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129-439: The university today comprises five Schools and 18 Departments offering undergraduate and post-graduate degrees programmes. This growth was based on the administration's belief that its sustainability could only be based on its potential to grow into a substantially large institute, initially in department numbers supporting its educational side and secondly in postgraduate courses in support of its research nature. The University of

258-714: A higher reputation domestically and globally . The University Grants Committee funds eight public universities in Hong Kong . The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government . There are four self-financing universities, namely Hong Kong Metropolitan University , Hong Kong Shue Yan University , Hang Seng University of Hong Kong , and Saint Francis University . In India , most universities and nearly all research institutions are public. Some private undergraduate colleges exist but most are engineering schools that are affiliated with public universities. Private schools can be partially aided by

387-445: A scientifically illiterate public, have "... walled themselves off from academic medicine, and critique has been all too often met with avoidance rather than argument". Homeopaths often prefer to ignore meta-analyses in favour of cherry picked positive results, such as by promoting a particular observational study (one which Goldacre describes as "little more than a customer-satisfaction survey") as if it were more informative than

516-683: A university institute , and a distance university in Portugal . Higher education in Portugal provided by state-run institutions is not free; students must pay a tuition fee. However, the tuition fee is lower than that of private universities. The highest tuition fee allowed by law in public universities is €697 per year as of 2022. Public universities include some of the most selective and demanding higher learning institutions in Portugal. In Russia , about 7.5 million students study in thousands of universities. Founded in 1755, Moscow State University

645-595: A "cruel deception". Edzard Ernst , the first professor of complementary medicine in the United Kingdom and a former homeopathic practitioner, has expressed his concerns about pharmacists who violate their ethical code by failing to provide customers with "necessary and relevant information" about the true nature of the homeopathic products they advertise and sell. In 2013 the UK Advertising Standards Authority concluded that

774-429: A 30C dilution, and most modern provings are carried out using ultra-dilute preparations. Provings are claimed to have been important in the development of the clinical trial , due to their early use of simple control groups, systematic and quantitative procedures, and some of the first application of statistics in medicine. The lengthy records of self-experimentation by homeopaths have occasionally proven useful in

903-459: A consultation, which can be a 10–15 minute appointment or last for over an hour, where the patient describes their medical history . The patient describes the "modalities", or if their symptoms change depending on the weather and other external factors. The practitioner also solicits information on mood, likes and dislikes, physical, mental and emotional states, life circumstances, and any physical or emotional illnesses. This information (also called

1032-539: A few private institutions of higher learning, such as the National College of Ireland . However, none of the private institutions have university status and are highly specialized. Almost all universities in Italy are public but have institutional autonomy by law. The Italian state provides the majority of university funding. Therefore, students pay relatively low tuition fees, set by each university according to

1161-1285: A handful of community colleges. In 2008, the Philippine Congress passed Republic Act 9500, declaring the University of the Philippines as the national university to distinguish it from all other state universities and colleges. Other notable public colleges and universities include the Polytechnic University of the Philippines , Technological University of the Philippines , Philippine Normal University , Batangas State University , and Mindanao State University . There are six autonomous public universities in Singapore , including National University of Singapore founded in 1905, Nanyang Technological University founded 1981, Singapore Management University founded in 2000, Singapore University of Technology and Design and Singapore Institute of Technology founded in 2009, and Singapore University of Social Sciences founded in 2017. In Sri Lanka , there are seventeen public universities. Most public universities are funded by

1290-484: A lawsuit in 2018 against the CVS pharmacy for consumer fraud over its sale of homeopathic medicines. It claimed that CVS was selling homeopathic products on an easier-to-obtain basis than standard medication. In 2019, CFI brought a similar lawsuit against Walmart for "committing wide-scale consumer fraud and endangering the health of its customers through its sale and marketing of homeopathic medicines". They also conducted

1419-483: A limit to the matter". To counter the reduced potency at high dilutions he formed the view that vigorous shaking by striking on an elastic surface – a process termed succussion – was necessary. Homeopaths are unable to agree on the number and force of strikes needed, and there is no way that the claimed results of succussion can be tested. Critics of homeopathy commonly emphasize the dilutions involved in homeopathy, using analogies. One mathematically correct example

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1548-542: A low-interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board; students must pay back the loan after completing their higher education. In Nigeria , both the federal and state governments may establish public universities. South Africa has 26 public universities which are members of Universities in South Africa. These are categorized as traditional or comprehensive universities. In Tunisia ,

1677-644: A national institution in 1926, the Academy of Athens is the highest research establishment in Greece. Private higher education institutions cannot operate in Greece and are not recognized as degree-awarding bodies by the Greek government. In Ireland , nearly all universities, institutes of technology, colleges, and some third-level institutions are public. The state pays the cost of educating undergraduates, although students must contribute approximately €3,000. There are

1806-418: A preventive health measure. These organizations report that no evidence exists that homeopathic treatment is effective, but that there is evidence that using these treatments produces harm and can bring indirect health risks by delaying conventional treatment. While some articles have suggested that homeopathic solutions of high dilution can have statistically significant effects on organic processes including

1935-535: A series of randomized controlled trials. In an article entitled "Should We Maintain an Open Mind about Homeopathy?" published in the American Journal of Medicine , Michael Baum and Edzard Ernst  – writing to other physicians – wrote that "Homeopathy is among the worst examples of faith-based medicine... These axioms [of homeopathy] are not only out of line with scientific facts but also directly opposed to them. If homeopathy

2064-471: A significant comeback and the sales of some homeopathic companies increased tenfold. Some homeopaths credit the revival to Greek homeopath George Vithoulkas , who conducted a "great deal of research to update the scenarios and refine the theories and practice of homeopathy" in the 1970s, but Ernst and Simon Singh consider it to be linked to the rise of the New Age movement . Bruce Hood has argued that

2193-859: A student of Hahnemann. The first homeopathic school in the United States opened in 1835 and the American Institute of Homeopathy was established in 1844. Throughout the 19th century, dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared in Europe and the United States, and by 1900, there were 22 homeopathic colleges and 15,000 practitioners in the United States. Because medical practice of the time relied on treatments which were often ineffective and harmful, patients of homeopaths often had better outcomes than those being treated by medical practitioners. Though ineffective, homeopathic preparations are rarely detrimental, thus users are less likely to be harmed by

2322-553: A substance with a concentration of 0.01% ( volume-volume percentage ). A 6C dilution ends up with the original substance diluted by a factor of 100 (one part in one trillion). The end product is usually so diluted as to be indistinguishable from the diluent (pure water, sugar or alcohol). The greatest dilution reasonably likely to contain at least one molecule of the original substance is approximately 12C. Hahnemann advocated dilutions of 1 part to 10 or 30C. Hahnemann regularly used dilutions of up to 30C but opined that "there must be

2451-515: A survey in which they found consumers felt ripped off when informed of the lack of evidence for the efficacy of homeopathic remedies, such as those sold by Walmart and CVS. In 2021, the French healthcare minister phased out social security reimbursements for homeopathic drugs. France has long had a stronger belief in the virtues of homeopathic drugs than many other countries and the world's biggest manufacturer of alternative medicine drugs, Boiron ,

2580-419: A therapeutically active preparation, selectively including only the intended substance, though in reality any water will have been in contact with millions of different substances throughout its history, and homeopaths cannot account for the selected homeopathic substance being isolated as a special case in their process. Practitioners also hold that higher dilutions produce stronger medicinal effects. This idea

2709-407: A therapy derived from homeopathy in which the preparations come from diseased or pathological products such as fecal, urinary and respiratory discharges, blood, and tissue. They are called nosodes (from the Greek nosos , disease) with preparations made from "healthy" specimens being termed "sarcodes". Many so-called "homeopathic vaccines" are a form of isopathy. Tautopathy is a form of isopathy where

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2838-496: A time. They were made to keep extensive journals detailing all of their symptoms at specific times throughout the day. They were forbidden from consuming coffee, tea, spices, or wine for the duration of the experiment; playing chess was also prohibited because Hahnemann considered it to be "too exciting", though they were allowed to drink beer and encouraged to exercise in moderation. At first Hahnemann used undiluted doses for provings, but he later advocated provings with preparations at

2967-582: A university, not a college, can issue doctorate degrees in Israel. In Japan , public universities are run by local governments, either prefectural or municipal. According to the Ministry of Education , public universities have "provided an opportunity for higher education in a region and served the central role of intellectual and cultural base for the local community in the region" and are "expected to contribute to social, economical and cultural development in

3096-539: A year and have to retake them, pay a partial or full tuition fee, ranging from €500 to €2000 per year. Private universities have existed in Serbia since 1989 but are held in less esteem because they are generally less academically rigorous than the public universities. Of the 74 universities in Spain , 54 are public and funded by the autonomous community in which they are based. University funding differs by region. However,

3225-578: Is electrohomeopathy , where an electric bio-energy of therapeutic value is supposedly extracted from plants. Popular in the late nineteenth century, electrohomeopathy is extremely pseudo-scientific. In 2012, the Allahabad High Court in Uttar Pradesh, India, handed down a decree stating that electrohomeopathy was quackery and no longer recognized it as a system of medicine. Other minority practices include paper preparations, in which

3354-402: Is Fluxion, which dilutes the substance by continuously passing water through the vial. Insoluble solids, such as granite , diamond , and platinum , are diluted by grinding them with lactose (" trituration "). Three main logarithmic dilution scales are in regular use in homeopathy. Hahnemann created the "centesimal" or "C scale", diluting a substance by a factor of 100 at each stage. There

3483-552: Is a pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine . It was conceived in 1796 by the German physician Samuel Hahnemann . Its practitioners, called homeopaths or homeopathic physicians, believe that a substance that causes symptoms of a disease in healthy people can cure similar symptoms in sick people; this doctrine is called similia similibus curentur , or "like cures like". Homeopathic preparations are termed remedies and are made using homeopathic dilution . In this process,

3612-448: Is a university or college that is owned by the state or receives significant funding from a government. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country (or region) to another, largely depending on the specific education landscape. In contrast a private university is usually owned and operated by a private corporation (not-for-profit or for profit). Both types are often regulated, but to varying degrees, by

3741-405: Is a collection of "drug pictures", organized alphabetically. A homeopathic repertory is a quick reference version of the materia medica that indexes the symptoms and then the associated remedies for each. In both cases different compilers may dispute particular inclusions in the references. The first symptomatic homeopathic materia medica was arranged by Hahnemann. The first homeopathic repertory

3870-486: Is a fraud perpetrated on the public with the government's blessing, thanks to the abuse of political power of Sen. Royal S. Copeland." Since the beginning of the 21st century, a series of meta-analyses have further shown that the therapeutic claims of homeopathy lack scientific justification. This had led to a decrease or suspension of funding by many governments. In a 2010 report, the Science and Technology Committee of

3999-574: Is a public research university and the most prestigious university in Russia. Saint Petersburg State University is a state-owned university that was founded in 1724; it is managed by the government of the Russian Federation . In Serbia , over 85% of college students study at state-operated public universities. Academically well-performing students pay only administrative fees of less than €100 per year. Students who fail multiple classes in

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4128-477: Is added to part of the previous mixture, but the "Korsakovian" method may also be used. In the Korsakovian method, the vessel in which the preparations are manufactured is emptied, refilled with solvent, with the volume of fluid adhering to the walls of the vessel deemed sufficient for the new batch. The Korsakovian method is sometimes referred to as K on the label of a homeopathic preparation. Another method

4257-449: Is also a decimal dilution scale (notated as "X" or "D") in which the preparation is diluted by a factor of 10 at each stage. The centesimal scale was favoured by Hahnemann for most of his life, although in his last ten years Hahnemann developed a quintamillesimal (Q) scale which diluted the drug 1 part in 50,000. A 2C dilution works out to one part of the original substance in 10,000 parts of the solution. In standard chemistry, this produces

4386-587: Is also inconsistent with observed dose-response relationships, where effects are dependent on the concentration of the active ingredient in the body. Some contend that the phenomenon of hormesis may support the idea of dilution increasing potency, but the dose-response relationship outside the zone of hormesis declines with dilution as normal, and nonlinear pharmacological effects do not provide any credible support for homeopathy. No individual homeopathic preparation has been unambiguously shown by research to be different from placebo. The methodological quality of

4515-544: Is correct, much of physics, chemistry, and pharmacology must be incorrect...". The exceedingly low concentration of homeopathic preparations, which often lack even a single molecule of the diluted substance, has been the basis of questions about the effects of the preparations since the 19th century. The laws of chemistry give this dilution limit, which is related to the Avogadro number , as being roughly equal to 12C homeopathic dilutions (1 part in 10 ). James Randi and

4644-467: Is inconsistent with subsequent identification of viruses and bacteria as causes of disease . Clinical trials have been conducted and generally demonstrated no objective effect from homeopathic preparations. The fundamental implausibility of homeopathy as well as a lack of demonstrable effectiveness has led to it being characterized within the scientific and medical communities as quackery and fraud . Homeopathy achieved its greatest popularity in

4773-705: Is located in that country. Spain has also announced moves to ban homeopathy and other pseudotherapies. In 2016, the University of Barcelona cancelled its master's degree in Homeopathy citing "lack of scientific basis", after advice from the Spanish Ministry of Health. Shortly afterwards the University of Valencia announced the elimination of its Masters in Homeopathy. Homeopathic preparations are referred to as "homeopathic remedies". Practitioners rely on two types of reference when prescribing: Materia medica and repertories. A homeopathic materia medica

4902-724: Is ranked 801st–1000th in The Times Higher Education (THE) annual list. An external evaluation of all academic departments in Greek universities was conducted by the Hellenic Quality Assurance and Accreditation Agency (HQA) in 2012-2015. The internal evaluation process of every department is organised by the Internal Quality Assurance Unit (MODIP) ( Greek : ΜοΔιΠ ) of the university. The university forms part of

5031-583: Is reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective". The federal government only ended up accepting three of the 45 recommendations made by the 2018 review of Pharmacy Remuneration and Regulation. The same year the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) held a hearing requesting public comment on the regulation of homeopathic drugs. In 2017 the FDA announced it would strengthen regulation of homeopathic products. The American non-profit Center for Inquiry (CFI) filed

5160-504: Is that a 12C solution is equivalent to "a pinch of salt in both the North and South Atlantic Oceans". One-third of a drop of some original substance diluted into all the water on Earth would produce a preparation with a concentration of about 13C. Robert L. Park points out that a 200C dilution of duck liver, marketed under the name Oscillococcinum , would require 10 universes worth of molecules to contain just one original molecule in

5289-470: Is unproven and does not derive from the scientific method . An account of the effects of eating cinchona bark noted by Oliver Wendell Holmes , published in 1861, failed to reproduce the symptoms Hahnemann reported. Subsequent scientific work showed that cinchona cures malaria because it contains quinine , which kills the Plasmodium falciparum parasite that causes the disease; the mechanism of action

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5418-634: Is unrelated to Hahnemann's ideas. Hahnemann began to test what effects various substances may produce in humans, a procedure later called "homeopathic proving". These tests required subjects to test the effects of ingesting substances by recording all their symptoms as well as the ancillary conditions under which they appeared. He published a collection of provings in 1805, and a second collection of 65 preparations appeared in his book, Materia Medica Pura (1810). As Hahnemann believed that large doses of drugs that caused similar symptoms would only aggravate illness, he advocated for extreme dilutions. A technique

5547-509: The 10:23 campaign groups have highlighted the lack of active ingredients by taking large 'overdoses'. None of the hundreds of demonstrators in the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the US were injured and "no one was cured of anything, either". Modern advocates of homeopathy have proposed a concept of " water memory ", according to which water "remembers" the substances mixed in it, and transmits

5676-465: The Bach flower remedies , which were developed by Edward Bach . Hahnemann claimed that undiluted doses caused reactions, sometimes dangerous ones, and thus that preparations be given at the lowest possible dose. A solution that is more dilute is described as having a higher "potency", and thus are claimed to be stronger and deeper-acting. The general method of dilution is serial dilution , where solvent

5805-603: The Cochrane Collaboration concluded that this evidence "fails to demonstrate that homeopathic medicines have effects beyond placebo." In 2009, the United Kingdom's House of Commons Science and Technology Committee concluded that there was no compelling evidence of effect other than placebo. The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council completed a comprehensive review of the effectiveness of homeopathic preparations in 2015, in which it concluded that "there were no health conditions for which there

5934-911: The Erasmus+ EU programme for education, training, youth and sport. The University of Aegean library was founded in 1984 and it has ever since experienced modernization and ample development of its IT infrastructure, partly financed by EU programmes. The library comprises more than 100,000 book titles, and more than 1,000 printed academic journal titles covering areas of Economics, International and European Economic Studies, Business Administration, Management Science and Marketing, Informatics , Statistics , Accounting and Finance , and Management and Technology . There are several academic, cultural and athletic groups active in all islands/university units. 39°06′N 26°33′E  /  39.1°N 26.55°E  / 39.1; 26.55 Public university A public university or public college

6063-659: The Great Fire of Smyrna in 1922. The new Greek University in the broader area of the Southeast Mediterranean region, as originally envisioned by Carathéodory, finally materialised with the establishment of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in 1925. The Department of Tourism Economics and Management started its operation in 2017, admitting its first students in October 2017. During

6192-541: The Korea National Open University which offers distance learning. The University of Seoul is a public municipal university. Manas University in Kyrgyzstan is a public higher education institution that offers associate degrees, undergraduate degrees, and graduate and postgraduate degrees. The University of Macau , Macao Polytechnic University , and Macao University of Tourism are

6321-526: The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research controls public universities and guarantees admission to students who earn a Tunisian Baccalaureate . Using a state website, the students make a wish list of the universities they want to attend, with the highest-ranking students getting priority choices. Universities rank students according to the results of their baccalaureate. There are forty public universities in Bangladesh . They are overseen by

6450-459: The Organon , Hahnemann introduced the concept of "miasms" as the "infectious principles" underlying chronic disease and as "peculiar morbid derangement[s] of vital force". Hahnemann associated each miasm with specific diseases, and thought that initial exposure to miasms causes local symptoms, such as skin or venereal diseases. His assertion was that if these symptoms were suppressed by medication,

6579-689: The Russian Academy of Sciences have all concluded that homeopathy is ineffective, and recommended against the practice receiving any further funding. The National Health Service in England no longer provides funding for homeopathic remedies and asked the Department of Health to add homeopathic remedies to the list of forbidden prescription items. France removed funding in 2021, while Spain has also announced moves to ban homeopathy and other pseudotherapies from health centers. Homeopathy

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6708-568: The United States , but remained more deeply established in European thinking. In the United States, the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 (sponsored by Royal Copeland , a Senator from New York and homeopathic physician) recognized homeopathic preparations as drugs. In the 1950s, there were only 75 solely homeopathic practitioners in the U.S. By the mid to late 1970s, homeopathy made

6837-805: The University Grants Commission which was created by the government in 1973. Most universities in Brunei are public. In the People's Republic of China , nearly all universities and research institutions are public. Typically, provincial governments run public universities. However, some are administered by municipal governments or are national , which the central government directly administers. Private undergraduate colleges exist but are primarily vocational colleges sponsored by private entities. Private universities usually cannot award bachelor's degrees. Public universities tend to enjoy

6966-722: The University of Mons in 2009. The state-created university founded in Antwerp in 1971 is now part of University of Antwerp . Hasselt University started as a state-created public institution managed by the Province of Limburg . Similarly, the Province of Luxembourg managed the state-created public university in Arlon which became part of ULiège in 2004. Since 1891, private universities have gradually become state-recognized and funded. Some private, mostly Catholic, organizations are called free institutions, as in administratively free from

7095-747: The alternative medicine community, scientists have long considered homeopathy a sham or a pseudoscience , and the medical community regards it as quackery . There is an overall absence of sound statistical evidence of therapeutic efficacy, which is consistent with the lack of any biologically plausible pharmacological agent or mechanism. Proponents argue that homeopathic medicines must work by some, as yet undefined, biophysical mechanism. No homeopathic preparation has been shown to be different from placebo . The lack of convincing scientific evidence supporting its efficacy and its use of preparations without active ingredients have led to characterizations of homeopathy as pseudoscience and quackery, or, in

7224-500: The bushmaster snake ), opium , and thyroidinum ( thyroid hormone ). Homeopaths say this is to ensure accuracy. In the USA the common name must be displayed, although the Latin one can also be present. Homeopathic pills are made from an inert substance (often sugars, typically lactose), upon which a drop of liquid homeopathic preparation is placed and allowed to evaporate. Isopathy is

7353-437: The constitution of Greece , higher education institutions (HEI) include universities, technical universities, and specialist institutions. HEI undergraduate programs are government-funded and do not charge tuition. A quarter of HEI postgraduate programs are tuition-free. After individual assessments, thirty percent of Greek students are entitled to attend any of the statutory postgraduate programs without tuition fees. Founded as

7482-519: The "impressive output" the lack of strategic design and effective prioritisation in research activities was evident at the time, the notable remark being that "research seems to be driven by the interests of individual academics, and more by accident than institutional design will it address priority issues for the institution or region" . In 2007 a postgraduate programme in Classical Homeopathy (Holistic Alternative Therapeutic Systems)

7611-658: The "symptom picture") is matched to the "drug picture" in the materia medica or repertory and used to determine the appropriate homeopathic remedies. In classical homeopathy, the practitioner attempts to match a single preparation to the totality of symptoms (the simlilum ), while "clinical homeopathy" involves combinations of preparations based on the illness's symptoms. Homeopathy uses animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic substances in its preparations, generally referring to them using Latin names. Examples include arsenicum album (arsenic oxide), natrum muriaticum ( sodium chloride or table salt), Lachesis muta (the venom of

7740-592: The 150 universities in Taiwan are public. Because the Taiwanese government provides funding to public universities, their students pay less than half the tuition fees of those at private universities. Ten public universities were established before the 1980s and are the most prestigious in Taiwan. As a result, most students choose public universities for their tertiary education. In the late 19th century Thailand , there

7869-423: The 19th century. It was introduced to the United States in 1825, and the first American homeopathic school opened in 1835. Throughout the 19th century, dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared in Europe and the United States. During this period, homeopathy was able to appear relatively successful, as other forms of treatment could be harmful and ineffective. By the end of the century the practice began to wane, with

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7998-470: The 21st century, a series of meta-analyses have shown that the therapeutic claims of homeopathy lack scientific justification. As a result, national and international bodies have recommended the withdrawal of government funding for homeopathy in healthcare. National bodies from Australia, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and France, as well as the European Academies' Science Advisory Council and

8127-567: The Aegean, like all universities in Greece, is a public university . As such, its educational activities and a small part of its research activities rely upon government funding. Since 2014, the University has been facing severe economic hardship due to austerity policies resulting in minimal state funding. The emblem of the University of the Aegean is the Sphinx . As described in its mandate,

8256-817: The Code de l'éducation states that " private higher education establishments can in no case take the title of university. " Nevertheless, many private institutions, such as the Catholic University of Lille or the Catholic University of Lyon , use the university as their marketing name. Most higher education institutions in Germany are public and operated by the states . All professors are public servants. Public universities are generally held in higher esteem than their private counterparts. From 1972 through 1998, public universities were tuition-free; however, some states have since adopted low tuition fees. According to

8385-535: The Ministry of Education controls all public universities. Students enroll after completing a 8-4-4 educational program system and attaining a mark of C+ or above. Students who meet the criteria set annually by the Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service receive government sponsorship, with the government providing part of their university or college fees. Students are also eligible for

8514-679: The Punjab is the biggest public university, followed by University of Karachi . The public universities receive guidance and recognition from the Higher Education Commission . There are more than 500 public higher education institutions in the Philippines that are controlled and managed by the Commission on Higher Education . Of the 500, 436 are state colleges and universities, 31 local colleges and universities, and

8643-796: The Scientific Teaching Staff numbered 99 and the Special Laboratory Teaching Staff 23 people, supported by 30 members of the Special Technical Laboratory Staff for teaching services and 304 members of administrative staff. The University of the Aegean consists of 6 Schools and 18 Departments that form the five University Units based on six islands of the Aegean Sea – Lesvos , Chios , Rhodes , Samos , Syros and Lemnos . As of 2013, all departments are organised in

8772-970: The UK Government Chief Scientific Adviser and head of the Government Office for Science said "homeopathy is nonsense, it is non-science." His predecessor, John Beddington , also said that homeopathy "has no underpinning of scientific basis" and is being "fundamentally ignored" by the Government. Jack Killen, acting deputy director of the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine , says homeopathy "goes beyond current understanding of chemistry and physics". He adds: "There is, to my knowledge, no condition for which homeopathy has been proven to be an effective treatment." Ben Goldacre says that homeopaths who misrepresent scientific evidence to

8901-611: The United Kingdom House of Commons recommended that homeopathy should no longer receive National Health Service (NHS) funding due its lack of scientific credibility; NHS funding for homeopathy ceased in 2017. They also asked the Department of Health in the UK to add homeopathic remedies to the list of forbidden prescription items. In 2015, the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia found that "there are no health conditions for which there

9030-430: The University comprised 7 departments and 1 postgraduate course, " however, in 1997 a remarkable development was initiated by exploiting available [european] funding opportunities ". The university was officially founded in 1984, although its historical roots date back to the early 1920s, to the Ionian University of Smyrna ( Ex Oriente Lux , Light from the East) which while established never operated. The foundations of

9159-399: The University of the Aegean date back to October 1918, when Greece had expanded its geographic borders to the wider Smyrna area after World War I . At the time, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens was the only University in Greece . Professor Constantin Carathéodory who was a professor at the University of Berlin at the time proposed the establishment of a new University –

9288-623: The University of the Aegean is a university which embodies a unique structure which combines campuses across six islands of the Aegean Sea . There is a student population of approximately 10,000 active students enrolled at the university, 8,200 in undergraduate programmes and 2,000 in Postgraduate programmes with a faculty of over 380. Furthermore, in 2011, the Teaching and Research Staff numbered 292 people (55 professors, 70 associate professors, 128 assistant professors, and 39 lecturers),

9417-586: The accuracy of the research. After investigation the team found that the experiments were "statistically ill-controlled", "interpretation has been clouded by the exclusion of measurements in conflict with the claim", and concluded, "We believe that experimental data have been uncritically assessed and their imperfections inadequately reported." The provision of homeopathic preparations has been described as unethical. Michael Baum , professor emeritus of surgery and visiting professor of medical humanities at University College London (UCL), has described homeopathy as

9546-477: The available systematic reviews confirmed in 2002 that higher-quality trials tended to have less positive results, and found no convincing evidence that any homeopathic preparation exerts clinical effects different from placebo. The same conclusion was also reached in 2005 in a meta-analysis published in The Lancet . A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis found that the most reliable evidence did not support

9675-441: The cause of such diseases as epilepsy , cancer , jaundice , deafness , and cataracts . Since Hahnemann's time, other miasms have been proposed, some replacing illnesses previously attributed to the psora, including tuberculosis and cancer miasms. Hahnemann's miasm theory remains disputed and controversial within homeopathy even in modern times. The theory of miasms has been criticized as an explanation developed to preserve

9804-457: The cause went deeper and began to manifest itself as diseases of the internal organs. Homeopathy maintains that treating diseases by directly alleviating their symptoms , as is sometimes done in conventional medicine, is ineffective because all "disease can generally be traced to some latent, deep-seated, underlying chronic, or inherited tendency". The underlying imputed miasm still remains, and deep-seated ailments can be corrected only by removing

9933-430: The central government establishes homogeneous tuition fees for all public universities which are much lower than those of their private counterparts. The highest tuition fee allowed by law was, as of 2010, €14.97 per academic credit, amounting to roughly €900 a year for an average 60-credit full-time course. Tuition fees at private universities might reach €18,000 a year. Homeopathy Homeopathy or homoeopathy

10062-446: The current challenges faced by the institution due to economic hardship and the dispersion of its academic units in islands, which increases operational costs and adds considerable stress in the educational process. The Ministry of Education aimed to reform all Higher Education programmes in 2013 with the "ATHENA" Plan. The university's Senate issued a formal response to the Ministry of Education's proposed plan in 2013. The University

10191-416: The deeper disturbance of the vital force. Hahnemann's hypotheses for miasms originally presented only three local symptoms: psora (the itch), syphilis (venereal disease) or sycosis (fig-wart disease). Of these the most important was psora , described as being related to any itching diseases of the skin and was claimed to be the foundation of many further disease conditions. Hahnemann believed it to be

10320-657: The development of modern drugs: For example, evidence that nitroglycerin might be useful as a treatment for angina was discovered by looking through homeopathic provings, though homeopaths themselves never used it for that purpose at that time. The first recorded provings were published by Hahnemann in his 1796 Essay on a New Principle . His Fragmenta de Viribus (1805) contained the results of 27 provings, and his 1810 Materia Medica Pura contained 65. For James Tyler Kent's 1905 Lectures on Homoeopathic Materia Medica , 217 preparations underwent provings and newer substances are continually added to contemporary versions. Though

10449-532: The difficulties regarding the establishment of a Greek university in Constantinople led him to consider three other cities: Thessaloniki , Chios and Smyrna . Despite the political turbulence of the era over the city of Smyrna, the famous mathematician constructed a "plan for the creation of a new University in Greece", named “Ionian University” on 20 October 1919. The city of Smyrna in Asia Minor

10578-467: The diseases that they treat. This led to the name "homeopathy" , which comes from the ‹See Tfd› Greek : ὅμοιος hómoios , "-like" and πάθος páthos , "suffering". The doctrine that those drugs are effective which produce symptoms similar to the symptoms caused by the diseases they treat, called "the law of similars", was expressed by Hahnemann with the Latin phrase similia similibus curentur , or "like cures like". Hahnemann's law of similars

10707-451: The early primary research was low, with problems such as weaknesses in study design and reporting, small sample size , and selection bias . Since better quality trials have become available, the evidence for efficacy of homeopathy preparations has diminished; the highest-quality trials indicate that the preparations themselves exert no intrinsic effect. A review conducted in 2010 of all the pertinent studies of "best evidence" produced by

10836-481: The effect of those substances when consumed. This concept is inconsistent with the current understanding of matter, and water memory has never been demonstrated to have any detectable effect, biological or otherwise. Existence of a pharmacological effect in the absence of any true active ingredient is inconsistent with the law of mass action and the observed dose-response relationships characteristic of therapeutic drugs. Homeopaths contend that their methods produce

10965-593: The effectiveness of non-individualized homeopathy. Health organizations, including the UK's National Health Service , the American Medical Association , the FASEB , and the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, have issued statements saying that there is no good-quality evidence that homeopathy is effective as a treatment for any health condition. In 2009, World Health Organization official Mario Raviglione criticized

11094-444: The experiments with positive results could be reproduced by all investigators. In 1988, French immunologist Jacques Benveniste published a paper in the journal Nature while working at INSERM . The paper purported to have discovered that basophils released histamine when exposed to a homeopathic dilution of anti-immunoglobulin E antibody. Skeptical of the findings, Nature assembled an independent investigative team to determine

11223-690: The expression " allopathic medicine ", which was used to pejoratively refer to traditional Western medicine. Hahnemann conceived of homeopathy while translating a medical treatise by the Scottish physician and chemist William Cullen into German. Being sceptical of Cullen's theory that cinchona cured malaria because it was bitter, Hahnemann ingested some bark specifically to investigate what would happen. He experienced fever, shivering and joint pain : symptoms similar to those of malaria itself. From this, Hahnemann came to believe that all effective drugs produce symptoms in healthy individuals similar to those of

11352-451: The fall semester of 2012 a number of administrative employees were laid off as a result of downsizing policy in the public sector. The main administrative body issued an official statement of protest. Permanent Chairs and general research staff amount to approximately 400, supported by a further 100 scientific teaching staff and 53 teaching assistants. There is also a further 304 members of administrative and student affairs staff. Every year

11481-1007: The fee was €1,951 in 2015. Non-European Union students and students who want to complete a second bachelor's or master's degree pay a legal school fee. Annually, these legal school fees range between €7,000 for bachelor programs and €30,000 for master's programs in medicine. The Ministry of Education supervises all universities, including private institutions. Almost all universities in Norway are public and state-funded. In Poland , public universities are established by Acts of Parliament. The government pays all tuition fees and other costs of public university students. In contrast, private citizens, societies, or companies operate private universities that charge tuition fees directly to students. These institutions are generally held in lower regard than public universities. A small number of private universities do not charge fees, such as John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin . There are thirteen public universities,

11610-441: The final substance. The high dilutions characteristically used are often considered to be the most controversial and implausible aspect of homeopathy. Homeopaths claim that they can determine the properties of their preparations by following a method which they call "proving". As performed by Hahnemann, provings involved administering various preparations to healthy volunteers. The volunteers were then observed, often for months at

11739-741: The five existing Schools – Humanities, Sciences, Business Studies, Social Studies and Environmental Studies. (based in Mytilene, LESVOS) (based in Mytilene, LESVOS) (based in Chios, CHIOS) (based in Ermoupoli, SYROS) (based in Karlovassi, SAMOS) (based in Rhodes, RHODES) A university report presented by the Chancellor in the Greek parliament in late 2011 describes

11868-526: The government through the University Grants Commission , which handles undergraduate placements and staff appointments. The top institutions include the University of Peradeniya founded in 1942 and the University of Colombo founded in 1921. Sri Lanka also has a joint service military university, the General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University , which is operated by the Ministry of Defence . One-third of

11997-683: The government. In Egypt, Al-Azhar University was founded in 970 AD as a madrasa ; it formally became a public university in 1961 and is one of the oldest institutions of higher education in the world. In the 20th century, Egypt opened many other public universities with government-subsidized tuition fees, including Cairo University in 1908, Alexandria University in 1912, Assiut University in 1928, Ain Shams University in 1957, Helwan University in 1959, Beni-Suef University in 1963, Zagazig University in 1974, Benha University in 1976, and Suez Canal University in 1989. In Kenya ,

12126-539: The growth of grain and enzyme reactions , such evidence is disputed since attempts to replicate them have failed. In 2001 and 2004, Madeleine Ennis published a number of studies that reported that homeopathic dilutions of histamine exerted an effect on the activity of basophils . In response to the first of these studies, Horizon aired a programme in which British scientists attempted to replicate Ennis' results; they were unable to do so. A 2007 systematic review of high-dilution experiments found that none of

12255-559: The highly diluted drugs: "No poison, however strong or powerful, the billionth or decillionth of which would in the least degree affect a man or harm a fly." Nineteenth-century American physician and author Oliver Wendell Holmes was also a vocal critic of homeopathy and published an essay entitled Homœopathy and Its Kindred Delusions (1842). The members of the French Homeopathic Society observed in 1867 that some leading homeopaths of Europe not only were abandoning

12384-610: The increased popularity of homeopathy in recent times may be due to the comparatively long consultations practitioners are willing to give their patients, and to a preference for "natural" products , which people think are the basis of homeopathic preparations. Towards the end of the century opposition to homeopathy began to increase again; with William T. Jarvis , the President of the National Council Against Health Fraud , saying that "Homeopathy

12513-430: The last exclusively homeopathic medical school in the United States closing in 1920. During the 1970s, homeopathy made a significant comeback, with sales of some homeopathic products increasing tenfold. The trend corresponded with the rise of the New Age movement , and may be in part due to chemophobia , an irrational aversion to synthetic chemicals, and the longer consultation times homeopathic practitioners provided. In

12642-679: The legislation of the national government until higher education was moved to the control of the three communities in 1990. Consequently, the Flemish , the French , and the German communities determine which institutes of higher education organize and issue diplomas. Until the 1970s, Belgium had two state universities: the University of Liège (ULiège) and the Ghent University (UGent), both founded in 1817. These are often referred to as

12771-464: The majority of randomized trials in homeopathy have shortcomings and that such trials were generally of lower quality than trials of conventional medicine. A major issue has been publication bias , where positive results are more likely to be published in journals. This has been particularly marked in alternative medicine journals, where few of the published articles (just 5% during the year 2000) tend to report null results . A systematic review of

12900-542: The national or state governments. India also has an "open" public university, the Indira Gandhi National Open University which offers distance education. In terms of the number of enrolled students, it is now the largest university in the world with over four million students. In Indonesia , the government supports public universities in each province. Funding comes through the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology and

13029-588: The practice of administering infinitesimal doses but were also no longer defending it. The last school in the United States exclusively teaching homeopathy closed in 1920. According to academics Paul U. Unschuld  [ de ] and Edzard Ernst , the Nazi regime in Germany was fond of homeopathy, and spent large sums of money on researching its mechanisms, but without gaining a positive result. Unschuld also states that homeopathy never subsequently took root in

13158-542: The preparations are composed of drugs or vaccines that a person has consumed in the past, in the belief that this can reverse the supposed lingering damage caused by the initial use. There is no convincing scientific evidence for isopathy as an effective method of treatment. Some modern homeopaths use preparations they call "imponderables" because they do not originate from a substance but some other phenomenon presumed to have been "captured" by alcohol or lactose . Examples include X-rays and sunlight . Another derivative

13287-520: The provincial and municipal governments. Some of the public universities in Iran offer tuition-free and tuition-based programs. State-run universities are highly selective and competitive. There are nine official universities in Israel , a few dozen colleges, and about a dozen foreign university extensions. The Council for Higher Education in Israel supervises all of these institutions academically. Only

13416-418: The proving process has superficial similarities with clinical trials, it is fundamentally different in that the process is subjective, not blinded , and modern provings are unlikely to use pharmacologically active levels of the substance under proving. As early as 1842, Oliver Holmes had noted that provings were impossibly vague, and the purported effect was not repeatable among different subjects. Outside of

13545-706: The public universities in Macau . There are twenty public universities in Malaysia , funded by the government but governed as self-managed institutions. Tribhuvan University was the first public university in Nepal . It operates through six different institutes and is affiliated with various colleges. There are government-funded Purbanchal University and Pokhara University . There are 107 public universities in Pakistan , compared to 76 private universities. University of

13674-824: The region". This contrasts with the research-oriented aspects of national universities. In 2010, 127,872 students were attending 95 public universities, compared to 86 national universities and 597 private universities in Japan. Many public universities are relatively new; in 1980, there were only 34 public universities in Japan. Since July 2003, public universities may incorporate under the Local Independent Administrative Institutions Law. In South Korea , most public universities are national. There are 29 national universities, eighteen special universities, and ten educational universities. In addition, there are two national colleges and

13803-685: The same for all public universities. Except for some fields of study, notably medicine, all Austrians who pass the Matura exam have the right to attend any public university. Overenrolled degree programs have introduced additional entrance exams that students must pass in the first year or before starting the degree, especially with scientific subjects such as biology, chemistry, and physics. Private universities have existed since 1999 but are considered easier than public universities and thus hold less esteem. All public universities in Belgium were operated under

13932-755: The selected substance is repeatedly diluted until the final product is chemically indistinguishable from the diluent . Often not even a single molecule of the original substance can be expected to remain in the product. Between each dilution homeopaths may hit and/or shake the product, claiming this makes the diluent "remember" the original substance after its removal. Practitioners claim that such preparations, upon oral intake, can treat or cure disease. All relevant scientific knowledge about physics, chemistry, biochemistry and biology contradicts homeopathy. Homeopathic remedies are typically biochemically inert, and have no effect on any known disease. Its theory of disease, centered around principles Hahnemann termed miasms ,

14061-1098: The state despite being state-funded. As of 2022, the communities fund all recognized universities, public and private, which follow the same rules and laws. The state runs most public universities in Croatia . Students who perform well academically pay only administrative fees which are less than €100 per year. Students who fail multiple classes in a year must retake the courses and pay a partial or full tuition fee. Almost all universities in Denmark are public and are held in higher esteem than their private counterparts. Danish students attend university for free. All universities in Finland are public and free of charge. Most universities and grandes écoles in France are public and charge very low tuition fees—less than €1000 per year. Major exceptions are semi-private grandes écoles such as HEC , EMLyon or INSEAD . Article L731-14 of

14190-494: The student's family wealth, the course of study, and exam performance. A few scholarships are available for the best low-income students at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. However, for research, private funding ranges from low to non-existent, compared to most European countries. The Netherlands Ministry of Education funds most public universities. Dutch citizens and those from European Union countries pay an annual tuition fee for their first bachelor's or master's degree;

14319-422: The system of homeopathy in the face of treatment failures, and for being inadequate to cover the many hundreds of sorts of diseases, as well as for failing to explain disease predispositions, as well as genetics , environmental factors, and the unique disease history of each patient. Homeopathy achieved its greatest popularity in the 19th century. It was introduced to the United States in 1825 by Hans Birch Gram,

14448-587: The terms for substances and dilutions are written on pieces of paper and either pinned to the patients' clothing, put in their pockets, or placed under glasses of water that are then given to the patients. Radionics , the use of electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves , can also be used to manufacture preparations. Such practices have been strongly criticized by classical homeopaths as unfounded, speculative, and verging upon magic and superstition. Flower preparations are produced by placing flowers in water and exposing them to sunlight. The most famous of these are

14577-543: The thirty public higher education institutions in Greece. Students are awarded degrees which fully comply with the ECTS standard, which enables them to undertake international study programmes. During the evaluation of the university by the European University Association in 2005, it was acknowledged that at the time the university had an "impressive" research output. The evaluation also highlights

14706-575: The treatment that is supposed to be helping them. The relative success of homeopathy in the 19th century may have led to the abandonment of the ineffective and harmful treatments of bloodletting and purging and begun the move towards more effective, science-based medicine . One reason for the growing popularity of homeopathy was its apparent success in treating people suffering from infectious disease epidemics. During 19th-century epidemics of diseases such as cholera , death rates in homeopathic hospitals were often lower than in conventional hospitals, where

14835-424: The treatments used at the time were often harmful and did little or nothing to combat the diseases. Even during its rise in popularity, homeopathy was criticized by scientists and physicians. Sir John Forbes , physician to Queen Victoria , said in 1843 that the extremely small doses of homeopathy were regularly derided as useless and considered it "an outrage to human reason". James Young Simpson said in 1853 of

14964-562: The two historic state universities. In 1965, small specialized single-faculty public institutions were recognized as universities, including the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and the Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech ; both are now part of the University of Liège . The Belgian state created smaller public universities that have since merged with larger institutions, including the public university at Mons in 1965 which became part of

15093-491: The university offers e-Learning courses. Since 2012, the university organises international Summer Schools in islands in the Aegean Archipelago within the fields of Sciences, Humanities, Environmental Sciences and Business, with interdisciplinary partnerships between schools. The university has established academic relationships with research institutions and other universities. The university also participates in

15222-472: The university's serious shortcomings "while it is undoubtedly the case that all universities are handicapped by the effects of this State interference, the impact at the University of the Aegean is particularly great because of its multi-island structure. It was also apparent that there are insufficient permanent staff overall, and indeed that many of the permanent academic staff are not in a position where they are able to concentrate full-time on their work within

15351-485: The university. The average amount of academic staff travel raises some serious concerns. Indeed all the academic staff are obliged to make difficult choices in their professional and personal lives which entail either accepting a lower standard of living in order to remain on the islands, or juggling life between a city and islands. Many of the staff described only minimal cooperation with colleagues within departments, and even less with those from other departments" . Despite

15480-508: The use of homeopathy to treat tuberculosis ; similarly, another WHO spokesperson argued there was no evidence homeopathy would be an effective treatment for diarrhoea . They warned against the use of homeopathy for serious conditions such as depression , HIV and malaria . The American College of Medical Toxicology and the American Academy of Clinical Toxicology recommend that no one use homeopathic treatment for disease or as

15609-445: The words of a 1998 medical review, "placebo therapy at best and quackery at worst". The Russian Academy of Sciences considers homeopathy a "dangerous 'pseudoscience' that does not work", and "urges people to treat homeopathy 'on a par with magic ' ". The Chief Medical Officer for England, Dame Sally Davies , has stated that homeopathic preparations are "rubbish" and do not serve as anything more than placebos. In 2013, Mark Walport ,

15738-527: Was Georg Jahr's Symptomenkodex , published in German in 1835, and translated into English as the Repertory to the more Characteristic Symptoms of Materia Medica in 1838. This version was less focused on disease categories and was the forerunner to later works by James Tyler Kent . There are over 118 repertories published in English, with Kent's being one of the most used. Homeopaths generally begin with

15867-630: Was a high demand for professional talent by the central government. In 1899, the King founded the School for Training of Civil Officials near the northern gate of the royal palace. Graduates from the school became royal pages, a traditional entrance into the Mahattai Ministry or other government ministries. As of 2019, Thailand has nineteen public universities. In Austria , most universities are public. The state regulates tuition fees, making costs

15996-430: Was created in 1796 by Samuel Hahnemann . Hahnemann rejected the mainstream medicine of the late 18th century as irrational and inadvisable, because it was largely ineffective and often harmful. He advocated the use of single drugs at lower doses and promoted an immaterial, vitalistic view of how living organisms function. The term homeopathy was coined by Hahnemann and first appeared in print in 1807. He also coined

16125-511: Was devised for making dilutions that Hahnemann claimed would preserve the substance's therapeutic properties while removing its harmful effects. Hahnemann believed that this process enhanced "the spirit-like medicinal powers of the crude substances". He gathered and published an overview of his new medical system in his book, The Organon of the Healing Art (1810), with a sixth edition published in 1921 that homeopaths still use today. In

16254-613: Was established in the university of the Aegean's unit in Syros, which was discontinued in 2013. The first department to operate, in the academic year 1984-85, was the department of Business Administration , in the island of Chios. In the following year, the Department of Primary School Education, in Rhodes, and the Postgraduate Course on Environmental Studies began operating. At the end of the first five years of operation,

16383-468: Was found to be scientifically, logically and ethically flawed, with most authors having a conflict of interest . The Swiss Federal Office of Public Health later released a statement saying the book was published without the consent of the Swiss government. Meta-analyses , essential tools to summarize evidence of therapeutic efficacy, and systematic reviews have found that the methodological quality in

16512-662: Was one of the cultural centres of the Ionian civilisation closely associated with Ancient Greek philosophy . Consequently, the greek government decided to materialize Carathéodory's vision and establish the Ionian University, based in Smyrna (today's city of İzmir , Turkey ) on 1 December 1920. Constantin Carathéodory was the first dean of the university. However, the Ionian University stopped its operations due to

16641-481: Was reliable evidence that homeopathy was effective." The European Academies' Science Advisory Council (EASAC) published its official analysis in 2017 finding a lack of evidence that homeopathic products are effective, and raising concerns about quality control. In contrast a 2011 book was published, purportedly financed by the Swiss government, that concluded that homeopathy was effective and cost efficient. Although hailed by proponents as proof that homeopathy works, it

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