of all social classes made up for his sometimes blunt or tactless comments. He suffered from seasickness throughout his life. Fisher's aim

7665-451: The public debate. However, he maintained a steady confidential correspondence with the journalist Arnold White , providing him with information and advice for a newspaper campaign promoting the needs of the navy. During the course of the correspondence in 1902, Fisher noted that although France was Britain's historical enemy, Britain had considerable common interest with France as a possible ally, whereas growing German activity abroad made her

7770-405: The range, accuracy and rate-of-fire of naval gunnery , and became an early proponent of the use of the torpedo , which he believed would supersede big guns for use against ships. As Controller, he introduced torpedo-boat destroyers as a class of ship intended for defence against attack from torpedo boats or from submarines. As First Sea Lord he drove the construction of HMS  Dreadnought ,

7875-416: The school, he invited politicians and journalists to attend lectures and organised demonstrations. This produced mixed reactions amongst some officers, who did not approve of his showmanship. He was promoted to captain on 30 October 1874, aged thirty-three, in time to be Vernon ' s first commander. Vernon consisted of the hulk of HMS  Vernon , William Symonds ' 1832 50-gun sailing frigate, and

7980-488: The ship carried out 150 runs with torpedoes in a fortnight, whereas the whole rest of the navy performed only 200 in a year. Fisher's brother Philip was serving on the training ship Atalanta , which disappeared somewhere between the West Indies and England, believed lost in a storm. Northampton was one of the ships sent to search for her, but without result. In January 1881 Fisher received news of his appointment to

8085-485: The soldiers could skim off the insects and resume consumption. The weevils "left no distinctive flavor behind." Some men also turned hardtack into a mush by breaking it up with blows from their rifle butts , then adding water. If the men had a frying pan, they could cook the mush into a lumpy pancake ; otherwise they dropped the mush directly on the coals of their campfire. They also mixed hardtack with brown sugar, hot water, and sometimes whiskey to create what they called

8190-480: The speed of operations. Royal Sovereign was built in two years rather than three, while changing a barbette gun on a ship was reduced from a two-day operation to two hours. His example obliged all shipyards, both navy and private, to reduce the time they took to complete a ship, making savings in cost and allowing new designs to enter service more rapidly. He used all the tricks he could devise: an official who refused to step outside his office to personally supervise

8295-421: The standards he demanded. He gave lectures on naval strategy to which all officers were invited and once again encouraged his officers to bring ideas to him. He offered prizes for essays on tactics and maintained a large tabletop map room with models of all ships in the fleet, where all officers could come to develop tactics. A particular concern was the threat of torpedoes, which Germany had boasted would dispose of

8400-465: The time. Cocket bread was a type of bread in England, as referenced in the Assize of Bread and Ale ( temp. incert. ) (c. 1266), where it is one of several kinds of bread named. It seems to have been hard sea-biscuit, which perhaps had then some mark or seal (a cocket ) on it; or else, was so called from its being designed for the use of the coxswains , or seamen. Commercially available hardtack

8505-567: The top of the tree." They remained married until her death in July 1918. They had a son, Cecil Vavasseur , 2nd Baron Fisher (1868–1955), and three daughters, Beatrix Alice (1867–1930), Dorothy Sybil (1873–1962), and Pamela Mary (1876–1949), all of whom married naval officers who went on to become admirals. Beatrix Alice married Reginald Rundell Neeld in 1896, Pamela Mary married Henry Blackett in 1906, and in 1908 Dorothy Sybil married Eric Fullerton . Fisher's father ultimately aided his entry into

8610-584: The traditional circular shaped biscuit. Hardtack remained an important part of the Royal Navy sailor's diet until the introduction of canned foods ; canned meat was first marketed in 1814, and preserved beef in tins was officially introduced to the Royal Navy rations in 1847. As early as the Spanish–American War in 1898, some military hardtack was used by service members in etching or writing notes, often commemorating events or coined with phrases of

8715-483: The very thought of it and really, I don't want to see her. I don't see why I should as I haven't the slightest recollection of her." Fisher married Frances Katharine Josepha Broughton, known as 'Kitty', the daughter of the Rev. Thomas Delves Broughton and Frances Corkran, on 4 April 1866 while stationed at Portsmouth . Kitty's two brothers were both naval officers. According to a cousin, she believed that Jack would rise "to

8820-453: The visit, he started preparing a paper on the design, construction and management of electrical torpedoes, the cutting-edge technology of the time. On 2 August 1869 Fisher was promoted to the rank of commander , "at the early age of twenty-eight" according to biographer Ruddock Mackay. On 8 November, he was posted as second-in-command of HMS  Donegal , serving under Captain Hewett ,

8925-436: The work was offered a promotion to the tropics; he would find out the name of one or two men amongst a work crew and then make a point of complimenting them on their work and using their names, giving the impression he knew everyone personally; he took a chair and table into the yard where some operation was to be carried out and declared his intention to stay there until the operation was completed. He observed, When you are told

9030-429: The yellow cast of his skin. However, his colour resulted from dysentery and malaria in middle life, which nearly caused his death. He had a fixed and compelling gaze when addressing someone, which gave little clue to his feelings. Fisher was energetic, ambitious, enthusiastic and clever. A shipmate described him as "easily the most interesting midshipman I ever met". When addressing someone he could become carried away with

9135-564: Was baked hard, it would stay intact for years if kept dry. For long voyages, hardtack was baked four times, rather than the more common two, and prepared six months before sailing. Because it is dry and hard, hardtack (when properly stored and transported) will survive rough handling and temperature extremes. In 1665, Samuel Pepys first regularized naval victualling in the Royal Navy with varied and nutritious rations, to include "one pound daily of good, clean, sweet, sound, well-baked and well-conditioned wheaten biscuit". By at least 1731, it

9240-516: Was 'efficiency of the fleet and its instant readiness for war', which won him support amongst a certain kind of navy officer. He believed in advancing the most able, rather than the longest serving. This upset those he passed over. Thus, he divided the navy into those who approved of his innovations and those who did not. As he became older and more senior he also became more autocratic and commented, 'Anyone who opposes me, I crush'. He believed that nations fought wars for material gain, and that maintaining

9345-404: Was 6 feet 2 inches..., also especially handsome. Why I am ugly is one of those puzzles of physiology which are beyond finding out". William Fisher sold his commission the year John was born, and became a coffee planter and later chief superintendent of police. He incurred such debt on his two coffee plantations that he could barely support his growing family. At the age of six John (who

9450-457: Was a British Admiral of the Fleet . With more than sixty years in the Royal Navy , his efforts to reform the service helped to usher in an era of modernisation which saw the supersession of wooden sailing ships armed with muzzle-loading cannon by steel-hulled battlecruisers , submarines and the first aircraft carriers . Fisher has a reputation as an innovator, strategist and developer of

9555-695: Was a very exacting master and I had at times long and arduous duties, long hours at the engine room telegraphs in cold fog, etc., and the least inattention was punished. It was, I think, his way of proving us, for he always rewarded us in some way when an extra hard bit of work was over. Cooper Key was transferred to a special squadron operating in the Channel formed to combat fears of war with Russia. Fisher went with him as flag captain of HMS Hercules from 7 June to 21 August 1878. From 22 August to 12 September he transferred still as flag captain under Cooper Key to HMS  Valorous . At this time Fisher first became

9660-531: Was always known within the family as "Jack" ) was sent to England to live with his maternal grandfather, Alfred Lambe, in London. His grandfather had also lost money and the family survived by renting out rooms in their home. John's younger brother, Frederic William Fisher , joined the Royal Navy and reached the rank of admiral, and his youngest surviving sibling Philip became a navy lieutenant on HMS  Atalanta before drowning in an 1880 storm. William Fisher

9765-479: Was awarded the Beaufort Testimonial, an annual prize of books and instruments; but in the meantime he had to wait around, unpaid, until his appointment came through officially. From January 1862 to March 1863, Fisher returned to the payroll at the navy's principal gunnery school aboard HMS  Excellent , a three-decker moored in Portsmouth harbour. During this time, Excellent was evaluating

9870-607: Was concerned with the route north–south to its colonies in Northern Africa. Fisher retained his flagship from the North American Squadron, HMS  Renown , rather than choosing a more powerful but slower traditional battleship, despite criticism from other officers. His strategy emphasised the importance of striking the first blow, but with an awareness that sunk ships could not easily be replaced, and would replace any officer who could not keep up with

9975-454: Was discreet in expressing his religious views because he feared public attention might hinder his professional career. He was not keen on sport, but he was a highly proficient dancer. Fisher employed his dancing skill later in life to charm a number of important ladies. He became interested in dancing in 1877 and insisted that the officers of his ship learn to dance. Fisher cancelled the leave of midshipmen who would not take part. He introduced

10080-507: Was fitted with an experimental Thomson-designed compass, which the inventor was on hand to adjust. Three days were spent attempting and failing to adjust the compass, with Thomson becoming increasingly bad tempered, until it was noticed that by accident the degree card had been marked with only 359 instead of 360 degrees. The ship was fitted with a new design of lamp created by Captain Philip Colomb , who came on board to inspect them. As

10185-534: Was in the hands of the War Office . Fisher began a long campaign to return this responsibility to the Admiralty, but did not finally succeed until he later became First Sea Lord. He was appointed Aide-de-Camp to the Queen in 1887, and promoted Rear-Admiral in August 1890. From May 1891 to February 1892, Fisher was Admiral Superintendent of the dockyard at Portsmouth , where he concerned himself with improving

10290-434: Was intended as a reminder of British naval prowess to the French, but allowed Fisher to meet Victoria and her grandson, Prince Henry of Prussia , who later became admiral of the German navy. Victoria was impressed by Fisher, as she had been by his brother Philip who had served on royal yachts and for whom she had arranged the ill-fated posting to Atalanta . Inflexible took part in the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War , bombarding

10395-495: Was killed in a riding accident on 5 May 1866 when John was 25. John's relationship with his mother Sophia suffered from their separation. However, he continued to send her an allowance until her death. In 1870, when Sophia suggested a visit, Fisher dissuaded her as strongly as he could. Fisher wrote to his wife: "I heard from my mother... She contemplates coming to see me... I am in a horrid fright of my mother turning up some day unexpectedly; I am sure we couldn't live together. I hate

10500-441: Was made with finer flour. Some 5th century BCE physicians, such as Hippocrates , associated most medical problems with digestion. For sustenance and health, eating a biscuit daily was considered good for one's constitution. As the hardtack biscuits softened with time due to exposure to humidity and other weather elements, they became more palatable, so the bakers in the 12th century made biscuits as hard as possible. Because it

10605-631: Was officially codified in Naval regulation that each sailor was rationed one pound (0.45 kg; 450 g) of biscuit per day. Hardtack, crumbled or pounded fine and used as a thickener, was a key ingredient in New England seafood chowders from the late 1700s. In 1801, Josiah Bent began a baking operation in Milton, Massachusetts , selling " water crackers " made of flour and water that would be resistant to deterioration during long sea voyages from

10710-570: Was shipped from Union and Confederate storehouses. Civil War soldiers generally found their rations to be unappealing, and joked about the poor quality of the hardtack in the satirical song " Hard Tack Come Again No More ". The song was sung to the tune of the Stephen Foster song " Hard Times Come Again No More ", and featured lyrics describing the hardtack rations as being 'old and very wormy' and causing many 'stomachs sore'. John Billings,

10815-610: Was sufficiently powerful to overcome any combination of states, and England reserved the right to employ that fleet any way it chose. Unlike the North America and West Indies station, the Mediterranean Fleet was a vital British command operating from Alexandria and Gibraltar . The important shipping route between India and Britain passed through the Suez Canal , and was considered threatened by France. France

10920-464: Was transferred three months later from the steam frigate Chesapeake to the screw corvette Pearl as an acting lieutenant . Shortly afterwards, Fisher had his first brief command: taking the yacht of the China Squadron's admiral—the paddle- gunboat HMS  Coromandel —from Hong Kong to Canton (presently Guangzhou ), a voyage of four days. He was transferred, on 12 June 1860, to

11025-442: Was whilst he was on Ocean that he wrote an eight-page memoir: "Naval Tactics", which Captain J. G. Goodenough had printed for private circulation. He installed a system of electrical firing so that all guns could be fired simultaneously, making Ocean the first vessel to be so equipped. Fisher noted in his letters that he greatly missed his wife, but also missed his work on torpedoes and the access to important people possible with

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