The Aerial Phenomena Research Organization ( APRO ) was a UFO research group started in January 1952 by Jim and Coral Lorenzen, of Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin .
119-514: The group was based in Tucson, Arizona after 1960. APRO had many state branches, it remained active until late 1988. APRO stressed scientific field investigations, and had a large staff of consulting Ph.D. scientists. A notable example was James E. McDonald of the University of Arizona , a well-known atmospheric physicist, and perhaps the leading scientific UFO researcher of his time. Another
238-569: A 29,670 square miles (76,840 km ) region of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico from Mexico under the Gadsden Purchase in 1853. Tucson served as the capital of the Arizona Territory from 1867 to 1877. Tucson was Arizona's largest city by population during the territorial period and early statehood, until it was surpassed by Phoenix by 1920. Nevertheless, its population growth remained strong during
357-551: A British company to build a railroad and sought an exclusive contract from the new Franklin Pierce Administration to deliver mail from New York to San Francisco. However, Sloo soon defaulted on bank loans and the contract was sold back to Hargous. The Pierce administration, which took office in March 1853, had a strong pro-southern, pro-expansion mindset. It sent Louisiana Senator Pierre Soulé to Spain to negotiate
476-498: A biennial election. With the tricolor scheme, some observers complain the shape of the A is hard to distinguish from the background of the peak. Since 1993, the A has been painted green for St. Patrick's Day. It has also been given other color schemes for different causes. North Tucson includes the urban neighborhoods of Amphitheater and Flowing Wells . Usually considered the area north of Fort Lowell Road, North Tucson includes some of Tucson's primary commercial zones ( Tucson Mall and
595-684: A bill to create two railroads, one with a northern route, and one with a southern route starting below Memphis on the Mississippi River. Under the Rusk legislation, the President would be authorized to select the specific termini and routes as well as the contractors who would build the railroads. Some southerners, however, worried that northern and central interests would leap ahead in construction and opposed any direct aid to private developers on constitutional grounds. Other southerners preferred
714-456: A deleterious way. The purchased lands were initially appended to the existing New Mexico Territory. To help control the new land, the US Army established Fort Buchanan on Sonoita Creek in present-day southern Arizona on November 17, 1856. The difficulty of governing the new areas from the territorial capital at Santa Fe led to efforts as early as 1856 to organize a new territory out of
833-557: A few thousand square miles and about 3,000 residents; more significantly, it included the Mesilla Valley. Bordering the Rio Grande River, the valley consisted of flat desert land measuring about 50 miles (80 km), north to south, by 200 miles (320 km), east to west. This valley was thought to be essential for construction of a transcontinental railroad using a southern route. John Bartlett of Rhode Island ,
952-498: A northern route. The Memphis convention overwhelmingly advocated the construction of a route beginning there, to connect with an El Paso, Texas to San Diego, California line. Disagreement arose only over the issue of financing. The convention president, Matthew Fontaine Maury of Virginia , preferred strict private financing, whereas John Bell and others thought that federal land grants to railroad developers would be necessary. Gadsden supported nullification in 1831. When California
1071-636: A noun referring to the base or foundation of something. The name is commonly translated into English as "the base [of the hill] is black", a reference to a basalt-covered hill now known as Sentinel Peak . Tucson is sometimes referred to as the Old Pueblo and Optics Valley, the latter referring to its optical science and telescopes known worldwide. [REDACTED] Spanish Empire 1775–1821 [REDACTED] First Mexican Empire 1821–1823 [REDACTED] United Mexican States 1823–1854 [REDACTED] United States 1854–present The Tucson area
1190-456: A precedent for using federal land grants when he signed a bill promoted by Douglas that allowed a south to north, Mobile to Chicago railroad to be financed by "federal land grants for the specific purpose of railroad construction". To satisfy Southern opposition to the general principle of federally supported internal improvements , the land grants would first be transferred to the appropriate state or territorial government, which would oversee
1309-518: A railroad across the isthmus was a "feasible and practical" idea. Clayton then instructed Robert P. Letcher , the minister to Mexico, to negotiate a treaty to protect Hargous' rights. The United States' proposal gave Mexicans a 20% discount on shipping, guaranteed Mexican rights in the zone, allowed the United States to send in military if necessary, and gave the United States most-favored-nation status for Mexican cargo fees. This treaty, however,
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#17327988220081428-546: A railroad linking the South with the Pacific Coast would expand trade opportunities. They thought the topography of the southern portion of the original Mexican Cession was too mountainous to allow a direct route. Projected southern railroad routes tended to veer to the north as they proceeded eastward, which would favor connections with northern railroads and ultimately favor northern seaports. Southerners saw that to avoid
1547-582: A seaport. In addition, many Southern business interests feared that a northern transcontinental route would exclude the South from trade with the Orient . Other Southerners argued for diversification from a plantation economy to keep the South independent of northern bankers. In October 1849, the southern interests held a convention in Memphis, in response to a convention in St. Louis earlier that fall which discussed
1666-752: A southern route for the proposed railroad. The route was to begin in Texas and end in San Diego or Mazatlán . Southerners hoped that such a route would ensure Southern prosperity, while opening the "West to southern influence and settlement". Southern interest in railroads in general, and the Pacific railroad in particular, accelerated after the conclusion of the Mexican–American War in 1848. During that war, topographical officers William H. Emory and James W. Abert had conducted surveys that demonstrated
1785-539: A special agent and future Pima County sheriff, to investigate. The US Army established Fort Lowell, then east of Tucson, to help protect settlers and travelers from Apache attacks. In 1882, Morgan Earp was fatally shot, in what was later referred to in the press as the "Earp–Clanton Tragedy". Marietta Spence, wife of Pete Spence , one of the Cochise County Cowboys , testified at the coroner's inquest on Earp's killing and implicated Frank Stilwell in
1904-533: Is 116 mi (187 km) southeast of Phoenix and 69 mi (111 km) north of the United States–Mexico border . The 2020 United States census puts the city's population at 542,629 with a metropolitan area population at 1,043,433. In 2020, Tucson ranked as the 33rd-largest city and 53rd-largest metropolitan area in the United States. A major city in the Arizona Sun Corridor, Tucson is
2023-618: Is also in the Foothills. The DeGrazia Gallery of the Sun is near the intersection of Swan Road and Skyline Drive. Built by artist Ted DeGrazia starting in 1951, the 10-acre (4.0 ha) property is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and features an eclectic chapel, an art gallery, and a museum. The expansive area northwest of the city limits is diverse, ranging from the rural communities of Catalina and parts of
2142-509: Is also on the Northwest side, with the distinction of being Tucson's first suburb, established in the late 1940s. Casas Adobes is centered on the historic Casas Adobes Plaza (built in 1948). Casas Adobes is also home to Tohono Chul Park , which is now within the town of Oro Valley, (a nature preserve) near the intersection of North Oracle Road and West Ina Road. The attempted assassination of Representative Gabby Giffords , which resulted in
2261-555: Is in midtown and includes Arizona Stadium and McKale Center (named for J.F. "Pop" McKale , a prominent coach and athletics administrator at the university). The historic Tucson High School (designed by Roy Place in 1924) was featured in the 1987 film Can't Buy Me Love . The Arizona Inn (built in 1930) and the Tucson Botanical Gardens are also in Central Tucson. Tucson's largest park, Reid Park ,
2380-526: Is in midtown and includes Reid Park Zoo and Hi Corbett Field . Speedway Boulevard, a major east–west arterial road in central Tucson, was named the "ugliest street in America" by Life in the early 1970s, quoting Tucson Mayor James Corbett . In the late 1990s, Speedway Boulevard was awarded "Street of the Year" by Arizona Highways . Speedway Boulevard was named after an historic horse racetrack, known as
2499-481: Is surrounded by the City of Tucson and was incorporated in 1936 and reincorporated in 1940. The population is about 83% Mexican-American and 10% Native American, as residents self-identify in the census. South Tucson is widely known for its many Mexican restaurants and architectural styles. Bright murals have been painted on some walls, but city policy discourages this and many have been painted over. The south side of
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#17327988220082618-582: Is the second-largest city in Arizona behind Phoenix , with a population of 542,629 in the 2020 United States census , while the population of the entire Tucson metropolitan statistical area (MSA) is 1,043,433. The Tucson MSA forms part of the larger Tucson-Nogales combined statistical area . Both Tucson and Phoenix anchor the Arizona Sun Corridor . The city is 108 miles (174 km) southeast of Phoenix and 60 mi (100 km) north of
2737-593: The Altar Valley , rural residential development predominates. Attractions include Saguaro National Park West , and movie set/theme park developed at the Old Tucson Studios . On Sentinel Peak, just west of downtown, a giant "A" was installed in honor of the University of Arizona, resulting in the nickname "A" Mountain. Starting in about 1915, an annual tradition developed for freshmen to whitewash
2856-624: The California Gold Rush of 1849. The US acquired those portions of modern-day Arizona that lay south of the Gila River by treaty from Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase on June 8, 1854. Under this treaty and purchase, Tucsón became a part of the United States of America. The American military did not formally take over control until March 1856. In time, the name of the town became standardized in English in its current form, where
2975-541: The Harlem River Speedway , and more commonly called "The Speedway", in New York City. The Tucson street was called "The Speedway" from 1904 to about 1906, when "The" was removed from the title. As of the early 21st century, Central Tucson is considered bicycle-friendly . To the east of the University of Arizona, Third Street is bike-only except for local traffic; it passes by the historic homes of
3094-523: The Mesilla Valley , protection for Mexico from Indian raids, and the right of transit in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . The treaty provided for a joint commission, made up of a surveyor and commissioner from each country, to determine the final boundary between the United States and Mexico. The treaty specified that the boundary, after following the Rio Grande River from the sea, would turn west from
3213-546: The Mexican–American War in 1846–1848, Tucsón was captured by Philip St. George Cooke with the Mormon Battalion , but it soon returned to Mexican control as Cooke proceeded to the west, establishing Cooke's Wagon Road to California. Tucsón was not included in the Mexican Cession to the United States following the war. Cooke's road through Tucsón became one of the important routes into California during
3332-646: The Rialto Theatre opened in 1920, and St. Augustine Cathedral completed in 1896. Included on the National Register of Historic Places is the old Pima County Courthouse , designed by Roy Place in 1928. El Charro Café , Tucson's oldest restaurant, operates its main location downtown. As one of the oldest parts of town, Central Tucson is anchored by the Broadway Village shopping center, designed by local architect Josias Joesler at
3451-823: The Santa Catalina Mountains and the Tortolita Mountains to the north, the Santa Rita Mountains to the south, the Rincon Mountains to the east, and the Tucson Mountains to the west. Tucson Mountains include 4,687 ft (1,429 m) Wasson Peak. The highest point in the area is Mount Wrightson , found in the Santa Rita Mountains at 9,453 ft (2,881 m) above sea level. Tucson
3570-564: The Tucson Convention Center (TCC), include: Other historical neighborhoods near downtown include: At the end of the 2010s, city planners and the business community worked to redevelop downtown Tucson. The primary project was Rio Nuevo, a large retail and community center that had been stalled in planning for more than a decade. One Rio Nuevo project that was successful is Mission Garden . Related to Tucson's City of Gastronomy designation, this living agricultural museum at
3689-782: The United States acquired from Mexico by the Treaty of Mesilla , which took effect on June 8, 1854. The purchase included lands south of the Gila River and west of the Rio Grande where the United States wanted the construction of what is now known as the Sunset Route , a transcontinental railroad , to be carried out, which the Southern Pacific Railroad later completed in 1881–1883. The purchase also aimed to resolve other border issues. The first draft
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3808-545: The United States Congress with the first plan to construct a transcontinental railroad. Although Congress took no action on his proposal, a commercial convention of 1845 in Memphis took up the issue. Prominent attendees included John C. Calhoun , Clement C. Clay, Sr. , John Bell , William Gwin , and Edmund P. Gaines , but James Gadsden of South Carolina was influential in the convention's recommending
3927-432: The United States–Mexico border . Major incorporated suburbs of Tucson include Oro Valley and Marana northwest of the city, Sahuarita south of the city, and South Tucson in an enclave south of downtown. Communities in the vicinity of Tucson (some within or overlapping the city limits) include Casas Adobes , Catalina Foothills , Flowing Wells , Midvale Park , Tanque Verde , Tortolita , and Vail . Towns outside
4046-659: The Utah Territory and the New Mexico Territory , would facilitate a southern route to the West Coast since all territory for the railroad was now organized and would allow for federal land grants as a financing measure. Competing northern or central routes championed, respectively, by U.S. Senators Stephen Douglas of Illinois and Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri , would still need to go through unorganized territories. Millard Fillmore established
4165-508: The 75,000 or so native nomads in the region from attacking swiftly and taking refuge among the hills, buttes , and arroyos in a landscape where one's enemies could be spotted twenty or thirty miles away. In the five years after approval of the Treaty, the United States spent $ 12 million (equivalent to $ 330 million in 2023 ) in this area, and General-in-Chief Winfield Scott estimated that five times that amount would be necessary to police
4284-557: The A, which was visible for miles. After the September 11 terrorist attacks, the A was painted red, white, and blue. At the beginning of the Iraq War in 2003, antiwar activists painted the A black. Competition ensued, with various sides repainting the A in different colors until the city council intervened and made the red, white, and blue colors official. In 2013, the color scheme changed back to white. Another color may be decided by
4403-690: The California state legislature a large land grant located between the 34th and 36th parallels, along the proposed dividing line for the two California states. A few months later, Gadsden and 1,200 potential settlers from South Carolina and Florida submitted a petition to the California legislature for permanent citizenship and permission to establish a rural district that would be farmed by "not less than Two Thousand of their African Domestics". The petition stimulated some debate, but it finally died in committee. The Compromise of 1850 , which created
4522-518: The Gulf of Mexico with the Pacific Ocean. In 1842 Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna sold the rights to build a railroad or canal across the isthmus. The deal included land grants 300 miles (480 km) wide along the right-of-way for future colonization and development. In 1847 a British bank bought the rights, raising U.S. fears of British colonization in the hemisphere, in violation of
4641-454: The IBWC has been heavily criticized as an institutional anachronism, by-passed by modern social, environmental, and political issues. The residents of the area gained full US citizenship and slowly assimilated into American life over the next half-century. The principal threat to the peace and security of settlers and travelers in the area was raids by Apache Indians. The US Army took control of
4760-521: The Mesilla Valley by Mexico because of its implication for the railroad, but President Fillmore supported it. Southerners in Congress prevented any action on the approval of this separate border treaty and eliminated further funding to survey the disputed borderland. Robert B. Campbell , a pro-railroad politician from Alabama , later replaced Bartlett. Mexico asserted that the commissioners' determinations were valid and prepared to send in troops to enforce
4879-740: The Mexican border, but after hearing of Leavy's exploits as a gunfighter, Murphy decided to ambush Leavy instead. Together with two of his friends, Murphy ambushed Leavy as he was leaving the Palace Hotel, killing him. According to Wright, the three co-defendants in Leavy's murder later escaped from the Pima County Jail, but were later recaptured. Murphy and Gibson were found in Fenner, California, living under assumed names; they were retried for
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4998-604: The Mexican legislature rejected the treaty, a move that led to the Mexicans canceling Hargous' contract to use the right of way. Hargous put his losses at $ 5 million (equivalent to $ 142 million in 2023 ) and asked the United States government to intervene. President Fillmore refused to do so. Mexico sold the canal franchise, without the land grants, to A. G. Sloo and Associates in New York for $ 600,000 (equivalent to $ 17 million in 2023 ). In March 1853 Sloo contracted with
5117-576: The Mississippi and New Orleans, and they at least wanted to secure a southern route. Also showing interest was Peter A. Hargous of New York who ran an import-export business between New York and Vera Cruz . Hargous purchased the rights to the route for $ 25,000 (equivalent to $ 700,000 in 2023 ), but realized that the grant had little value unless it was supported by the Mexican and American governments. In Mexico, topographical officer George W. Hughes reported to Secretary of State John M. Clayton that
5236-637: The Oracle Road Corridor). Many of the city's most upscale boutiques , restaurants, and art galleries are also on the north side, including St. Philip's Plaza. The plaza is directly adjacent to the historic St. Philip's in the Hills Episcopal Church (built in 1936). The north side also is home to the suburban community of Catalina Foothills , in the foothills of the Santa Catalina Mountains just north of
5355-429: The Pacific railroad for the remainder of the antebellum period. It was becoming increasingly difficult, if not outright impossible, to consider any proposal that could not somehow be construed as relating to slavery and, therefore, sectional issues. Although few people fully realized it at the close of 1854, sectionalism had taken such a firm, unrelenting hold on the nation that completion of an antebellum Pacific railroad
5474-882: The Sam Hughes neighborhood. To the west, East University Boulevard leads to the Fourth Avenue Shopping District. To the North, North Mountain Avenue has a full bike-only lane for half of the 3.5 miles (5.6 km) to the Rillito River Park bike and walk multi-use path. To the south, North Highland Avenue leads to the Barraza-Aviation Parkway bicycle path. South Tucson is the name of an independent, incorporated town of 1 sq mi (2.6 km ) south of downtown. It
5593-790: The Sloo grant was signed in Mexico on March 21, 1853. At the same time that this treaty was received in Washington, Pierce learned that New Mexico Territorial Governor William C. Lane had issued a proclamation claiming the Mesilla Valley as part of New Mexico, leading to protests from Mexico. Pierce was also aware of efforts by France, through its consul in San Francisco, to acquire the Mexican state of Sonora . Pierce recalled Lane in May and replaced him with David Meriwether of Kentucky. Meriwether
5712-409: The Treasury, supported it. Both were stockholders in a Vicksburg -based railroad that planned to build a link to Texas to join up with the southern route. Davis argued that the southern route would have an important military application in the likely event of future troubles with Mexico. A treaty initiated in the Fillmore administration that would provide joint Mexican and United States protection for
5831-416: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the Gadsden Treaty and subsequent treaties, the International Boundary and Water Commission was established in 1889 to maintain the border. Pursuant to still later treaties, the IBWC expanded its duties to allocation of river waters between the two nations, and provided for flood control and water sanitation. Once viewed as a model of international cooperation, in recent decades
5950-435: The Tucson metropolitan area include Three Points , Benson to the southeast, Catalina and Oracle to the north, and Green Valley to the south. Tucson was founded as a military fort by the Spanish when Hugo O'Conor authorized the construction of Presidio San Agustín del Tucsón in 1775. It was included in the state of Sonora after Mexico gained independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821. The United States acquired
6069-404: The Tucson station and killed Stilwell on the tracks. After killing Stilwell, Wyatt deputized others and conducted a vendetta , killing three more cowboys over the next few days before leaving the territory. Jim Leavy had built a reputation of having fought in at least 16 gunfights. On June 5, 1882, Leavy had an argument with faro dealer John Murphy in Tucson. The two agreed to have a duel on
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#17327988220086188-455: The U.S. in the Mexican–American War (1846–48) and the continued unauthorized military expeditions in the zone led by William Carr Lane , New Mexico territorial governor and noted filibuster , some historians argue that Santa Anna may have calculated it was better to yield territory by treaty and receive payment rather than have the territory simply seized by the United States. As the railroad age evolved, business-oriented Southerners saw that
6307-421: The U.S. to buy-out Article XI for $ 25 million ($ 670 million ) while President Fillmore proposed a settlement that was $ 10 million less ($ 270 million ). During negotiations of the treaty, Americans had failed to secure the right of transit across the 125-mile-wide (201 km) Isthmus of Tehuantepec in southern Mexico. The idea of building a railroad here had been considered for a long time, connecting
6426-442: The US would allow further aggression against Mexican territory. Santa Anna needed to get as much money for as little territory as possible. When the United Kingdom rejected Mexican requests to assist in the negotiations, Santa Anna opted for the $ 15 million package. Santa Anna and Gadsden signed the treaty on December 30, 1853, and the treaty was presented to the U.S. Senate for confirmation. Pierce and his cabinet began debating
6545-448: The United States entered into many other debates, as the acquisition of new territory opened the question of whether it would be slave or free territory; in this case, the debate over slavery ended progress on construction of a southern transcontinental rail line until the early 1880s, although the preferred land became part of the nation and was used as intended after the Civil War. In January 1845, Asa Whitney of New York presented
6664-470: The United States from any further obligation to protect Mexicans. $ 50 million (equivalent to $ 1.4 billion in 2023 ) would have bought the Baja California Peninsula and a large portion of the northwestern Mexican states while $ 15 million ($ 430 million ) was to buy the 38,000 square miles (98,000 km ) of desert necessary for the railroad plans. "Gadsden's antagonistic manner" alienated Santa Anna. Gadsden had advised Santa Anna that "the spirit of
6783-405: The United States negotiator, agreed to allow Mexico to retain the Mesilla Valley by setting the point at which the boundary commenced toward the west from the Rio Grande River at 32° 22′ N. This point was north of the American claim of 31° 52′ N and, at the easternmost part, also north of the Mexican-claimed boundary at 32° 15′ N, both also on the Rio Grande River ). Bartlett's agreement to 32° 22′ N
6902-542: The Western US, Tucson was developed by European Americans on a grid plan starting in the late 19th century, with the city center at Stone Avenue and Broadway Boulevard. While this intersection was initially near the geographic center of Tucson, the center has shifted as the city has expanded far to the east. Development to the west was effectively blocked by the Tucson Mountains. Covering a large geographic area, Tucson has many distinct neighborhoods. Tucson's earliest neighborhoods, some of which were redeveloped and covered by
7021-482: The acquisition of Cuba. Pierce appointed expansionists John Y. Mason of Virginia and Solon Borland of Arkansas as ministers, respectively, to France and Nicaragua . Pierce's Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis, was already on record as favoring a southern route for a transcontinental railroad, so southern rail enthusiasts had every reason to be encouraged. The South as a whole, however, remained divided. In January 1853, Senator Thomas Jefferson Rusk of Texas introduced
7140-422: The age" would soon lead the northern Mexican states to secede so he might as well sell them now. Mexico balked at any large-scale sale of territory. The Mexican President felt threatened by William Walker 's attempt to capture Baja California with 50 troops and annex Sonora. Gadsden disavowed any government backing of Walker, who retreated to the U.S. and was placed on trial as a criminal. Santa Anna worried that
7259-455: The area west of I-10. Western Tucson encompasses the banks of the Santa Cruz River and the foothills of the Tucson Mountains . Area attractions include the International Wildlife Museum and Sentinel Peak. The Marriott Starr Pass Resort and Spa serves travelers and residents. As travelers pass the Tucson Mountains, they enter the area commonly referred to as "west of" Tucson or "Old West Tucson". In this large, undulating plain extending south into
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#17327988220087378-410: The base of Sentinel Peak west of downtown grows heritage crops and heirloom trees that represent people who have lived in the area for thousands of years. Downtown is generally regarded as the area bordered by 17th Street to the south, I-10 to the west, and 6th Street to the north, and Toole Avenue and the Union Pacific (formerly Southern Pacific ) railroad tracks, site of the historic train depot on
7497-517: The border. Mexican officials, frustrated with the failure of the United States to effectively enforce its guarantee, demanded reparations for the losses inflicted on Mexican citizens by the raids. The United States argued that the Treaty did not require any compensation nor did it require any greater effort to protect Mexicans than was expended in protecting its own citizens. During the Fillmore administration, Mexico claimed damages of $ 40 million (equivalent to $ 1.1 billion in 2023 ) but offered to allow
7616-456: The city limits. This community includes many of the area's most expensive homes, sometimes multimillion-dollar estates. The Foothills area is generally defined as north of River Road, east of Oracle Road and west of Sabino Creek . Some of the Tucson area's major resorts are in the Catalina Foothills, including Hacienda Del Sol , Westin La Paloma Resort, Loews Ventana Canyon Resort and Canyon Ranch Resort . La Encantada , an outdoor shopping mall,
7735-410: The city of Tucson is generally considered to be the area around 25 sq mi (65 km ) south of 22nd Street, east of I-19, west of Davis Monthan Air Force Base and southwest of Aviation Parkway, and north of Los Reales Road. The Tucson International Airport and Tucson Electric Park are located here. The West Side has areas of both urban and suburban development. It is generally defined as
7854-525: The city's population. They were predominantly Chinese men who had been recruited as workers on the railroads. By 1900, 7,531 people lived in Tucson. By 1910, the population increased to 13,913. About this time, the U.S. Veterans Administration had begun construction of the present Veterans Hospital. The city's clean, dry air made it a destination for many veterans who had been gassed in World War I and needed respiratory therapy . In addition, these dry and high-altitude conditions were thought to be ideal for
7973-419: The damages caused by American Indian raids, but agreed to let an international tribunal resolve this. Gadsden realized that Santa Anna needed money and passed this information along to Secretary Marcy. Marcy and Pierce responded with new instructions. Gadsden was authorized to purchase any of six parcels of land with a price fixed for each. The price would include the settlement of all Indian damages and relieve
8092-420: The difficulties of the task: Comanche, Apache, and other tribal warriors had been punishing Spanish, Mexican, and American intruders into their stark homeland for three centuries and been given no incentive to let up their murderous marauding and pillaging, horse stealing in particular. The U. S. Army had posted nearly 8,000 of its total of 11,000 soldiers along the southwestern boundary, but they could not halt
8211-435: The east side. Downtown is divided into the Presidio District, the Barrio Viejo, and the Congress Street Arts and Entertainment District. Some authorities include the 4th Avenue shopping district, northeast of the rest of downtown and connected by an underpass beneath the UPRR tracks. Historic attractions downtown with rich architecture include the Hotel Congress designed in 1919, the Art Deco Fox Theatre designed in 1929,
8330-469: The feasibility of a railroad's originating in El Paso or western Arkansas and ending in San Diego. J. D. B. DeBow , the editor of DeBow's Review , and Gadsden both publicized within the South the benefits of building this railroad. Gadsden had become the president of the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company in 1839; about a decade later, the company had laid 136 miles (219 km) of track extending west from Charleston, South Carolina , and
8449-423: The final transfer to private developers. By 1850, however, the majority of the South was not interested in exploiting its advantages in developing a transcontinental railroad or railroads in general. Businessmen like Gadsden, who advocated economic diversification, were in the minority. The Southern economy was based on cotton exports, and then-current transportation networks met the plantation system's needs. There
8568-623: The first extensive use of pottery vessels for cooking and storage. The groups designated as the Hohokam lived in the area from AD 600 to 1450 and are known for their vast irrigation canal systems and their red-on-brown pottery. Italian Jesuit missionary Eusebio Francisco Kino first visited the Santa Cruz River valley in 1692. He founded the Mission San Xavier del Bac in 1700, about 7 mi (11 km) upstream from
8687-653: The highest growth rates of any jurisdiction in the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau , as of 2010, the City of Tucson has a land area of 226.71 square miles (587.2 km ). The city's elevation is 2,643 ft (806 m) above sea level (as measured at the Tucson International Airport). Tucson is on an alluvial plain in the Sonoran Desert , surrounded by five minor ranges of mountains:
8806-644: The intersection of Broadway Boulevard and Country Club Road. The 4th Avenue Shopping District between downtown, the university, and the Lost Barrio just east of downtown, also has many unique and popular stores. Local retail business in Central Tucson is densely concentrated along Fourth Avenue and the Main Gate Square on University Boulevard near the UA campus. El Con Mall is also in the eastern part of midtown. The University of Arizona , chartered in 1885,
8925-469: The isthmian proposals. An amendment was added to the Rusk bill to prohibit direct aid, but southerners still split their vote in Congress and the amendment failed. This rejection led to legislative demands, sponsored by William Gwin of California and Salmon P. Chase of Ohio and supported by the railroad interests, for new surveys for possible routes. Gwin expected that a southern route would be approved—both Davis and Robert J. Walker , former Secretary of
9044-635: The largest city in southern Arizona, and the second-largest in the state after Phoenix. It is also the largest city in the area of the historic Gadsden Purchase. As of 2015, the Greater Tucson Metro area has exceeded a population of 1 million. The city is built along the Santa Cruz River , formerly a perennial river. Now a dry riverbed for much of the year, it regularly floods during significant seasonal rains. Interstate 10 runs northwest through town, connecting Tucson to Phoenix to
9163-399: The late 20th century. Tucson was the first American city to be designated a "City of Gastronomy" by UNESCO in 2015. The Spanish name of the city, Tucsón ( Spanish pronunciation: [tuɣˈson] ), is derived from the O'odham Cuk Ṣon ( O'odham pronunciation: [tʃʊk ʂɔːn] ). Cuk is a stative verb meaning "(be) black, (be) dark". Ṣon is (in this usage)
9282-417: The mountains, a route with a southeastern terminus might need to swing south into what was still Mexican territory. The administration of President Pierce, strongly influenced by Secretary of War Jefferson Davis , a Southerner from Mississippi, saw an opportunity to acquire land for the railroad, as well as to acquire significant other territory from northern Mexico. In those years, the debate over slavery in
9401-539: The murder before being found not guilty. Moyer was captured in Denver and sentenced to life in Yuma Territorial Prison, but was pardoned in 1888. As other settlers tried to overcome violent frontier society, in 1885, the territorial legislature founded the University of Arizona as a land-grant college on what was overgrazed ranchland between Tucson and Fort Lowell. In 1890, Asians made up 4.2% of
9520-413: The murder. The coroner 's jury concluded Pete Spence, Stilwell, Frederick Bode, and Florentino "Indian Charlie" Cruz were the prime suspects in the assassination of Morgan Earp. Deputy U.S. Marshal Wyatt Earp gathered a few trusted friends and accompanied Virgil Earp and his family as they traveled to Benson to take a train to California. They found Stilwell apparently lying in wait for Virgil Earp at
9639-602: The murders of chief judge for the U.S. District Court for Arizona , John Roll , and five other people on January 8, 2011, occurred at the La Toscana Village in Casas Adobes. The Foothills Mall is also on the northwest side in Casas Adobes. Gadsden Purchase The Gadsden Purchase ( Spanish : Venta de La Mesilla "La Mesilla sale") is a 29,640-square-mile (76,800 km ) region of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico that
9758-603: The northwest (on the way to its western terminus in Santa Monica, California ), and to Las Cruces, New Mexico and El Paso, Texas to the southeast. (Its eastern terminus is in Jacksonville, Florida ). I-19 runs south from Tucson toward Nogales and the U.S.–Mexico border. I-19 is the only Interstate highway that uses "kilometer posts" instead of " mileposts ". However, speed limits are marked in miles per hour and kilometers per hour. Similar to many other cities in
9877-635: The number of flags that had been flown over Tucson to five: Spanish, Mexican, United States, Confederate, and the State of Arizona. During the territorial and early statehood periods, Tucson was Arizona's largest city and commercial center, while Phoenix was the seat of state government (beginning in 1889) and agriculture. The development of Tucson Municipal Airport increased the city's prominence. Between 1910 and 1920, though, Phoenix surpassed Tucson in population, and has continued to outpace Tucson in growth. In recent years, both Tucson and Phoenix have had some of
9996-731: The precepts of the Monroe Doctrine . United States interest in the right-of-way increased in 1848 after the gold strikes in the Sierra Nevada , which led to the California Gold Rush . The Memphis commercial convention of 1849 recommended that the United States pursue the trans-isthmus route, since it appeared unlikely that a transcontinental railroad would be built anytime soon. Interests in Louisiana were especially adamant about this option, as they believed that any transcontinental railroad would divert commercial traffic away from
10115-521: The purchase as acquisition of more slave territory. Even the sale of a relatively small strip of land angered the Mexican people, who saw Santa Anna's actions as a betrayal of their country. They watched in dismay as he squandered the funds generated by the Purchase. Contemporary Mexican historians continue to view the deal negatively and believe that it has defined the American–Mexican relationship in
10234-639: The purchase lands in 1854 but not until 1856 were troops stationed in the troubled region. In June 1857 it established Fort Buchanan south of the Gila at the head of the Sonoita Creek Valley. The fort protected the area until it was evacuated and destroyed in July 1861. The new stability brought miners and ranchers. By the late 1850s mining camps and military posts had not only transformed the Arizona countryside; they had also generated new trade linkages to
10353-651: The purposes of building a railroad through it, convince Mexico that the US had done its best regarding the Indian raids, and elicit Mexican cooperation in efforts by US citizens to build a canal or railroad across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Supporting the Sloo interests was not part of the instructions. Gadsden met with Santa Anna in Mexico City on September 25, 1853, to discuss the terms of the treaty. The Mexican government
10472-407: The revised treaty back to Santa Anna, who accepted the changes. The treaty went into effect June 30, 1854. While the land was available for construction of a southern railroad, the issue had become too strongly associated with the sectional debate over slavery to receive federal funding. Roberson wrote: The unfortunate debates in 1854 left an indelible mark on the course of national politics and
10591-503: The river eight miles (13 km) north of El Paso. The treaty was based on an 1847 copy (the Disturnell Map) of a twenty-five-year-old map which was incorporated into the treaty. However, surveys revealed that El Paso was 36 miles (58 km) further south and 100 miles (160 km) further west than the map showed. Mexico favored the map, but the United States put faith in the results of the survey. The disputed territory involved
10710-422: The site of the settlement of Tucson. A separate Convento settlement was founded downstream along the Santa Cruz River, near the base of what is now known as "A" mountain . Hugo Oconór (Hugo O'Conor), the founding father of the city of Tucson, Arizona, authorized the construction of a military fort in that location, Presidio San Agustín del Tucsón , on August 20, 1775 (the present downtown Pima County Courthouse
10829-460: The southern part allow slavery. Gadsden planned to establish a slave-holding colony there based on rice, cotton, and sugar, and wanted to use slave labor to build a railroad and highway that originated in either San Antonio or the Red River valley. The railway or highway would transport people to the California gold fields. Toward this end, on December 31, 1851, Gadsden asked Green to secure from
10948-523: The southern portion. Many of the early settlers in the region were, however, pro-slavery and sympathetic to the South , resulting in an impasse in Congress as to how best to reorganize the territory. The shifting of the course of the Rio Grande would cause a later dispute over the boundary between Purchase lands and those of the state of Texas, known as the Country Club Dispute . Pursuant to
11067-671: The spirit of "Young America", and efforts to build railroads and canals across Central America and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico divided their forces, leaving a lot of time for the Pacific railroad. Moreover, the Compromise of 1850 encouraged Southerners not to antagonize opponents by resurrecting the railroad controversy. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) ended the Mexican–American War, but left issues affecting both sides that still needed to be resolved: possession of
11186-662: The state of Sonora, Mexico. Magdalena, Sonora, became a supply center for Tubac; wheat from nearby Cucurpe fed the troops at Fort Buchanan; and the town of Santa Cruz sustained the Mowry mines, just miles to the north. In 1861, during the American Civil War , the Confederate States of America formed the Confederate Territory of Arizona , including in the new territory mainly areas acquired by
11305-599: The stations and coaches ended operations in August 1861. Tucson was incorporated in 1877, making it the oldest incorporated city in Arizona. From 1877 to 1878, the area suffered a rash of stagecoach robberies. Most notable were the two holdups committed by masked road agent William Whitney Brazelton . Brazelton held up two stages in the summer of 1878 near Point of Mountain Station, about 17 mi (27 km) northwest of Tucson. John Clum , of Tombstone, Arizona , fame,
11424-651: The stress is on the first syllable, the "u" is long, and the "c" is silent. In 1857, Tucson was established as a stage station on the San Antonio–San Diego Mail Line . In 1858, it became third division headquarters of the Butterfield Overland Mail and operated until the line was shut down in March 1861. The Overland Mail Corporation attempted to continue running, but following the Bascom Affair , devastating Apache attacks on
11543-525: The town of Marana , the small suburb of Picture Rocks , the town of Oro Valley in the western foothills of the Santa Catalina Mountains, and residential areas in the northeastern foothills of the Tucson Mountains. Continental Ranch (Marana), Dove Mountain (Marana), and Rancho Vistoso (Oro Valley), and Saddlebrooke (North Oro Valley) are all master planned communities in the northwest that have thousands of residents. The community of Casas Adobes
11662-420: The treatment of tuberculosis, for which no cures were known before antibiotics were developed against it. The city continued to grow, with the population increasing to 20,292 in 1920 and 36,818 in 1940. In 2006, the estimated population of Pima County , in which Tucson is located, passed one million, while the City of Tucson's population was 535,000. In 1912, Arizona was admitted as a state. This increased
11781-555: The treaty a bad reputation. Some Senators objected to furnishing Santa Anna financial assistance. The treaty reached the Senate as that body focused on the debate over the Kansas–Nebraska Act . On April 17, after much debate, the Senate voted 27 to 18 in favor of the treaty, falling three votes short of the necessary two-thirds majority. After this defeat, Secretary Davis and southern Senators pressed Pierce to add more provisions to
11900-602: The treaty in January 1854. Although disappointed in the amount of territory secured and some of the terms, Pierce signed it, and submitted it to the Senate on February 10. Gadsden, however, suggested that northern Senators would block the treaty to deny the South a railroad. The treaty needed a two-thirds vote in favor of ratification in the US Senate, where it met strong opposition. Anti-slavery senators opposed further acquisition of slave territory. Lobbying by speculators gave
12019-599: The treaty in early 1851, but the Mexican Congress refused to accept the treaty. In the meantime, Hargous proceeded as if the treaty would be approved eventually. Judah P. Benjamin and a committee of New Orleans businessmen joined with Hargous and secured a charter from the Louisiana legislature to create the Tehuantepec Railroad Company. The new company sold stock and sent survey teams to Mexico. Hargous started to acquire land even after
12138-505: The treaty including: The land area included in the treaty is shown in the map at the head of the article, and in the national map in this section. This version of the treaty successfully passed the US Senate April 25, 1854, by a vote of 33 to 12. The reduction in territory was an accommodation of northern senators who opposed the acquisition of additional slave territory. In the final vote, northerners split 12 to 12. Gadsden took
12257-537: The two best civilian UFO groups of their time, consisting largely of sober, serious minded people capable of valuable contributions to the subject. In 1969, a sizable portion of APRO's membership elected to form a new group named the "Midwest UFO Network"; this soon expanded and became the Mutual UFO Network (MUFON) , still active today. After almost 35 years of being in storage, the APRO case file collection
12376-436: The unratified agreement. Article XI of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo contained a guarantee that the United States would protect Mexicans by preventing cross-border raids by local Comanche and Apache tribes. At the time the treaty was ratified, Secretary of State James Buchanan had believed that the United States had both the commitment and resources to enforce this promise. Historian Richard Kluger , however, described
12495-443: Was James Harder of the University of California, Berkeley , a civil and hydraulic engineering professor, who acted as director of research from 1969 to 1982. McDonald and Harder were among six scientists who testified about UFOs before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science and Astronautics on July 29, 1968, when they sponsored a one-day symposium on the subject. Astronomer J. Allen Hynek cited APRO and NICAP as
12614-522: Was $ 3 million (equivalent to $ 85 million in 2023 ) in debt. Gadsden wanted to connect all Southern railroads into one sectional network. He was concerned that the increasing railroad construction in the North was shifting trade in lumber, farm and manufacturing goods from the traditional north–south route based on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to an east–west axis that would bypass the South. He also saw Charleston, his home town, losing its prominence as
12733-590: Was admitted to the Union as a free state in 1850, he advocated secession by South Carolina. Gadsden considered slavery "a social blessing" and abolitionists "the greatest curse of the nation". When the secession proposal failed, Gadsden worked with his cousin Isaac Edward Holmes , a lawyer in San Francisco since 1851, and California state senator Thomas Jefferson Green , in an attempt to divide California into northern and southern portions and proposed that
12852-624: Was built near this site). During the Spanish period of the presidio, attacks such as the Second Battle of Tucson were repeatedly mounted by the Apache . Eventually, the town came to be called Tucsón, a Spanish version of the O'odham word for the area. It was included in the state of Sonora after Mexico gained independence from the Kingdom of Spain and its Spanish Empire in 1821. During
12971-573: Was finally transitioned to the National UFO Historical Records Center ( www.nufohrc.org ) in Albuquerque, NM on November 25, 2023. Tucson, Arizona This is an accepted version of this page Tucson ( / ˈ t uː s ɒ n / ; O'odham : Cuk Ṣon ; Spanish : Tucsón ) is a city in and the county seat of Pima County, Arizona , United States, and is home to the University of Arizona . It
13090-402: Was given orders to stay out of the Mesilla Valley until negotiations with Mexico could be completed. With the encouragement of Davis, Pierce also appointed James Gadsden as minister to Mexico, with specific instructions to negotiate with Mexico over the acquisition of additional territory. Secretary of State William L. Marcy gave Gadsden clear instructions: he was to secure the Mesilla Valley for
13209-572: Was going through political and financial turmoil. In the process, Santa Anna had been returned to power about the same time that Pierce was inaugurated. Santa Anna was willing to deal with the United States because he needed money to rebuild the Mexican Army for defense against the United States. He initially rejected the extension of the border further south to the Sierra Madre Mountains . He initially insisted on reparations for
13328-534: Was in exchange for a boundary westward from the river that did not turn north until 110° W in order to include the Santa Rita del Corbe Mountains (sometimes referred to simply as the Corbe Mountains) located in current New Mexico east of current-day Silver City. This area was believed to have rich copper deposits, and some silver and gold which had not yet been mined. Southerners opposed retention of
13447-451: Was little home market for an intra-South trade. In the short term, the best use for capital was to invest it in more slaves and land rather than in taxing it to support canals, railroads, roads, or in dredging rivers. Historian Jere W. Roberson wrote: Southerners might have gained a great deal under the 1850 land grant act had they concentrated their efforts. But continued opposition to Federal aid, filibustering, an unenthusiastic President,
13566-545: Was never finalized. The Clayton–Bulwer Treaty between the United States and the United Kingdom, which guaranteed the neutrality of any such canal, was finalized in April 1850. Mexican negotiators refused the treaty because it would eliminate Mexico's ability to play the US and Britain against each other. They eliminated the right of the United States to unilaterally intervene militarily. The United States Senate approved
13685-637: Was one of the passengers. Pima County Sheriff Charles A. Shibell and his citizen posse killed Brazelton on August 19, 1878, in a mesquite bosque along the Santa Cruz River 3 miles (5 km) south of Tucson. Brazelton had been suspected of highway robbery in the Tucson area, the Prescott region, and the Silver City, New Mexico area. Because of the crimes and threats to his business, John J. Valentine Sr. of Wells, Fargo & Co. had sent Bob Paul ,
13804-615: Was probably first visited by Paleo-Indians , who were known to have been in southern Arizona about 12,000 years ago. Recent archaeological excavations near the Santa Cruz River found a village site dating from 2100 BC. The floodplain of the Santa Cruz River was extensively farmed during the Early Agricultural Period , c. 1200 BC to AD 150. These people hunted, gathered wild plants and nuts, and ate corn, beans, and other crops grown using irrigation canals they constructed. The Early Ceramic period occupation of Tucson had
13923-575: Was prohibited. Money, interest, and enthusiasm were devoted to emotion-filled topics, not the Pacific railroad. The effect was such that railroad development, which accelerated in the North, stagnated in the South. As originally envisioned, the purchase would have encompassed a much larger region, extending far enough south to include most of the current Mexican states of Baja California , Baja California Sur , Coahuila , Chihuahua , Sonora , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas . The Mexican people opposed such boundaries, as did anti-slavery Americans , who saw
14042-479: Was signed on December 30, 1853, by James Gadsden , U.S. minister to Mexico, and by Antonio López de Santa Anna , president of Mexico. The U.S. Senate voted in favor of ratifying it with amendments on April 25, 1854, and then sent it to President Franklin Pierce . Mexico's government and its General Congress or Congress of the Union took final approval action on June 8, 1854, when the treaty took effect. The purchase
14161-571: Was the last substantial territorial acquisition in the contiguous United States , and defined the Mexico–United States border . The Arizona cities of Tucson , Yuma and Tombstone are on territory acquired by the U.S. in the Gadsden Purchase. The financially-strapped government of Santa Anna agreed to sell the territory for $ 10 million (equivalent to $ 270 million in 2023 ). After the devastating loss of Mexican territory to
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