The McMurdo Sound is a sound in Antarctica , known as the southernmost passable body of water in the world, located approximately 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) from the South Pole .
129-474: Aeneas Lionel Acton Mackintosh (1 July 1879 – 8 May 1916) was a British Merchant Navy officer and Antarctic explorer who commanded the Ross Sea party as part of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition , 1914–1917. The Ross Sea party's mission was to support Shackleton's proposed transcontinental march by laying supply depots along the latter stages of the march's intended route. In
258-537: A helicopter pad at McMurdo Station. The 1989 grounding of the Argentinean ship Bahía Paraíso and subsequent spillage of 640,000 litres (170,000 US gallons) of oil into the sea near the Antarctic Peninsula showed the environmental hazards inherent in supply missions to Antarctica. Zoologist Clive Evans from Auckland University described McMurdo's harbor as "one of the most polluted harbors in
387-783: A British company. This amounted to: 59,413,000 GT or alternatively 75,265,000 DWT . This is according to the annual maritime shipping statistics provided by the British Government and the Department for Transport . In the last decade, ship numbers have continued to decline. In 2023, the British Ship Register had reduced to 1,054 ships. As a signatory to the STCW Convention UK ships are commanded by deck officers and engineering officers . Officers undergo 3 years of training, known as
516-489: A cadetship at one of the approved maritime colleges in the United Kingdom. These include Warsash Maritime Academy , South Tyneside College , Fleetwood , Plymouth University and City of Glasgow College . Cadets usually have a choice of two academic routes: Foundation Degree or Higher National Diploma . Successful completion of this results in a qualification in marine operations or marine engineering. Generally
645-623: A crew composed of many Indians, Chinese or African sailors. Crews from outside Britain were usually drawn from areas in which the ship traded, so Far East trading ships had either Singapore or Hong Kong crews, banana boats had West Indian crews, ships trading to West Africa and Southern Africa had African crews and ships trading to the Indian Ocean (including East Africa) had crews from the Indian subcontinent . Crews made up of recruits from Britain itself were commonly used on ships trading across
774-601: A driving force behind weather systems arising from three surface zones that converge at McMurdo Sound: the polar plateau and the Transantarctic Mountains , the Ross Ice Shelf, and the Ross Sea . These surface zones create a range of dynamic weather systems. Cold, heavy air descending rapidly from the polar plateau at elevations of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) or more spawns fierce katabatic winds. These dry winds can reach hurricane force when they reach
903-416: A few days, one team of three was forced to return to base, following the failure of their Primus stove. The other six carried on: Mackintosh, Joyce, Ernest Wild , Dick Richards , Arnold Spencer-Smith and Victor Hayward . The 80° depot laid the previous season was reinforced, and new depots were built at 81° and 82°. As the party moved on towards the vicinity of Mount Hope, both Mackintosh and Spencer-Smith,
1032-460: A full complement of crew and scientific staff involved some last-minute appointments which left the party noticeably short of Antarctic experience. Shackleton had given Mackintosh the impression that he would if possible attempt his crossing during the coming 1914–1915 Antarctic season. Before departing for the Weddell Sea, he changed his mind about the feasibility of this timescale. Mackintosh
1161-763: A geologist on the Nimrod expedition and was later to lead the Australasian Antarctic Expedition ) on a trip to Hungary, to survey a potential goldfield which Shackleton was hoping would form the basis of a lucrative business venture. Despite a promising report from Mawson, nothing came of this. Mackintosh later launched his own treasure-hunting expedition to Cocos Island off the Panama Pacific coast, but again returned home empty-handed. In February 1912, Mackintosh married Gladys Campbell, and settled into an office job as assistant secretary to
1290-540: A member of the shore party, a short distance from the hut. The ship later recovered the abandoned equipment. John King Davis , then serving as Nimrod's chief officer, remarked that "Mackintosh was always the man to take the hundredth chance. This time he got away with it." Mackintosh later joined Ernest Joyce and others on a journey across the Great Ice Barrier to Minna Bluff , to lay a depot for Shackleton's polar party, whose return from their southern march
1419-464: A motor sledge broke down after a few miles, and Mackintosh and his group lost their way on the sea ice between Cape Evans and Hut Point . Conditions on the Barrier were harsh for the untrained and inexperienced men. Many of the stores taken on to the Barrier were dumped on the ice to reduce loads and did not reach the depots. After Mackintosh insisted, over Joyce's urgent protests, on taking the dogs all
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#17327755936301548-484: A number of other nations have since adopted the title. Previously it had been known as the Mercantile Marine or Merchant Service , although the term "Merchant Navy" was already informally used from the 19th century. The British Merchant Navy was historically one of the largest ship registries and source of crew in the world, with 33% of global tonnage registered in 1939. However, since the mid 20th century,
1677-411: A record-breaking feat of polar travel to accomplish it. However, the long months of preparation were difficult for Mackintosh. The only officer in the party, he found it hard to form close relationships with his companions. His position became increasingly isolated, and subject to the frequent vocal criticisms of Joyce in particular. On 26 August 1915, Mackintosh wrote: "We had hoped to get out and see
1806-528: A seagoing cadet officer; apply to one of several training programmes elsewhere; or go to sea immediately by applying directly to a merchant shipping company at about age 17. Then there would be three years (with prior training or four years without) of seagoing experience aboard ship, in work-clothes and as mates with the deck crew, under the direction of the bo'sun cleaning bilges , chipping paint, polishing brass, cement washing freshwater tanks, and holystoning teak decks, and studying navigation and seamanship on
1935-453: A showdown on 28 November, confronted with incontrovertible evidence of the greater effectiveness of Joyce's methods over his own, Mackintosh was forced to back down and accept a revised plan drafted by Joyce and Richards. Joyce's private comment was "I never in my experience came across such an idiot in charge of men." The main march southward from the Bluff depot began on 1 January 1916. Within
2064-497: A small nuclear power plant. Antarctica's extreme remoteness and hazardous travel conditions limit Antarctica tourism to an expensive niche industry largely centered on the Antarctic Peninsula . The number of seaborne tourists grew more than four times throughout the 1990s, reaching more than 14,000 by 2000, up from 2,500 just a decade earlier. More than 46,000 airborne and seaborne tourists visited Antarctica during
2193-471: A warrant on board the vessel. Bermuda (historically part of British North America , but left out of the Confederation of Canada ) flies the red ensign also as a territorial flag on land, as did other British North American colonies that still do so as Provinces of modern Canada , including Ontario (other British Overseas Territories that fly a nautical ensign as the territorial flag on land use
2322-727: Is a task no less essential to my people's experience than that allotted to the Navy, Army and Air Force. Upon you, the Nation depends for much of its foodstuffs and raw materials and for the transport of its troops overseas. You have a long and glorious history, and I am proud to bear the title "Master of the Merchant Navy and Fishing Fleets". I know that you will carry out your duties with resolution and with fortitude, and that high chivalrous traditions of your calling are safe in your hands. God keep you and prosper you in your great task. During
2451-643: Is increasingly popular in other parts of Antarctica but remains limited in McMurdo Sound due to the extreme sea conditions. Cold circumpolar currents of the Southern Ocean shrink the flow of warm South Pacific or South Atlantic waters reaching McMurdo Sound and other Antarctic coastal waters. McMurdo Sound experiences katabatic winds from the Antarctic polar plateau . McMurdo Sound freezes over with sea ice about 3 metres (9.8 ft) thick during
2580-468: Is much shorter and more straightforward, although decades later, when he was the only member of the expedition still alive (he died in 1985, aged 91), he spoke out, claiming that Mackintosh on the depot-laying march was "tremendously pathetic", had "lost his nerve completely", and that the fatal ice walk was "suicide". The circumstances of Mackintosh's death have led commentators to emphasise his impetuousness and incompetence. This generally negative view of him
2709-768: Is represented nationally and globally by the UK Chamber of Shipping , headquartered in London . British shipping registrars belong to the Red Ensign Group . Below is a list of some of the British shipping companies, past and present: McMurdo Sound Captain James Clark Ross discovered the sound in February of 1841 and named it after Lieutenant Archibald McMurdo of HMS Terror . Currently,
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#17327755936302838-657: Is separated from the McMurdo Ice Shelf (part of the Ross Ice Shelf) by the Haskell Strait . Winter Quarters Bay lies at the south end of the Sound and is the southernmost port on Earth . While the sound is navigable, it contains a significant amount of drift ice , especially along the shoreline of Winter Quarters Bay . The pack ice that girdles the shoreline at Winter Quarters Bay and elsewhere in
2967-628: Is the collective name given to British civilian ships and their associated crews, including officers and ratings. In the UK, it is simply referred to as the Merchant Navy or MN. Merchant Navy vessels fly the Red Ensign and the ships and crew are regulated by the Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA), a specialist agency of the UK Department of Transport. British merchant ships are registered under
3096-692: The Cutty Sark ) helped to entrench this dominance in the 19th century. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, maritime education expanded to train merchant navy officers. For example, in 1855 Leith Nautical College provided training for seafarers in Scotland. Other maritime colleges developed in this period included the South Tyneside Marine and Technical College, founded 1861 (now the South Tyneside College ) and
3225-753: The Admiralty a naval crew for this part of the enterprise were rejected. The post of Ross Sea party leader was finally offered to, and accepted by, Mackintosh. His ship would be the Aurora , lately used by Mawson's Australasian Antarctic Expedition and presently lying in Australia. Shackleton considered the Ross Sea party's assignment routine, and saw no special difficulties in its execution. Mackintosh arrived in Australia in October 1914 to take up his duties, and
3354-721: The Blue Ensign which in Bermuda is only flown from civil government vessels such as ferry boats). House flags are personal and designed by a company. A house flag is displayed on a port halyard of a Yardarm . A number of notable Merchant Navy personnel include: Members of the UK Merchant Navy have been awarded the Victoria Cross , George Cross , George Medal , Distinguished Service Order , and Distinguished Service Cross for their actions while serving in
3483-525: The Braveheart moved away from the iceberg (National Geographic). More than 50 years of continuous operation of the United States and New Zealand bases on Ross Island have left pockets of severe pollution in McMurdo Sound. Until 1981, McMurdo Station residents simply towed their garbage out to the sea ice and let nature take its course. The garbage sank to the sea floor when the ice broke up in
3612-412: The Great Ice Barrier , to assist the transcontinental party on the final stage of its journey. Mackintosh was originally to have been a member of Shackleton's transcontinental party, but difficulties arose over the appointment of a commander for the Ross Sea party. Eric Marshall, the surgeon from the Nimrod expedition, turned the assignment down, as did John King Davis; Shackleton's efforts to obtain from
3741-507: The Gulf of Alaska caused the breakup, according to a report by the U.S. National Public Radio. Wind and sea currents shifted the smaller, but still massive Iceberg B-15A towards McMurdo Sound. B-15A's girth temporarily blocked the outflow of pack ice from McMurdo Sound. Iceberg B-15A's grounding at the mouth of McMurdo Sound also blocked the path for thousands of penguins to reach their food source in open water. Moreover, pack ice built up behind
3870-426: The Maritime and Coastguard Agency . Successful completion of the oral exam will result in the award of a certificate of competency. This is the international qualification, issued by the UK government which allows an officer to work in their qualified capacity on board a ship. Certificates are issued for different ranks and as such an officer will usually return to complete a subsequent series of studies until they reach
3999-586: The McMurdo Dry Valleys on the western shores of McMurdo Sound. McMurdo Sound provides an important component in Antarctica's global effects upon climate . A key factor is the polar winds that can drive the sound's pack ice into the Ross Sea summer or winter. Frigid katabatic winds rake subsequently exposed water, causing sea ice to form. Freezing surface water excludes salt from the water below; leaving behind heavy, cold water that sinks to
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4128-410: The Nimrod expedition—protested that the party needed time for acclimatisation and training, but was overruled. Joyce was shocked by the rebuff; he had expected that Mackintosh would defer to him on sledging matters: "If I had Shacks here I would make him see my way of arguing", he wrote in his diary. The depot-laying journey which followed began with a series of mishaps. A blizzard delayed their start,
4257-547: The Scott Polar Research Institute . The two main accounts available to general readers are Joyce's diaries, published in 1929 as The South Polar Trail , and the account of Dick Richards: The Ross Sea Shore Party 1914–17 . Mackintosh's reputation is not well-served by either, particularly Joyce's partisan record which is described by one commentator as a "self-aggrandizing epic". Joyce is generally scathing about Mackintosh's leadership; Richards's account
4386-525: The 2007–2008 season, according to the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO). This confederation of tour operators reports that only 5% of Antarctic tourists visit the Ross Sea area, which encompasses McMurdo Sound. Tourists congregate on the ice-free coastal zones during summer near the Antarctic Peninsula . The peninsula's wildlife, soaring mountains, and dramatic seascapes have drawn commercial visitors since
4515-576: The Antarctic coast. Wind instruments recorded Antarctica's highest wind velocity at the coastal station Dumont d'Urville in July 1972 at 320 kilometres per hour (200 mph) ( Australian Government Antarctic Division ). Prevailing winds into McMurdo Sound shoot between mountain passes and other land formations, producing blizzards known locally as "Herbies". Such blizzards can occur any time of year. Residents of McMurdo Station and Scott Base have dubbed
4644-587: The British manner as our tradition holds us in honour bound to do. Goodbye, friends. I feel sure that my dear wife and children will not be neglected." In 1923, Gladys Mackintosh married Joseph Stenhouse, Aurora ' s first officer and later captain. Mackintosh, who had received a silver Polar Medal for his work during the Nimrod expedition, is commemorated by Mt Mackintosh at 74°20′S 162°15′E / 74.333°S 162.250°E / -74.333; 162.250 ( Mount Mackintosh ) . British Merchant Navy The British Merchant Navy
4773-554: The Falklands War and provided forty vessels, including transports, tankers and other vessels, with a total of 500,000 grt. The merchant ship SS Atlantic Conveyor , being used to ferry Harrier fighters and other aircraft to the South Atlantic, was lost during the conflict after being struck by an air-launched Exocet missile. The ship's captain, Ian North, and 11 other crew members died in the attack which constituted
4902-599: The Imperial Merchant Service Guild in Liverpool . The safe, routine work did not satisfy him: "I am still existing at this job, stuck in a dirty office," he wrote to a former Nimrod shipmate. "I always feel I never completed my first initiation—so would like to have one final wallow, for good or bad!" He was therefore delighted, early in 1914, to receive an invitation from Shackleton to join the latter's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition , which
5031-408: The Merchant Navy lay wreaths of remembrance alongside the armed forces in the annual Remembrance Day service on 11 November. Following many years of lobbying to bring about official recognition of the sacrifices made by merchant seafarers in the two world wars and since, Merchant Navy Day became an official day of remembrance on 3 September 2000. The merchant navy was also called upon to serve during
5160-464: The Merchant Navy. Recipients must be nominated by someone other than themselves, with at least two written letters of support and are normally required to have completed 20 years service in the Merchant Navy (although in exceptional circumstances it may be less). The British Merchant Navy consists of various private shipping companies. Over the decades many companies have come and gone, merged, changed their name or changed owners. British Shipping
5289-889: The Merchant Navy. Canadian Philip Bent , ex-British Merchant Navy, joined the British Army at the outbreak of World War I and won the Victoria Cross . Members of the Merchant Navy who served in either World War also received relevant campaign medals . In the Second World War many Merchant Navy members received the King's Commendation for Brave Conduct . Lloyd's of London awarded the Lloyd's War Medal for Bravery at Sea to 541 Merchant Navy personnel for their bravery in 1939–45. Many Royal Humane Society medals and awards have been conferred on Merchant Navy seafarers for acts of humanity in both war and peacetime. In September 2016
Aeneas Mackintosh - Misplaced Pages Continue
5418-566: The North Atlantic, to South America and to Australia and New Zealand. Despite maintaining its dominant position for many decades, the decline of the British Empire , the rise of the use of the flag of convenience , and foreign competition led to the decline of the merchant fleet. For example, in 1939 the Merchant Navy was the largest in the world with 33% of total tonnage. By 2012, the Merchant Navy – while still remaining one of
5547-533: The Royal Navy, the convoys successfully imported enough supplies to allow an Allied victory. Between 1941 and 1949, the SR Merchant Navy class steam locomotives were built in the UK. Each locomotive of the class was named after British shipping lines from the Second World War, principally those operating out of Southampton . In honour of the sacrifices made in both World Wars, representatives of
5676-555: The Russian icebreaker extends the reach of tourism by launching helicopter trips from its decks, including visits to sites such as the McMurdo Dry Valleys and areas noted for wildlife viewing. The ' Spirit of Enderby has been conducting cruises to the Ross Sea region for many years, including McMurdo Sound. Although the Enderby has an ice-strengthened hull, the ship is not an icebreaker. The Enderby sports Zodiac inflatable boats,
5805-421: The Second World War, German U-boats sank nearly 14.7 million tons of Allied shipping, which amounted to 2,828 ships (around two-thirds of the total allied tonnage lost). The United Kingdom alone suffered the loss of 11.7 million tons, which was 54% of the total Merchant Navy fleet at the outbreak of the Second World War. 32,000 merchant seafarers were killed aboard convoy vessels in the war, but along with
5934-561: The Sound's shoreline for their overland expeditions to the South Pole . McMurdo Sound's logistic importance continues today. Aircraft transporting cargo and passengers land on frozen runways at Williams Field on the McMurdo Ice Shelf . Moreover, the annual sealift of a cargo ship and fuel tanker rely upon the sound as a supply route to the continent's largest base, the United States McMurdo Station . Both
6063-703: The Southampton School of Navigation, 1902 (now the Warsash Maritime School ). In the First and Second World Wars , the merchant service suffered heavy losses from German U-boat attacks. A policy of unrestricted warfare meant that merchant seafarers were at risk of attack from enemy ships. The tonnage lost to U-boats in the First World War was around 7,759,090 tons, and around 14,661 merchant seafarers were killed. In honour of
6192-455: The U.S. Antarctic Program reported recycling approximately 70% of its wastes, according to Australia's Herald Sun . The 1989 cleanup included workers testing hundreds of barrels at the dump site, mostly full of fuels and human waste, for identification before they were loaded onto a freighter for exportation. The precedent for exporting waste began in 1971. The United States shipped out tons of radiation-contaminated soil after officials shut down
6321-593: The U.S. base and New Zealand's nearby Scott Base are on the southern tip of Ross Island. In March 2000, the 282-kilometre (175 mi) long Iceberg B-15 , the largest ever seen at the time, broke off from the Ross Ice Shelf (Antarctic Climate & Ecosystems: Cooperative Research Center) and then suddenly broke up on 27 October 2005. Research based upon measurements retrieved from a seismometer previously placed on B-15 indicated that ocean swells caused by an earthquake 13,000 kilometres (8,100 mi) away in
6450-543: The UK Government introduced the Merchant Navy Medal for Meritorious Service . The medal is awarded: "to those who are serving or have served in the Merchant Navy and fishing fleets of the UK, Isle of Man or Channel Islands for exemplary service and devotion to duty, rewarding those who have set an outstanding example to others." It is the first state award for meritorious service in the history of
6579-564: The UK or Red Ensign group ship registries. British Merchant Navy deck officers and ratings are certificated and trained according to STCW Convention and the syllabus of the Merchant Navy Training Board in maritime colleges and other training institutes around the UK. King George V bestowed the title of "Merchant Navy" on the British merchant shipping fleets following their service in the First World War ;
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#17327755936306708-768: The UK. The Merchant Navy Welfare Board administers the MN fund for charitable support. Other charities include the Shipwrecked' Mariners Society , the Seafarer's Charity, the Scottish Nautical Welfare Society and the Scottish Shipping Benevolent Association. Ensigns are displayed at the stern of the vessel or displayed on the gaff , on a yardarm . Red Ensigns can be defaced, those can only be flown with
6837-575: The age of 16 to go to sea. After serving a tough Merchant Officer's apprenticeship, he joined the P and O Line , and remained with this company until he was recruited by Shackleton's Nimrod expedition , which sailed for Antarctica in 1907. Before the expedition's departure Mackintosh was commissioned as a sub lieutenant in the Royal Naval Reserve . The Nimrod Expedition , 1907–1909, was the first of three Antarctic expeditions led by Ernest Shackleton. Its objective, as stated by Shackleton,
6966-488: The austral summer season, November into March. In 1997, the vessel Kapitan Khlebnikov claimed the distinction of being the first ship to circumnavigate Antarctica with passengers ( Quark Expeditions ). Passengers aboard the icebreaker make landings aboard Zodiac inflatable boats to explore remote beaches. Their itinerary may also include stops at Ross Island's historic explorer huts at Discovery Point near McMurdo Station or Cape Royds (Antarctica New Zealand). Additionally,
7095-400: The barren expanse of McMurdo Sound's ice pack. Frigid waters that would kill many other fish in the world sustain the Antarctic notothenioid , a bony "ice fish" related to walleyes and perch . Cactus sponges, globe sponges, starfish , sea urchins , and sea anemones are also present. Large sea spiders inhabit the depths of the sound and feed on sea anemones. Antarctic krill flourish in
7224-581: The blizzard. Mackintosh is commemorated by a memorial on his mother Annie's grave in the churchyard of St John the Evangelist's Church in Burgess Hill , West Sussex. Two of his brothers who died in Thailand and Southern Rhodesia respectively are also commemorated there. Mackintosh's own expedition diaries, which cover the period up to 30 September 1915, have not been published; they are held by
7353-403: The bridge in uniform, under the direction of an officer, before taking exams to become a second mate . Historically, the composition of the crew on UK ships was diverse. This was a characteristic of the extant of the shipping companies trade, the extent of the British Empire and the availability of crew in different ports. One ship might have a largely all British crew, while another might have
7482-588: The children with her. The reasons for the family rift are unknown, but it was evidently permanent. His father had Bright's disease and remained in India. Aeneas never saw his father again but remained fond of him, writing regularly; his father kept every letter but they were found unopened when his father died. At home in Bedfordshire, Aeneas attended Bedford Modern School . He then followed the same path as had Ernest Shackleton five years earlier, leaving school at
7611-504: The closing stages. Shackleton, who had earlier fallen out with the ship's master, Rupert England, had wanted Mackintosh to captain Nimrod on this voyage, but the eye injury had not healed sufficiently to make this appointment possible. On 1 January 1909, on its return to Antarctica, Nimrod was stopped by the ice, still 25 miles (40 km) from the expedition's shore base at Cape Royds . Mackintosh decided that he would cross this stretch of ice on foot. Historian Beau Riffenburgh describes
7740-416: The costs of a cadetship will be met by sponsorship from a UK shipping company. During the three years of training, cadets also go to sea, for a period of a year or more, usually spread across the cadetship. This affords a practical education, that along with the academic time in college prepares a candidate for a separate and final oral exam. This oral exam is carried out with a master mariner at an office of
7869-493: The decades since then, ships engaged in Antarctic sightseeing cruises have grown in size and number. Infrequent Antarctic cruises have included passenger vessels carrying up to 960 tourists (IAATO). Such vessels may conduct so-called "drive-by" cruises, with no landings made ashore. The Russian icebreaker Kapitan Khlebnikov (above right) has conducted voyages to the Weddell Sea and Ross Sea regions since 1992. High-latitude cruises in dense pack ice are only achievable during
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#17327755936307998-400: The eastern shoreline of McMurdo Sound adjacent to Ross Island . The icebreakers escorted the tanker USNS Paul Buck to McMurdo Station's ice pier in late January. The freighter MV American Tern followed on 3 February. Similar pack ice blocked a National Geographic expedition aboard the 34-metre (112 ft) Braveheart from reaching B-15A. However, expedition divers were able to explore
8127-441: The eastern shores of McMurdo Sound. The impact, occurring in sector whiteout into the lower slopes of the active volcano, took the lives of all 257 people aboard the aircraft. In 1969 the MS Explorer brought seagoing tourists to Antarctica (British Antarctic Survey). The cruise's founder, Lars-Eric Lindblad , coupled expeditionary cruising with education. He is quoted as saying, "You can't protect what you don't know" (IAATO). In
8256-407: The expedition's photographer, were hobbling. Shortly after the 83° mark was passed, Spencer-Smith collapsed and was left in a tent while the others struggled on the remaining few miles. Mackintosh rejected the suggestion that he should remain with the invalid, insisting that it was his duty to ensure that every depot was laid. On 26 January, Mount Hope was attained and the final depot put in place. On
8385-462: The expedition, wrote: "Three men in particular emerge as heroes: Captain Aeneas Mackintosh, ... Dick Richards, and Ernest Joyce." Mackintosh had two daughters, the second born while he was in Australia awaiting the Aurora's departure. On the return Barrier journey in February 1916, expecting to die, he wrote a farewell message, with echoes of Captain Scott. The message concludes: "If it is God's will that we should have given up our lives then we do so in
8514-406: The eye, using partly improvised surgical equipment. Marshall was deeply impressed by Mackintosh's fortitude, observing that "no man could have taken it better." The accident cost Mackintosh his place on the shore party, and required his return to New Zealand for further treatment. He took no part in the main events of the expedition, but returned south with Nimrod in January 1909, to participate in
8643-438: The face of persistent setbacks and practical difficulties, Mackintosh's party fulfilled its task, although he and two others died in the course of their duties. Mackintosh's first Antarctic experience was as second officer on Shackleton's Nimrod expedition , 1907–1909. Shortly after his arrival in the Antarctic, a shipboard accident destroyed his right eye, and he was sent back to New Zealand. He returned in 1909 to participate in
8772-411: The first loss of a British merchant navy ship to an armed attack since the Second World War. Historically a person wishing to become a captain , or master prior to about 1969, had three choices: to attend one of the three elite naval schools from the age of 12, the fixed-base HMS Conway and HMS Worcester or Pangbourne Nautical College , which would automatically lead to an apprenticeship as
8901-431: The following season's work would be carried out to the full: depots would be laid across the Great ice Barrier all the way to the Beardmore Glacier . The party would seek to make up its lack of supplies and equipment by salvaging the stores left by earlier expeditions, particularly from Captain Scott's recent sojourn at Cape Evans. The entire party pledged its support to this effort, though it would require, wrote Mackintosh,
9030-807: The highest qualification. The first UK deck officer certificates of competency were issued in 1845, conducted then, as now, by a final oral exam with a master mariner. The training regime for officers is set out in the official syllabus of the Merchant Navy Training Board . This training still encompasses all of the traditional trades such as celestial navigation, ship stability, general cargo and seamanship, but now includes training in business, legislation, law, and computerisation for deck officers and marine engineering principles, workshop technology, steam propulsion, motor (diesel) propulsion, auxiliaries, mechanics, thermodynamics, engineering drawing, ship construction, marine electrics as well as practical workshop training for engineering officers. Traditionally and still now,
9159-405: The homeward march, Spencer-Smith had to be drawn on the sledge. Mackintosh's condition was deteriorating rapidly; unable to pull, he staggered along, crippled by the growing effects of scurvy. As his condition worsened, Mackintosh was forced at intervals to join Spencer-Smith as a passenger on the sledge. Even the fitter members of the group were handicapped by frostbite, snow-blindness and scurvy, as
9288-401: The hulls of icebreakers are polluting McMurdo Sound. Such paints kill algae , barnacles , and other marine life that adhere to ship hulls. Scientists found that samples taken from the ocean floor contained high levels of tributyltin (TBT), a component of the anti-fouling paints. "The levels are close to the maximum you will find anywhere, apart from ship grounding sites", said Andrew Negri of
9417-440: The ice pack to discharge the ship's cargo. The ship pumped more than 23 million litres (6.1 million US gallons) of fuel to storage facilities at McMurdo. Officials balance the potential for fuel spills inherent in such operations against the critical need to keep McMurdo Station supplied with oil. A fuel tank spill in an unrelated onshore incident in 2003 spilt roughly 25,000 litres (6,600 US gallons) of Diesel fuel at
9546-549: The iceberg in the Ross Sea creating a nearly 150-kilometre (81 nmi) frozen barrier that blocked two cargo ships en route to supply McMurdo Station, according to the National Science Foundation . The icebreakers USCGC Polar Star and the Russian Krasin were required to open a ship channel through ice up to 3 metres (9.8 ft) thick. The last leg of the channel followed a route along
9675-421: The institute. Ships, aircraft, and land-based operations in McMurdo Sound all present hazards of oil spills or fuel leaks. For instance, in 2003, the build-up of two years of difficult ice conditions blocked the U.S. tanker MV Richard G. Matthiesen from reaching the harbour at McMurdo Station, despite the assistance of icebreakers. Instead, shore workers rigged a temporary 5.6-kilometre (3.5 mi) fuel line over
9804-543: The journey became a desperate struggle for survival. Mackintosh feared for their lives. On 28 February he wrote a long note and his words have an eerie similarity to some of Scott's last letters, and in particular to a note Scott wrote titled ‘Message to the Public’, as he lay dying in his tent in March 1912. Part of Mackintosh's note said: "I have this record in the event of anything happening to this party. Today we have finished
9933-415: The journey that followed as "one of the most ill-considered parts of the entire expedition". Mackintosh's party, which left the ship on the morning of 3 January, consisted of Mackintosh and three sailors, with a sledge containing supplies and a large mailbag. Two sailors quickly returned to the ship, while Mackintosh and one companion went forward. They camped on the ice that evening, only to find next day that
10062-413: The land!" They camped there, and waited for several days for their snow-blindness to subside. When their vision returned, they found that Cape Royds was in sight but inaccessible, as the sea-ice leading to it had gone, leaving a stretch of open water. They had little choice but to make for the hut by land, a dangerous undertaking without appropriate equipment and experience. On 11 January they set out. For
10191-496: The largest in the world – held only 3% of total tonnage. In 2010 the Merchant Navy consisted of 504 UK registered ships of 1,000 gross tonnage (GT) or over. In addition, UK merchant marine interests possessed a further 308 ships registered in other countries and 271 foreign-owned ships were registered in the UK. In 2012 British merchant marine interests consisted of 1,504 ships of 100 GT or over. This included ships either directly UK-owned, parent-owned or managed by
10320-440: The last of our food. A blizzard has been blowing 11 days. But I leave it on record all have done their duty nobly & well. This is all I can say & if it is God’s will that we should here give up we do so in the true British fashion my own tradition holds us in power to do." On 8 March, Mackintosh volunteered to remain in the tent while the others tried to get Spencer-Smith to the relative safety of Hut Point. Spencer-Smith died
10449-642: The late 1950s, when Argentina and Chile operated cruises to the South Shetland Islands . Tourists flights began in 1957, when a Pan American Boeing 377 Stratocruiser made the first civilian flight to Antarctica. Commercial flights landed at McMurdo Sound and the South Pole in the 1960s. Routine overflights from Australia and New Zealand took place between 1977 and 1980, transporting more than 11,000 passengers, according to Antarctica New Zealand , which manages Scott Base . One such flight, Air New Zealand Flight 901 , crashed into Mount Erebus on
10578-404: The later stages of the expedition; his will and determination in adversity impressed Shackleton, and led to his Ross Sea party appointment in 1914. Having brought his party to the Antarctic, Mackintosh was faced with numerous difficulties. Confused and vague orders meant he was uncertain of the timing of Shackleton's proposed march. His problems were compounded when the party's ship, SY Aurora ,
10707-516: The lovely wonderful scenery all around." These are the last diary notes of Mackintosh. He started a new diary five days later, which has never been found. On 1 September 1915, nine men in teams of three began the task of hauling approximately 5,000 pounds (2,300 kg) of stores from the Cape Evans base on to the Barrier—the scientist Alexander Stevens remained at base camp, alone. This operation
10836-560: The men wrote in June: "Spent most of the morning discussing the sledging problem ... and it’s a pretty big problem too, tho’ I think the O.M. [Old Man – Mackintosh] has a good solution already worked out." Another of the men remembered that the ten men appeared to work well together, with no animosities. Relationships were "astonishingly good". When Mackintosh and the depot-laying party finally reached Cape Evans in early June, they learned that Aurora , with 18 men on board and carrying most of
10965-448: The nearby White Island and Black Island "Herbie Alley" due to winds that funnel blizzards between the islands (Field Manual for the U.S. Antarctic Program). Overall the continent's extremely cold air does not hold enough moisture for significant snowfall. The annual snowfall on Ross Island averages only 17.6 centimetres (6.9 in). Snowfall in Antarctica's interior is far less at 5 centimetres (2.0 in). Snow seldom accumulates on
11094-400: The next 48 hours they struggled over hostile terrain, through regions of deep crevasses and treacherous snowfields. They soon parted company with all their equipment and supplies. At one point, to proceed, they had to ascend to 3,000 feet (910 m) and then slide to the foot of a snow-slope. Eventually, after stumbling around in the fog for hours, they fortunately encountered Bernard Day,
11223-440: The next day. Richards, Wild and Joyce struggled on to Hut Point with the now stricken Hayward, before returning to rescue Mackintosh. By 18 March, all five survivors were recuperating at Hut Point, having completed what Shackleton's biographers Marjory and James Fisher describe as "one of the most remarkable, and apparently impossible, feats of endurance in the history of polar travel." With the help of fresh seal meat which halted
11352-539: The number of shipowners, ships, officers and crew have declined dramatically as a result of globalisation and the rise of flags of convenience. As of 2023, the British Merchant Navy numbered 1,054 ships. The Merchant Navy has been in existence for a significant period in English and British history, owing its growth to trade and imperial expansion. It can be dated back to the 17th century, when an attempt
11481-555: The ocean floor. This process repeats along Antarctica's coastal areas, spreading cold sea water into Earth's ocean basins. According to an interview with climatologist Gerd Wendler, published in the National Science Foundation's Antarctic Sun, one could dive to the ocean floor anywhere in the world and encounter water from the coast of Antarctica. "Seventy-five percent of all the bottom water, wherever you are, comes from Antarctica." A rich sea life thrives under
11610-479: The party's qualities of endurance and self-sacrifice, and asserts that Mackintosh died for his country. On the other hand, in a letter home, he is highly critical: "Mackintosh seemed to have no idea of discipline or organisation ...". Shackleton did, however, donate part of the proceeds from a short New Zealand lecture tour to assist the Mackintosh family. His son, Lord Shackleton, in a much later assessment of
11739-629: The radio officer (colloquially known as 'sparks') replaced by changes in technology and the requirement under the STCW Convention for deck officers to hold individual certification in the GMDSS system. Electro-technical officers (ETO) also serve aboard some ships and are trained to fix and maintain the more complex systems. In 2023, the UK Merchant Navy had 10,930 certificated officers, 10,180 ratings, 1,450 merchant navy cadets and 1,540 other officers. Merchant navy related charities are active in
11868-427: The ravages of scurvy, the survivors slowly recovered at Hut Point. The unstable condition of the sea ice in McMurdo Sound prevented them from completing the journey to the Cape Evans base. Conditions at Hut Point were gloomy and depressing, with an unrelieved diet and no normal comforts; Mackintosh in particular found the squalor of the hut intolerable, and dreaded the possibility that, caught at Hut Point, they might miss
11997-609: The return of the ship. On 8 May 1916, after carrying out reconnaissance on the state of the sea ice, Mackintosh announced that he and Hayward were prepared to risk the walk to Cape Evans. Although Richards, Joyce and Wild were not in favour there was not much they could do about his decision. Mackintosh was still in charge of the party and short of forcibly restraining him they could only urge him not to go. Richards revealed in an interview years later that Hayward might not have been as keen as Mackintosh. Richards thought Hayward looked dubious but possibly he did not wish to ‘lose face’. Against
12126-467: The sacrifice made by merchant seafarers in the First World War, George V granted the title "Merchant Navy" to the companies. In 1928 George V gave Edward, Prince of Wales the title of "Master of the Merchant Navy and Fishing Fleets"; which he retained after his accession to the throne in January 1936 and relinquished only at his abdication that December. Since Edward VIII, the title has been held by
12255-436: The ship and from their Cape Evans base by unsafe sea ice and had to wait, idle, for nearly three months. After this experience, confidence in Mackintosh's leadership was low, and bickering rife. This statement is questionable. During the months of June, July and August at Cape Evans Mackintosh noted: "All is working smoothly here, and everyone is taking the situation very philosophically." In relation to Mackintosh's plans one of
12384-445: The ships ratings are supervised by the bosun , as overseen by a responsible deck officer, usually the chief mate . A ship may also have different sub-departments, such as the galley, radio department or hospitality services, overseen by a chief cook, radio officer or chief steward. Many of these roles have now changed, as ships crews have become smaller in commercial shipping. On most ships the radio department has disappeared, along with
12513-481: The shore party landed at McMurdo Sound, where Mackintosh established a base camp at Captain Robert Falcon Scott 's old headquarters at Cape Evans . Believing that Shackleton might have already begun his march from the Weddell Sea, he was determined to begin depot-laying at once. Joyce, the expedition's most seasoned Antarctic traveller—he had been with Scott's Discovery Expedition in 1901–1904, and with
12642-409: The shore party's supplies and equipment, had broken loose from its winter mooring during a gale. The day after Mackintosh's arrival he gave an outline of the situation to the other men. He explained the 'necessity for economy in the use of fuel, light, and stores, in view of the possibility' that they may have to stay there for two years. He wrote a diary note that they "are not going to commence work for
12771-435: The shore party, as a likely candidate for the polar march. On 31 January 1908, not long after Nimrod ' s arrival at McMurdo Sound in the Antarctic, Mackintosh was assisting in the transfer of sledging gear aboard ship when a hook swung across the deck and struck his right eye, virtually destroying it. He was immediately taken to the captain's cabin where, later that day, expedition doctor Eric Marshall operated to remove
12900-441: The shoreline), and hard multi-year ice. Subsequently, icebreakers are required for maritime resupply missions to McMurdo Station. Ross Island is the southernmost piece of land in Antarctica that is accessible by ship. In addition, the harbour at McMurdo's Winter Quarters Bay is the world's southernmost seaport (Department of Geography, Texas A&M University ). The access by ships depends upon favorable ice conditions. Tourism
13029-400: The sledging operations until we know more definitely the fate of the ‘Aurora’. I dare not think any disaster has occurred." However, ice conditions in McMurdo Sound made it impossible for the ship to return; the shore party of ten was effectively marooned, with drastically depleted resources. Luckily, most of the stores required for the depots had been landed. Mackintosh therefore resolved that
13158-471: The sound had fouled Winter Quarters Bay. The pollution ended in 2003 when a $ 5 million waste treatment plant went online. Other documented bay water contaminants include leakage from an open dump at the station. The dump introduced heavy metals , petroleum compounds, and chemicals into the water. A study by the Australian Institute of Marine Science found that anti-fouling paints on
13287-422: The sound presents a considerable obstacle to surface ships. Vessels require ice-strengthened hulls and often have to rely upon escort by icebreakers . Less than 10 percent of McMurdo Sound's shoreline is free of ice. During austral winter, McMurdo Sound presents a large expanse of surface ice. In summer, ships approaching the sound are often blocked by various amounts of first-year ice, fast ice (connected to
13416-489: The sound serves as a resupply route for cargo ships and airplanes that land on floating ice airstrips near McMurdo Station . The sound extends approximately 55 kilometers (34 mi) in length and width, and opens into the larger Ross Sea to the north. To the south, the sound is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf cavity, to the west lies the Royal Society Range , and to the east is Ross Island . McMurdo Sound
13545-622: The sovereigns George VI and Elizabeth II . When the United Kingdom and the British Empire entered the Second World War in September 1939, George VI issued this message: In these anxious days, I would like to express to all Officers and Men and in the British Merchant Navy and the British Fishing Fleets my confidence in their unfailing determination to play their vital part in defence. To each one I would say: Yours
13674-636: The spring, according to news reports. A 2001 survey of the seabed near McMurdo revealed 15 vehicles, 26 shipping containers, and 603 fuel drums, as well as some 1,000 miscellaneous items dumped on an area of some 20 hectares (49 acres). Findings by scuba divers were reported in the State of the Environment Report, a New Zealand-sponsored study. The study by the government agency Antarctica New Zealand revealed that decades of pumping thousands of gallons of raw sewage from 1,200 summer residents into
13803-479: The sun rise but the sky was too overcast so we shall not have that pleasure. Anyway it is good to feel the sun is about us now. I trust before he dips again for this long spell without him, that we have experienced, we shall be in the dear Homeland. The light made us all blink, as well as to feel excitement of spirit. Personally I felt like as if I had been released from being a prisoner—or imagined what one would feel like, who had been one. I stood outside & looked at
13932-455: The underwater world of another grounded tabular iceberg. They encountered a surprising environment of fish and other sea life secreted within a deep iceberg crevasse . Discoveries included starfish , crabs , and ice fish. The latter were found to have burrowed thumb-sized holes into the ice. The expedition reported witnessing an iceberg exploding. Shards of ice erupted into the air as if a bomb went off only hours after divers surfaced and after
14061-467: The unstable sea ice. Mackintosh's competence and leadership skills have been questioned by polar historians. Shackleton commended the work of the party, and equated the sacrifice of their lives to those given in the trenches of the First World War, but was critical of Mackintosh's organising skills. Years later, Shackleton's son, Lord Shackleton , identified Mackintosh as one of the expedition's heroes, alongside Ernest Joyce and Dick Richards . Mackintosh
14190-399: The upper depths of the waters Antarctic penguins , emperor penguins , and Adélie penguins live in and around the sound. The Weddell seal , leopard seal , and crabeater seal have been spotted, as well as orcas . McMurdo Sound's role as a strategic waterway dates back to early 20th-century Antarctic exploration. British explorers Ernest Shackleton and Robert Scott built bases on
14319-410: The urgent advice of their comrades, the two men set off, carrying only light supplies. Shortly after they had moved out of sight of Hut Point, a severe blizzard developed which lasted for two days. When it had subsided, Joyce and Richards followed the still visible footmarks on the ice up to a large crack, where the tracks stopped. Neither Mackintosh nor Hayward arrived at Cape Evans and no trace of either
14448-421: The way to 80°S, all died on the journey. A Joyce diary note at this time reveals his displeasure with Mackintosh. "I don’t know how I refrain from giving Mack a bit of my mind, will have to keep that in until we get back. We will have enough to think about before we get to Hut Point." The men, frostbitten and exhausted, returned to the old Discovery expedition hut at Hut Point on 24 March, but were cut off from
14577-403: The whole area around them had broken up. After a desperate dash over the moving ice floes , they managed to reach a small glacier tongue . Mackintosh later wrote about the near-death experience: "Our luck was in and we pulled the sledge a little way up the face of the ice and unpacked it. We were on terra firma! But none too soon for fifteen minutes later there was open water where we had gained
14706-415: The winter. During the austral summer when the pack ice breaks up, wind and currents may push the ice northward into the Ross Sea, stirring up cold bottom currents that spill into the ocean basins. Temperatures during the winter months at McMurdo Station have dropped as low as −28 °C (−18 °F). December and January are the warmest months, with average highs at −4 °C (25 °F). Polar winds are
14835-486: The world in terms of oil", according to a 2004 article by the New Zealand Herald. Modern operations in McMurdo Sound have sparked surface cleanup efforts, recycling , and exporting trash and other contaminants by ship. The U.S. National Science Foundation began a 5-year, $ 30-million cleanup program in 1989, according to Reuters News Agency . The concentrated effort targeted the open dump at McMurdo. By 2003,
14964-408: Was swept from its winter moorings during a gale and was unable to return , causing the loss of vital equipment and supplies. In carrying out the party's depot-laying task, one man died; Mackintosh barely survived, owing his life to the actions of his comrades who brought him to safety. Restored to health, he and a companion disappeared while attempting to return to the expedition's base camp by crossing
15093-518: Was at Macquarie Island , 950 miles from Hobart. A meteorological station had been established there during the expedition of the Australian Douglas Mawson a year or two earlier, and they were to land stores for the staff. This was the last chance for the men to send messages home. Mackintosh sent a letter to his wife telling her that his men were a ‘real good lot of fellows’ and it was a ‘treat’ to be with them. On 16 January 1915,
15222-578: Was awaited. On 3 March, while keeping watch on the deck of Nimrod , Mackintosh observed a flare, which signalled the safe return of Shackleton and his party. They had fallen just short of their South Pole objective, having reached a Farthest South of 88° 23' S. Mackintosh returned to England in June 1909. On reporting to the P & O, he was informed that due to his impaired sight he was discharged. Without immediate prospects of employment, he agreed, early in 1910, to accompany Douglas Mawson (who had served as
15351-519: Was born in Tirhut (in what was then British India ), on 1 July 1879. He was one of six children (five sons and a daughter) of a Scottish indigo planter, Alexander Mackintosh, a descendant from the chieftains of Clan Chattan . Aeneas would in due course be named as an heir to the chieftainship, and to the ancient seat at Inverness that went with it. When Aeneas was still a young child, his mother, Annie Mackintosh, suddenly returned to Britain, bringing
15480-415: Was ever found, despite extensive searches carried out by Joyce after he, Richards and Wild finally managed to reach Cape Evans in June. After Aurora finally returned to Cape Evans in January 1917, there were further searches, equally fruitless. All the indications were that Mackintosh and Hayward had either fallen through the ice, or that the ice on which they had been walking had been blown out to sea during
15609-451: Was immediately faced with major difficulties. Without warning or notification, Shackleton had cut the Ross Sea party's allocated funds in half, from £2,000 to £1,000. Mackintosh was instructed to make up the difference by soliciting free gifts, and to mortgage the expedition's ship to raise further money. It then emerged that the purchase of Aurora had not been legally completed, which delayed Mackintosh's attempts to mortgage it. Also, Aurora
15738-660: Was made to register all seafarers as a source of labour for the Royal Navy in times of conflict. That registration of merchant seafarers failed, and it was not successfully implemented until 1835. The merchant fleet grew over successive years to become the world's foremost merchant fleet, benefiting considerably from trade with British possessions in India and the Far East . The lucrative trades in sugar , contraband opium to China, spices , and tea (carried by ships such as
15867-477: Was not absolutely dependent on the depots. A little known fact is that Shackleton also instructed Mackintosh to leave a fully equipped emergency lifeboat at McMurdo Sound, if Shackleton did not come across from the Weddell Sea. The emergency lifeboat specifications he gave Mackintosh in 1914 closely match those he implemented in 1916 on his famous James Caird journey. Aurora finally left Hobart , Tasmania , on 24 December 1914. The only stop en route to Antarctica
15996-442: Was not informed of this change of plan; this misunderstanding led to the underprepared and near-chaotic depot-laying journeys of January–March 1915. Shackleton's instructions were confusing. He had told Mackintosh that it was supremely important to have the depots laid, but he also informed Mackintosh he would be carrying sufficient provisions to cross the continent unaided. It appears that Shackleton wanted Mackintosh to believe that he
16125-461: Was not, however, unanimous among his comrades. Stevens, the party's scientist, found Mackintosh "steadfast and reliable", and believed that the Ross Sea party would have achieved much less but for Mackintosh's unwearying drive. John King Davis, too, admired Mackintosh's dedication and called the depot-laying journey a "magnificent achievement". Shackleton was equivocal. In South he acknowledges that Mackintosh and his men achieved their object, praises
16254-507: Was the first stage in the process of laying down depots at intervals of one-degree latitude 60 nautical miles (110 km; 69 mi), down to Mount Hope at the foot of the Beardmore Glacier. A large forward base was then established at the Bluff depot, just north of 79°, from which the final journeys to Mount Hope would be launched early in 1916. During these early stages, Mackintosh clashed repeatedly with Joyce over methods. In
16383-676: Was to "proceed to the Ross Quadrant of the Antarctic with a view to reaching the Geographical South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole ". Mackintosh was recommended to Shackleton as a suitable officer by the P & O Line, and soon earned Shackleton's confidence while impressing his fellow-officers with his will and determination. While the expedition was in New Zealand, Shackleton added Mackintosh to
16512-529: Was to attempt the first transcontinental crossing of Antarctica. Shackleton's expedition contained two separate components. The main party would establish a base in the Weddell Sea , from which a group of six led by Shackleton was to march across the continent, via the South Pole. A supporting Ross Sea party , based on the opposite side of the continent in McMurdo Sound, would lay supply depots across
16641-478: Was unfit for Antarctic work without an extensive overhaul, which required co-operation from an exasperated Australian Government . The task of dealing with these difficulties within a very restricted timescale caused Mackintosh great anxiety, and the various muddles created a negative image of the expedition in the eyes of the Australian public. Some members of the party resigned, others were dismissed; recruiting
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