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58-662: IWXXM requires the use of AMHS for international exchange. ICAO Doc 9880 Part II defines two fundamental levels of service within the ATSMHS; Additionally, ICAO Doc 9880 (Part II, section 3.4) outlines different subsets of the Extended ATSMHS. The Basic ATSMHS performs an operational role similar to the Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network with a few enhancements. The Extended ATSMHS provided enhanced features but includes

116-422: A few days in advance, weather forecasters are continually working to extend this limit through meteorological research and refining current methodologies in weather prediction. However, it is theoretically impossible to make useful day-to-day predictions more than about two weeks ahead, imposing an upper limit to potential for improved prediction skill. Weather is one of the fundamental processes that shape

174-401: A given day. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain , snow and the wind chill , forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events and to plan ahead to survive through them. Tropical weather forecasting is different from that at higher latitudes. The sun shines more directly on the tropics than on higher latitudes (at least on average over a year), which makes

232-523: A single jet stream near the 50th parallel north latitude, and Venus has a single jet near the equator. One of the most famous landmarks in the Solar System , Jupiter's Great Red Spot , is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years. On other giant planets , the lack of a surface allows the wind to reach enormous speeds: gusts of up to 600 metres per second (about 2,100 km/h or 1,300 mph) have been measured on

290-663: Is composed of interconnected ATS Message Servers that perform message switching at the application layer (Layer 7 in the OSI model ). Direct users connect to ATS Message Servers by means of ATS Message User Agents. An ATS Message User Agent supporting the Extended level of service will use the Basic level of service to allow communication with users who only support the Basic ATSMHS. In order to ensure unobstructed communication between

348-478: Is due to contact with the Earth's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. Earth's weather system is a chaotic system ; as a result, small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole. Human attempts to control

406-1030: Is recorded in the ICAO COM Charts which are available from the AMC (ATS Messaging Management Centre) operated by EUROCONTROL. IWXXM ICAO Meteorological Information Exchange Model ( IWXXM ) is a format for reporting weather information in XML / GML . IWXXM includes XML / GML -based representations for products standardized in International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Annex III, such as METAR / SPECI , TAF , SIGMET , AIRMET , Tropical Cyclone Advisory (TCA), Volcanic Ash Advisory (VAA), Space Weather Advisory and World Area Forecast System (WAFS) Significant Weather (SIGWX) Forecast. IWXXM products are used for operational exchanges of meteorological information for use in aviation. ICAO Annex 3 defines what IWXXM capability

464-567: Is required at different time frames. These capabilities can also be considered in context of the ICAO SWIM-concept (Doc 10039, Manual on System Wide Information Management (SWIM) Concept). Unlike the traditional forms of the ICAO Annex III products, IWXXM is not intended to be directly used by aircraft pilots . IWXXM is designed to be consumed by software acting on behalf of pilots, such as display software. IWXXM Version 1

522-643: Is the saving of Japan from invasion by the Mongol fleet of Kublai Khan by the Kamikaze winds in 1281. French claims to Florida came to an end in 1565 when a hurricane destroyed the French fleet, allowing Spain to conquer Fort Caroline . More recently, Hurricane Katrina redistributed over one million people from the central Gulf coast elsewhere across the United States, becoming the largest diaspora in

580-587: Is the study of short-lived atmospheric phenomena smaller than mesoscale , about 1 km or less. These two branches of meteorology are sometimes grouped together as "mesoscale and microscale meteorology" (MMM) and together study all phenomena smaller than synoptic scale ; that is they study features generally too small to be depicted on a weather map . These include small and generally fleeting cloud "puffs" and other small cloud features. On Earth, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually. The range of climates and latitudes across

638-526: Is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time. When used without qualification, "weather" is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth. Weather is driven by air pressure , temperature , and moisture differences between one place and another. These differences can occur due to the Sun's angle at any particular spot, which varies with latitude . The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to

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696-470: Is thought to have easterly winds moving at more than 9,600 kilometres per hour (6,000 mph). Weather is not limited to planetary bodies. Like all stars, the Sun's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System . The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind . Inconsistencies in this wind and larger events on

754-569: The German manufacturer FREQUENTIS COMSOFT . Meanwhile, nearly all AMHS systems in Europe are derived from the ECG (see table below). Similar solutions are offered by Indra Avitech GmbH (Germany), Intelcan (Canada), TELEFONICA (Spain), IDS AirNav (Italy, Canada), Copperchase Ltd (UK), Radiocom (USA) working together with Skysoft Servicios S.A. (Argentina) and FREQUENTIS (Austria). The first AMHS system

812-467: The Hadley cell while a smaller scale example would be coastal breezes . The atmosphere is a chaotic system . As a result, small changes to one part of the system can accumulate and magnify to cause large effects on the system as a whole. This atmospheric instability makes weather forecasting less predictable than tidal waves or eclipses. Although it is difficult to accurately predict weather more than

870-696: The Virgin Islands . As of 2019, tornadoes have had the greatest impact on humans with 42 fatalities while costing crop and property damage over 3 billion dollars. The weather has played a large and sometimes direct part in human history . Aside from climatic changes that have caused the gradual drift of populations (for example the desertification of the Middle East, and the formation of land bridges during glacial periods), extreme weather events have caused smaller scale population movements and intruded directly in historical events. One such event

928-648: The adiabatic lapse rate . In some situations, the temperature actually increases with height. This phenomenon is known as an inversion and can cause mountaintops to be warmer than the valleys below. Inversions can lead to the formation of fog and often act as a cap that suppresses thunderstorm development. On local scales, temperature differences can occur because different surfaces (such as oceans, forests, ice sheets, or human-made objects) have differing physical characteristics such as reflectivity , roughness, or moisture content. Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. A hot surface warms

986-767: The jet stream flow (see baroclinity ). Weather systems in the tropics, such as monsoons or organized thunderstorm systems, are caused by different processes. Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year. In June the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun , so at any given Northern Hemisphere latitude sunlight falls more directly on that spot than in December (see Effect of sun angle on climate ). This effect causes seasons. Over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbital parameters affect

1044-586: The ANSPs, the European Air Navigation Planning Group (EANPG) of ICAO has defined 59 test cases in its EUR AMHS Manual (V5.0), 17/06/2010 (Appendix D, AMHS Conformance Tests), ASIA/PAC AMHS Manual (Annex B, AMHS Conformance and Compatibility Test, V2.0, 22/09/08) which have to be performed prior to establishment of bilateral links between the ANSPs. Those tests are conducted using a test engine (AMHS Conformance Test Tool) and verify

1102-513: The Basic level of service capability; in this way it is ensured that users with Extended Service capabilities can inter-operate, at a basic level, with users having Basic Service capabilities and vice versa. The ATSMHS is provided by a set of end systems, which collectively comprise the ATS Message Handling System. The systems co-operate to provide users (human or automated) with a data communication service. The AMHS network

1160-440: The Earth. The process of weathering breaks down the rocks and soils into smaller fragments and then into their constituent substances. During rains precipitation, the water droplets absorb and dissolve carbon dioxide from the surrounding air. This causes the rainwater to be slightly acidic, which aids the erosive properties of water. The released sediment and chemicals are then free to take part in chemical reactions that can affect

1218-585: The Middle Ages. Finland suffered a severe famine in 1696–1697, during which about one-third of the Finnish population died. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, and formally since at least the nineteenth century. Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about

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1276-534: The air above it causing it to expand and lower the density and the resulting surface air pressure . The resulting horizontal pressure gradient moves the air from higher to lower pressure regions, creating a wind, and the Earth's rotation then causes deflection of this airflow due to the Coriolis effect . The simple systems thus formed can then display emergent behaviour to produce more complex systems and thus other weather phenomena. Large scale examples include

1334-527: The amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth and influence long-term climate. (See Milankovitch cycles ). The uneven solar heating (the formation of zones of temperature and moisture gradients, or frontogenesis ) can also be due to the weather itself in the form of cloudiness and precipitation. Higher altitudes are typically cooler than lower altitudes, which is the result of higher surface temperature and radiational heating, which produces

1392-582: The circle of AMHS users while Asia has operated AMHS links between Hong Kong and Macao since 2009 and between Singapore and India since 2011. Interregional AMHS connections for improved traffic between ICAO regions could be established between the UK and the US in 2011 and the UK and Singapore in the beginning of 2012. By end 2011, ANSPs worldwide have replaced 14 operational international AFTN connections by an AMHS link. The up-to-date worldwide implementation status of AMHS

1450-668: The conformance to the AMHS standard, which is defined in ICAO Doc 9880-AN/466: Manual on Detailed Technical Specifications for the Aeronautical Telecommunication Network (ATN) using ISO/OSI Standards and Protocols, Second Advanced Edition - 2016, Part II. In the context of Single European Sky (SES) initiative and the European regulation EC552/2004 EUROCONTROL developed a specification to complement

1508-432: The current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve. Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure , current weather conditions, and sky condition, forecast models are now used to determine future conditions. On the other hand, human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base

1566-442: The development of IWXXM. The e-mail group tt-avdata@groups.wmo.int was created (Subscription required. Visit List information - groups.wmo.int - Simplelists for details) to collect feedback from users. A GitHub repository https://github.com/wmo-im/iwxxm has been created to engage community participation. WXXM is governed by FAA and EUROCONTROL for international products outside of those represented by ICAO or WMO. WXXM 1.0

1624-686: The difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the range of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus helps to narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome. There are a variety of end users to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property. Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture, and therefore to commodity traders within stock markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days. In some areas, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on

1682-405: The effect it has on humans in different situations, etc. Therefore, weather is something people often communicate about. The National Weather Service has an annual report for fatalities, injury, and total damage costs which include crop and property. They gather this data via National Weather Service offices located throughout the 50 states in the United States as well as Puerto Rico , Guam , and

1740-464: The forecast upon, which involves many disciplines such as pattern recognition skills, teleconnections , knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, the error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as of

1798-858: The greatest snowfall in a period of twelve months occurred in Mount Rainier , Washington, US. It was recorded as 31,102 mm (102.04 ft) of snow. Studying how the weather works on other planets has been seen as helpful in understanding how it works on Earth. Weather on other planets follows many of the same physical principles as weather on Earth , but occurs on different scales and in atmospheres having different chemical composition. The Cassini–Huygens mission to Titan discovered clouds formed from methane or ethane which deposit rain composed of liquid methane and other organic compounds . Earth's atmosphere includes six latitudinal circulation zones, three in each hemisphere. In contrast, Jupiter's banded appearance shows many such zones, Titan has

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1856-675: The history of the United States. The Little Ice Age caused crop failures and famines in Europe. During the period known as the Grindelwald Fluctuation (1560–1630), volcanic forcing events seem to have led to more extreme weather events. These included droughts, storms and unseasonal blizzards, as well as causing the Swiss Grindelwald Glacier to expand. The 1690s saw the worst famine in France since

1914-461: The largest scale atmospheric circulations : the Hadley cell , the Ferrel cell , the polar cell , and the jet stream . Weather systems in the middle latitudes , such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of the jet streamflow. Because Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane (called the ecliptic ), sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of

1972-789: The new Volume I.3 of WMO-No. 306, Manual on Codes. IWXXM Version 2 was issued in August 2016 with the introduction of new products including AIRMET, Tropical Cyclone Advisory and Volcanic Ash Advisory, loads of improvements and bug fixes. Supported by the sixteenth session of the WMO Commission for Basic System in 2016, a slightly revised version IWXXM 2.1 has been approved by the sixty-ninth WMO Executive Council in May 2017. A patch (IWXXM Version 2.1.1) had been released and approved in Nov 2017 to fix minor issues on validation and examples. IWXXM Version 3

2030-417: The planet Neptune . This has created a puzzle for planetary scientists . The weather is ultimately created by solar energy and the amount of energy received by Neptune is only about 1 ⁄ 900 of that received by Earth, yet the intensity of weather phenomena on Neptune is far greater than on Earth. As of 2007 , the strongest planetary winds discovered are on the extrasolar planet HD 189733 b , which

2088-502: The planet can offer extremes of temperature outside this range. The coldest air temperature ever recorded on Earth is −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F), at Vostok Station , Antarctica on 21 July 1983. The hottest air temperature ever recorded was 57.7 °C (135.9 °F) at 'Aziziya , Libya, on 13 September 1922, but that reading is queried . The highest recorded average annual temperature was 34.4 °C (93.9 °F) at Dallol , Ethiopia. The coldest recorded average annual temperature

2146-423: The regulation. The use of the specifications facilitates the demonstration of conformity to the essential requirements and regulatory provisions. In order to facilitate the transition from legacy protocols to this new standard EUROCONTROL launched a project called ECG (European or EATM Communications Gateway) to develop a gateway between AFTN and AMHS. The ECG was developed by the French manufacturer THALES and

2204-556: The regulatory requirements described in ICAO Annex III . Another document ICAO Doc 10003 is also available to provide a high level description of the model. The WMO Commission for Observation, Infrastructures and Information Systems (INFCOM) Task Team on Aviation Data or TT-AvData (previously Commission for Basic System (CBS) Task Team on Aviation XML or TT-AvXML) and ICAO Meteorological Panel (METP) Working Group on Meteorological Information Exchange ( WG-MIE ) are involved in

2262-537: The southwest and Beijing's Fangshan District recording a rainfall of 25 millimeters. Whereas there is inconclusive evidence for these techniques' efficacy, there is extensive evidence that human activity such as agriculture and industry results in inadvertent weather modification: The effects of inadvertent weather modification may pose serious threats to many aspects of civilization, including ecosystems , natural resources , food and fiber production, economic development , and human health. Microscale meteorology

2320-536: The surface further (such as acid rain ), and sodium and chloride ions ( salt ) deposited in the seas/oceans. The sediment may reform in time and by geological forces into other rocks and soils. In this way, weather plays a major role in erosion of the surface. Weather, seen from an anthropological perspective, is something all humans in the world constantly experience through their senses, at least while being outside. There are socially and scientifically constructed understandings of what weather is, what makes it change,

2378-400: The surface of the star, such as coronal mass ejections , form a system that has features analogous to conventional weather systems (such as pressure and wind) and is generally known as space weather . Coronal mass ejections have been tracked as far out in the Solar System as Saturn . The activity of this system can affect planetary atmospheres and occasionally surfaces. The interaction of

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2436-411: The tropics can occur more spontaneously compared to those at higher latitudes, where they are more tightly controlled by larger-scale forces in the atmosphere. Because of these differences, clouds and rain are more difficult to forecast in the tropics than at higher latitudes. On the other hand, the temperature is easily forecast in the tropics, because it does not change much. The aspiration to control

2494-419: The tropics warm (Stevens 2011). And, the vertical direction (up, as one stands on the Earth's surface) is perpendicular to the Earth's axis of rotation at the equator, while the axis of rotation and the vertical are the same at the pole; this causes the Earth's rotation to influence the atmospheric circulation more strongly at high latitudes than low latitudes. Because of these two factors, clouds and rainstorms in

2552-453: The tropics. In other words, the farther from the tropics one lies, the lower the sun angle is, which causes those locations to be cooler due to the spread of the sunlight over a greater surface. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the large scale atmospheric circulation cells and the jet stream . Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of

2610-411: The troposphere (the lower part of the atmosphere). Weather does occur in the stratosphere and can affect weather lower down in the troposphere, but the exact mechanisms are poorly understood. Weather occurs primarily due to air pressure, temperature and moisture differences from one place to another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude in

2668-420: The weather have occurred throughout history, and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns. Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth. A famous landmark in the Solar System , Jupiter's Great Red Spot , is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years. However,

2726-603: The weather is evident throughout human history: from ancient rituals intended to bring rain for crops to the U.S. Military Operation Popeye , an attempt to disrupt supply lines by lengthening the North Vietnamese monsoon . The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve cloud seeding ; they include the fog - and low stratus dispersion techniques employed by major airports, techniques used to increase winter precipitation over mountains, and techniques to suppress hail . A recent example of weather control

2784-575: The weather is not limited to planetary bodies. A star's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind . On Earth , common weather phenomena include wind, cloud , rain, snow, fog and dust storms . Less common events include natural disasters such as tornadoes , hurricanes , typhoons and ice storms . Almost all familiar weather phenomena occur in

2842-447: The year. On Earth's surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (−40 °F to 104 °F) annually. Over thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by Earth, thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change . Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes, as most atmospheric heating

2900-561: Was China's preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games . China shot 1,104 rain dispersal rockets from 21 sites in the city of Beijing in an effort to keep rain away from the opening ceremony of the games on 8 August 2008. Guo Hu, head of the Beijing Municipal Meteorological Bureau (BMB), confirmed the success of the operation with 100 millimeters falling in Baoding City of Hebei Province , to

2958-581: Was established in 2009 between the United Arab Emirates (Abu Dhabi) and Oman. In the meantime Abu Dhabi has evolved as a nucleus for the introduction of AMHS in the Middle East, resulting in a coherent AMHS network of operational connection between UAE, Jordan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Oman and Qatar. Since 2010 Jordan, Egypt and Saudi Arabia form the first operational AMHS triangle. In 2012 the South American countries Peru and Colombia joined

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3016-530: Was first made available as version 3.0RC1 in July 2018. Major changes include restructuring and simplifying with the removal of Observations and Measurements model (O&M), addition of the new Space Weather Advisory and other changes with regard to Amendment 78 to ICAO Annex 3, and numerous fixes and enhancements. IWXXM 3.0RC2 was released in October 2018 for further comments. Another release candidate IWXXM 3.0RC3

3074-520: Was implemented by Avitech GmbH (Germany) as a pioneer solution and went into operational use in 1996 with 36 centers for the German Military (Bundeswehr) and the first AMHS connection in Europe is in operational use since February 2005 between the ANSPs of Germany and Spain. Second in Europe were Bosnia and Herzegovina with Austria in 2011. The first operational AMHS connection in the Middle East

3132-474: Was introduced in October 2013, representing METAR , SPECI , TAF and SIGMET formats as specified in International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Annex III, Amendment 76. IWXXM became an optional format for the bilateral exchange of weather reports in November 2013 when the amendment became applicable. The seventeenth WMO Congress approved IWXXM 1.1, a WMO standard data representation to be included in

3190-555: Was published on 15 June 2023 to fix a few bugs involved in the schematron rules as well as introducing the missing icing phenomenon required in WAFS SIGWX Forecast. A new version of IWXXM is being developed in response to the proposed changes in the upcoming Amendment 81 to ICAO Annex 3. IWXXM is regulated by WMO in association with ICAO. IWXXM is defined at the technical regulation level in WMO No.306 Volume I.3 to meet

3248-524: Was released in 2007. There were no new releases since the publication of WXXM 3.0.0 in 2019. Weather Weather is the state of the atmosphere , describing for example the degree to which it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy . On Earth , most weather phenomena occur in the lowest layer of the planet's atmosphere , the troposphere , just below the stratosphere . Weather refers to day-to-day temperature, precipitation , and other atmospheric conditions, whereas climate

3306-549: Was released in April 2019. Approval was received in October 2019 and IWXXM 3.0RC4 was released before publishing of the finalized version on 7 November 2019. IWXXM Version 2021-2 was published in Nov 2021 meeting new requirements in Amendments 79 and 80 to ICAO Annex 3, including the introduction of the new WAFS SIGWX Forecast to be provided by World Area Forecast Centers (WAFCs) by 2023. A bug fix version (IWXXM Version 2023-1)

3364-520: Was −55.1 °C (−67.2 °F) at Vostok Station , Antarctica. The coldest average annual temperature in a permanently inhabited location is at Eureka, Nunavut , in Canada, where the annual average temperature is −19.7 °C (−3.5 °F). The windiest place ever recorded is in Antarctica, Commonwealth Bay (George V Coast). Here the gales reach 199 mph (320  km/h ). Furthermore,

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