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83-473: The AVA was created in 1919 from the 1907 Göttingen by Ludwig Prandtl founded "Modellversuchsanstalt für Aerodynamik der Motorluftschiff-Studiengesellschaft". In its founding years, it was still concerned with the development of the "best" form of airship. In 1908, the first wind tunnel was built in Göttingen for tests on models for aviation. In 1915, founded in 1911 Kaiser Wilhelm Society (KWG) and under

166-647: A jungle house, and a show arena. The new Canadian-themed area, Yukon Bay, opened in 2010. In 2010 the Hanover Zoo had over 1.6 million visitors. There is also the Sea Life Centre Hanover , which is the first tropical aquarium in Germany. Another point of interest is the Old Town . In the centre are the large Marktkirche (Church St. Georgii et Jacobi , preaching venue of the bishop of

249-777: A kind of Olympic games, between Prandtl and me, and beyond that between Göttingen and Aachen. The ‘playing field’ was the Congress of Applied Mechanics. Our ‘ball’ was the search for a universal law of turbulence.” Around 1930, the race ended in a draw as both men concluded that the inverse square of skin friction was related to the logarithmic value of the product of Reynold's number and skin friction as seen below where k and C are constants. k c f = log 10 ⁡ ( R e ∗ C f ) + C {\displaystyle {\frac {k}{\sqrt {c_{f}}}}=\log _{10}{(Re*C_{f})}+C} Prandtl and von Kármán's work on

332-550: A lengthy illness and, as a result, Ludwig spent more time with his father, a professor of engineering. His father also encouraged him to observe nature and think about his observations. Prandtl entered the Technische Hochschule Munich in 1894 and graduated with a Ph.D. under guidance of Professor August Foeppl in six years. His thesis was "On Tilting Phenomena, an Example of Unstable Elastic Equilibrium" (1900), After university, Prandtl went to work in

415-793: A member of the German Physical Society (DPG) , Prandtl assisted Carl Ramsauer in drafting the DPG Petition in 1941. The DPG Petition would be published in 1942 and argued that physics in Germany was falling behind that of the United States due to rejection of "Jewish Physics" ( relativity and quantum theory ) from German physicists. After publication of the DPG Petition, the belief of "German Physics" superiority deteriorated to allow for German students to study these new fields in school. Prandtl worked at Göttingen until he died on 15 August 1953. His work in fluid dynamics

498-445: A population of about 3,850,000 and is the 8th largest metropolitan area in Germany. Hanover passed a population of 100,000 in 1875, and Hanover's population has grown since 1946, when Hanover became the capital of Lower Saxony state and it grew rapidly in 1950s and 60s due to West German Wirtschaftswunder . This also saw the growth of a large migrant population, drawn largely from Turkey , Greece and Italy . Hanover has also one of

581-498: A population of about 540,000. It is the largest city in Lower Saxony and is the 13th largest city in Germany. The Hanover Region , a district that surrounds the city of Hanover and cities like Langenhagen , Garbsen and Laatzen has a population of about 1,160,000 and is the largest District (Landkreis) in Germany. Hanover metropolitan region , which includes also cities like Braunschweig , Hildesheim and Göttingen , has

664-693: A pretext to stage a nationwide pogrom known as Kristallnacht (9 November 1938). On that day, the synagogue of Hanover, designed in 1870 by Edwin Oppler in neo-romantic style, was burnt by the Nazis. In September 1941, through the "Action Lauterbacher" plan, a ghettoisation of the remaining Hanoverian Jewish families began. Even before the Wannsee Conference , on 15 December 1941, the first Jews from Hanover were deported to Riga . A total of 2,400 people were deported, and very few survived. During

747-613: A reminder of the persecution of the Jews in Hanover. After the war a large group of Orthodox Jewish survivors of the nearby Bergen-Belsen concentration camp settled in Hanover. There was also a camp for Sinti and Romani people (see Romani Holocaust ), and dozens of forced labour subcamps of the Stalag XI-B prisoner-of-war camp for Allied POWs. As an important railway and road junction and production centre, Hanover

830-407: A simplified thin-airfoil theory for these designs. This work led to the realization that on any wing of finite length, wing-tip effects became very important to the overall performance and characterization of the wing. Considerable work was included on the nature of induced drag and wingtip vortices , which had previously been ignored. Prandtl showed that an elliptical spanwise lift distribution

913-442: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Ludwig Prandtl Ludwig Prandtl (4 February 1875 – 15 August 1953) was a German fluid dynamicist , physicist and aerospace scientist. He was a pioneer in the development of rigorous systematic mathematical analyses which he used for underlying the science of aerodynamics , which have come to form the basis of the applied science of aeronautical engineering . In

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996-547: Is a forest originally used for deer and other game for the king's table. The 282-metre-high (925 ft) Telemax communications tower, the tallest building in Lower Saxony and the highest television tower in northern Germany, lies in the district of Groß-Buchholz. Some other notable towers are the VW-Tower in the city centre and the old towers of the former middle-age defence belt: Döhrener Tower , Lister Tower and

1079-460: Is a major crossing point of railway lines and motorways ( Autobahnen ), connecting European main lines in both the east–west ( Berlin – Ruhr area / Düsseldorf / Cologne ) and north–south (Hamburg– Frankfurt / Stuttgart / Munich ) directions. Hanover Airport lies north of the city, in Langenhagen , and is Germany's ninth-busiest airport. The city's most notable institutes of higher education are

1162-466: Is a vice-president city of Mayors for Peace , an international mayoral organisation mobilising cities and citizens worldwide to abolish and eliminate nuclear weapons by 2020. Hanover has an oceanic climate ( Köppen : Cfb ) independent of the isotherm. Although the city is not on a coastal location, the predominant air masses are still from the ocean, unlike other places further east or south-central Germany. The Hanover weather station has recorded

1245-482: Is debated. Hanover was a small village of ferrymen and fishermen that became a comparatively large town in the 13th century and received town privileges in 1241 because of its position at a natural crossroads. As overland travel was relatively difficult, its position on the upper navigable reaches of the river helped it grow from increasing trade. It was connected to the Hanseatic League city of Bremen by

1328-866: Is headquarters for several Protestant organizations, including the World Communion of Reformed Churches , the Protestant Church in Germany , the Reformed Alliance , the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany , and the Independent Evangelical-Lutheran Church . In 2015, 31.1% of the population were Protestant and 13.4% were Roman Catholic . The majority 55.5% were irreligious or other religion. The Historisches Museum Hanover (Historic museum) describes

1411-469: Is placed on film, video, contemporary music and architecture, room installments and presentations of contemporary paintings, sculptures and video art. The Kestner-Museum is located in the House of 5,000 windows . The museum is named after August Kestner and exhibits 6,000 years of applied art in four areas: Ancient cultures, ancient Egypt, applied art and a valuable collection of historic coins. The KUBUS

1494-457: Is still used today in many areas of aerodynamics and chemical engineering . He is often referred to as the father of modern aerodynamics. The crater Prandtl on the far side of the Moon is named in his honor. The Ludwig-Prandtl-Ring is awarded by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt in his honor for outstanding contribution in the field of aerospace engineering. In 1992, Prandtl

1577-583: The 13th-largest city in Germany as well as the fourth-largest city in northern Germany after Berlin , Hamburg and Bremen . Hanover's urban area comprises the towns of Garbsen , Langenhagen and Laatzen and has a population of about 791,000 (2018). The Hanover Region has approximately 1.16 million inhabitants (2019) and is the largest in the Hanover–Braunschweig–Göttingen–Wolfsburg Metropolitan Region ,

1660-765: The 17th biggest metropolitan area by GDP in the European Union . Before it became the capital of Lower Saxony in 1946, Hanover was the capital of the Principality of Calenberg (1636–1692), the Electorate of Hanover (1692–1814), the Kingdom of Hanover (1814–1866), the Province of Hanover of the Kingdom of Prussia (1868–1918), the Province of Hanover of the Free State of Prussia (1918–1947) and of

1743-509: The Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt (AVA) in 1919. The facility was focused on wind tunnel measurements of airship models with the goal of shapes with minimal air resistance. During WWI , it was used as a large research establishment with many tasks including lift and drag on airfoils, aerodynamics of bombs, and cavitation on submarine propeller blades. In 1925 , the university spun off his research arm to create

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1826-1273: The Anzeiger Tower Block , the Administration Building of the NORD/LB , the Cupola Hall of the Congress Centre, the Lower Saxony Stock , the Ministry of Finance , the Garten Church , the Luther Church , the Gehry Tower (designed by the American architect Frank O. Gehry ), the specially designed Bus Stops , the Opera House , the Hanover Central Station , the Maschsee lake and

1909-529: The Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In 1814 the electorate became the Kingdom of Hanover . In 1837, the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover ended because William IV 's heir in the United Kingdom was female ( Queen Victoria ). Hanover could be inherited only by male heirs. Thus, Hanover passed to William IV's brother, Ernest Augustus , and remained a kingdom until 1866, when it was annexed by

1992-609: The Hanover Medical School ( Medizinische Hochschule Hannover ), one of Germany's leading medical schools , with its university hospital Klinikum der Medizinischen Hochschule Hannover , and the Leibniz University Hanover . The city is also home to International Neuroscience Institute . The Hanover Fairground , owing to numerous extensions, especially for the Expo 2000 , is the largest in

2075-767: The Hanoverian Army . However, George III did not recognise the Convention of the Elbe, which resulted in a great number of soldiers from Hanover eventually emigrating to Great Britain, where the King's German Legion was formed. It was only troops from Hanover and Brunswick who consistently opposed France throughout the Napoleonic Wars. The Legion later played an important role in the Peninsular War and

2158-638: The Holy Roman Emperor to the rank of Prince-Elector in 1692, which was confirmed by the Imperial Diet in 1708. Thus, the principality was upgraded to the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg , colloquially known as the Electorate of Hanover after Calenberg's capital (see also House of Hanover ). Its electors later became monarchs of Great Britain (and from 1801 of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ). The first of them

2241-688: The Horse Tower . The 36 most significant sights of the city centre are connected by a 4.2-kilometre-long (3 mi) walking trail called the Red Thread that is literally painted onto the pavement with red paint. It starts at the Tourist Information Office and ends on the Ernst-August-Square, both in front of the central train station. There is also a guided sightseeing bus tour through the city. Hanover has

2324-608: The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Flow Research (now the Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization ). Due to the complexity of Prandtl's boundary layer ideas in his 1904 paper, the spread of the concept was initially slow. Many people failed to adopt the idea due to lack of understanding. There was a halt on new boundary layer discoveries until 1908 when two of his students at Gottingen, Blasius and Boltze, released their dissertations on

2407-637: The Low Countries and Saxony or Thuringia . In the 14th century, the main churches of Hanover were built, as well as a city wall with three city gates. The beginning of industrialization in Germany led to trade in iron and silver from the northern Harz Mountains , which increased the city's importance. In 1636 George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg , ruler of the Brunswick-Lüneburg principality of Calenberg , moved his residence to Hanover. The Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg were elevated by

2490-555: The Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg to improve a suction device for shavings removal in the manufacturing process. While working there, he discovered that the suction tube did not work because the lines of flow separated from the walls of the tube, so the expected pressure rise in the sharply-divergent tube never occurred. This phenomenon had been previously noted by Daniel Bernoulli in a similar hydraulic case. Prandtl recalled that this discovery led to

2573-683: The Paradies and the Prairie Garden . The Georgengarten is an English landscape garden. The Leibniz Temple and the Georgen Palace are two points of interest there. The landmark of Hanover is the New Town Hall ( Neues Rathaus ). Inside the building are four scale models of the city. An elevator ascends to the observation deck at the top of the large dome along a variable angle of up to 17 degrees, thought to be unique in

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2656-471: The Prandtl–Glauert correction . This became very useful during World War II as aircraft began approaching supersonic speeds for the first time. He also worked on meteorology , plasticity and structural mechanics . He also made significant contributions to the field of tribology . Following Prandtl's investigation into instabilities from 1921-1929, he then moved to exploring developed turbulence. This

2739-718: The Prussia during the Austro-Prussian war . Though Hanover was expected to defeat Prussia at the Battle of Langensalza in 1866, Prussia employed Moltke the Elder's Kesselschlacht order of battle to and destroyed the Hanoverian Army. Thereafter the city of Hanover became the capital of the Prussian Province of Hanover . In 1872, the first horse railway was inaugurated, and in 1893, an electric tram

2822-728: The Seven Years' War , the Battle of Hastenbeck was fought near the city on 26 July 1757. The French army defeated the Hanoverian Army of Observation , which led to the city's occupation as part of the Invasion of Hanover . It was recaptured by Anglo-German forces, led by Ferdinand of Brunswick , the following year. After Napoleon imposed the Convention of Artlenburg (treaty of the Elbe) on 5 July 1803, about 35,000 French soldiers occupied Hanover. The convention also required disbanding

2905-764: The State of Hanover (1946). From 1714 to 1837 Hanover was by personal union the family seat of the Hanoverian Kings of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , under their title of the dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg (later described as the Elector of Hanover ). The city lies at the confluence of the River Leine and its tributary the Ihme , in the south of the North German Plain . The city

2988-462: The 1920s, he developed the mathematical basis for the fundamental principles of subsonic aerodynamics in particular; and in general up to and including transonic velocities. His studies identified the boundary layer , thin- airfoils , and lifting-line theories . The Prandtl number was named after him. Prandtl was born in Freising , near Munich , on 4 February 1875. His mother suffered from

3071-575: The German (am) hohen Ufer , literally 'on the high (river) bank'. Traditionally, the English spelling is ⟨ Hanover ⟩ . However, ⟨ Hannover ⟩ , the German spelling with a double- ⟨n⟩ , has become more popular in English. Recent editions of Encyclopædia Britannica prefer the German spelling, and the local government uses the German spelling on their English webpages. The English pronunciation, with stress on

3154-625: The Leine River and was situated near the southern edge of the wide North German Plain and northwest of the Harz mountains, so east–west traffic such as mule trains passed through it. Hanover was thus a gateway to the Rhine , Ruhr and Saar river valleys, and their industrial areas which grew up to the southwest and the plains regions to the east and north for overland traffic skirting the Harz between

3237-404: The Lutheran Landeskirche Hanovers ), and the 15th century Old Town Hall , heavily damaged by Allied bombing in 1943, and reconstructed after World War II. Nearby are the Leibniz House , the Nolte House , and the Beguine Tower . The Kreuz-Church-Quarter around the Kreuz Church contains many little lanes. Nearby is the old royal sports hall, now called the Ballhof theatre. On the edge of

3320-440: The Motion of Fluids in Very Little Friction ), at the Third International Mathematics Congress in Heidelberg . In this paper, he described the boundary layer and its importance for drag and streamlining . The paper also described flow separation as a result of the boundary layer, clearly explaining the concept of stall for the first time. Several of his students made attempts at closed-form solutions, but failed, and in

3403-418: The Old Town are the Market Hall , the Leine Palace , and the ruin of the Aegidien Church which is now a monument to the victims of war and violence. Through the Marstall Gate the bank of the river Leine can be reached; the Nanas of Niki de Saint Phalle are there. They are part of the Sculpture Mile , which starts at Trammplatz , runs along the river bank, crosses Königsworther Square , and ends at

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3486-424: The United Kingdom, were concurrently also Electoral Princes of Hanover. During the time of the personal union of the crowns of the United Kingdom and Hanover (1714–1837), the monarchs rarely visited the city. In fact during the reigns of the last three joint rulers (1760–1837), there was only one short visit, by George IV in 1821. From 1816 to 1837, Viceroy Adolphus represented the monarch in Hanover. During

3569-402: The border with thousands of other Polish-Jewish deportees, fed only intermittently by the Polish Red Cross and Jewish welfare organisations. The Grynszpans' son Herschel Grynszpan was in Paris at the time. When he learned of what was happening, he drove to the German embassy in Paris and shot the German diplomat Eduard Ernst vom Rath , who died shortly afterwards. The Nazis took this act as

3652-399: The boundary layer released by 1914. Due to similar reasons to Prandtl's 1904 paper, these first 7 papers on the boundary layer would be slow to spread outside of Gottingen. Partially due to World War I, there would be a lack of papers published regarding the boundary layer until another of Prandtl's students, Theodore Von Karman, published a paper in 1921 on the momentum integral equation across

3735-436: The boundary layer. Following earlier leads by Frederick Lanchester from 1902–1907, Prandtl worked with Albert Betz and Max Munk on the problem of a useful mathematical tool for examining lift from "real world" wings. The results were published in 1918–1919, known as the Lanchester–Prandtl wing theory . He also made specific additions to study cambered airfoils, like those on World War I aircraft, and published

3818-476: The boundary layer. Blasius' dissertation explained what happened with the boundary layer when a flat plate comes in parallel contact with a uniform stream. Boltze's research was similar to Blasius' but applied Prandtl's theory to spherical shapes instead of flat objects. Prandtl expanded upon the ideas in his student's dissertations to include a thermal boundary layer associated with heat transfer. There would be three more papers from Gottingen researchers regarding

3901-403: The boundary was influential and adopted by aerodynamic and hydrodynamic experts around the world after WWI. In May 1932, the International Conference on Hydromechanical Problems of Ship Propulsion was held in Hamburg . Günther Kempf showcased a number of experiments at the conference which confirmed many of the theoretical discoveries of von Kármán and Prandtl. After Hitler 's rise to power and

3984-414: The city alongside the mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 12 September 2021, and the results were as follows: There are around 5,500 buildings of major historic value within city limits. One of Hanover's most grandiose sights is the Royal Gardens of Herrenhausen . Its Great Garden is an important European Baroque garden . The palace itself was largely destroyed by Allied bombing, but

4067-414: The city forest Eilenriede , which is one of the largest of its kind in Europe. For recreation, Hanover has 40 parks, forests and gardens, a couple of lakes, two rivers and a canal. The historic Leibniz Letters , which can be viewed in the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Library , have been on UNESCO 's Memory of the World Register since 2007. Outside the city centre is the Hanover Fairground , which

4150-414: The city on 10 April 1945. Hanover was in the British zone of occupation of Germany and became part of the new state (Land) of Lower Saxony in 1946. In 1947, Hanover established its relationship with Bristol, England in exchanges of goods, students and music. This would link the two cities to Sister Cities International as one of the models for establishing these types of programs. Today Hanover

4233-449: The concept of "circulation" which proved to be particularly important for the hydrodynamics of ship propellers. He did most of the experimental work at his lab in Göttingen from 1910-1918 with his assistant Albert Betz and student Max Munk. Most of his discoveries related to circulation would be kept secret from the western world until after World War I. Prior to World War I, the Society of German Natural Scientists and Physicians (GDNÄ)

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4316-453: The construction of supersonic wind tunnels . He had little time to work on the problem further until the 1920s, when he worked with Adolf Busemann and created a method for designing a supersonic nozzle in 1929. Today, all supersonic wind tunnels and rocket nozzles are designed using the same method. A full development of supersonics would have to wait for the work of Theodore von Kármán , a student of Prandtl at Göttingen. Prandtl developed

4399-408: The direction of Ludwig Prandtl the "Modellversuchsanstalt aerodynamics" was founded in 1919 as the "Aerodynamic Research Institute of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society" (AVA) was transferred to the KWG and converted in 1925 into the " Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Flow Research linked to the Aerodynamic Research Institute". Ludwig Prandtl headed the institute until 1937, his successor became Albert Betz . In

4482-401: The elliptical distribution and was initially ignored in most practical aircraft designs. This concept has been rediscovered by other researchers and has become increasingly important (see also the Prandtl-D experimental aircraft). Prandtl and his student Theodor Meyer developed the first theories of supersonic shock waves and flow in 1908. The Prandtl–Meyer expansion fans allowed for

4565-456: The end the approximation contained in his original paper remains in widespread use. The effect of the paper was so great that Prandtl would succeed Hans Lorenz as director of the Institute for Technical Physics at the University of Göttingen later in the year. In 1907, during his time at Göttingen, Prandtl was tasked with establishing a new facility for model studies of motorized airships called Motorluftschiffmodell-Versuchsanstalt (MVA), later

4648-416: The entrance of the Georgengarten . Near the Old Town is the district of Calenberger Neustadt where the Catholic St. Clement's Basilica , the Reformed Church and the Lutheran Neustädter Hof- und Stadtkirche St. Johannis stand. Some other popular sights are the Waterloo Column , the Laves House , the Wangenheim Palace , the Lower Saxony State Archives , the Hanover Playhouse , the Kröpcke Clock ,

4731-558: The establishment of the Third Reich , Prandtl continued his role as director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society . During this period, the Nazi air ministry, led by Hermann Göring , often used Prandtl's international reputation as a scientist to promote Germany's scientific agenda. Prandtl appears to have happily served as an ambassador for the Nazi regime, writing in 1937 to a NACA representative "I believe that Fascism in Italy and National Socialism in Germany represent very good beginnings of new thinking and economics." Prandtl's support for

4814-404: The fairground are the Hermes Tower (88.8 metres or 291 feet high) and the EXPO Roof , the largest wooden roof in the world. In the district of Anderten is the European Cheese Centre , termed a "Cheese Experience Centre." Another tourist sight in Anderten is the Hindenburg Lock , which was the biggest lock in Europe when it was constructed in 1928. The Tiergarten in the district of Kirchrode

4897-455: The first syllable, is applied to both the German and English spellings, which is different from German pronunciation, with stress on the second syllable and a long second vowel. The traditional English spelling is still used in historical contexts, especially when referring to the British House of Hanover . Hanover was founded in medieval times on the east bank of the Leine River. Its original name Honovere may mean 'high river bank', but that

4980-425: The following extreme values: The city of Hanover is divided into 13 boroughs ( Stadtbezirke ) and 53 quarters ( Stadtteile ). A selection of the 53 quarters: The current mayor of Hanover is Belit Onay of Alliance 90/The Greens , elected in 2019. The most recent mayoral election was held on 17 October 2019, with a runoff held on 10 November, and the results were as follows: The Hanover city council governs

5063-417: The foundation of ZAMM, the GAMM (International Association of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics) was also formed due to the joint efforts of Prandtl and his peers. After these initial meetings of GAMM, it became clear that there was now a new international community of mathematicians, "scientific engineers", and physicists. Other work examined the problem of compressibility at high subsonic speeds, known as

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5146-406: The history of Hanover, from the medieval settlement "Honovere" to the city of today. The museum focuses on the period from 1714 to 1834 when Hanover had a strong relationship with the British royal family of that period. With more than 4,000 members, the Kestnergesellschaft is the largest art society in Germany. The museum hosts exhibitions from classical modernist art to contemporary art. Emphasis

5229-468: The largest Vietnamese communities in former West Germany due to its close distance to former East Germany . The Viên Giác pagoda in Mittelfeld, southern district of Hanover is the largest Vietnamese pagoda in Germany and one of the largest in Europe. Hanover is one of the liveable cities due to its good location and good population size. It is the fifth-largest city in the Low German dialect area after Hamburg, Dortmund , Essen and Bremen. Hanover

5312-521: The most efficient, giving the minimum induced drag for the given span. These tools enabled aircraft designers to make meaningful theoretical studies of their aircraft before they were built. Prandtl later extended his theory to describe a bell-like lift distribution, reducing the loads near the tip of the wings by washing out the wing tips until negative downwash was obtained, which gave the minimum induced drag for any given wing structural weight. However, this new lift distribution drew less interest than

5395-414: The most varied collection of orchids in Europe. Some points of interest are the Tropical House , the Cactus House , the Canary House and the Orchid House , and free-flying birds and butterflies. Near the entrance to the Berggarten is the historic Library Pavillon . The Mausoleum of the Guelphs is also in the Berggarten. Like the Great Garden, the Berggarten also consists of several parts, for example

5478-451: The reasoning behind his boundary-layer approach to resistance in slightly-viscous fluids. In 1901 Prandtl became a professor of fluid mechanics at the technical school in Hannover , later the Technical University Hannover and then the University of Hannover . It was here that he developed many of his most important theories. On August 8, 1904, he delivered a groundbreaking paper, Über Flüssigkeitsbewegung bei sehr kleiner Reibung ( On

5561-420: The regime is apparent in his letters to G. I. Taylor and his wife in 1938 and 1939. Referring to Nazi Germany's treatment of Jews, Prandtl wrote "The struggle, which Germany unfortunately had to fight against the Jews, was necessary for its self-preservation." Prandtl also claimed that "If there will be war, the guilt to have caused it by political measures is this time unequivocally on the side of England." As

5644-454: The same year a spin-off from the institute took place under the name "Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt Göttingen e. V. in the Kaiser Wilhelm Society ", in which the Reich Ministry of Aviation was involved. The remaining after the spin-off part was continued under the name "Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Flow Research" from the 1948, the Max Planck Institute for Fluid Research (today Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization ). The AVA

5727-543: The tank factory M.N.H. Maschinenfabrik Niedersachsen (Badenstedt). Residential areas were also targeted, and more than 6,000 civilians were killed by the Allied bombing raids. More than 90% of the city centre was destroyed in a total of 88 bombing raids. After the war, the Aegidienkirche was not rebuilt and its ruins were left as a war memorial. Today around 25 % of the city consists of buildings from before 1950. The Allied ground advance into Germany reached Hanover in April 1945. The US 84th Infantry Division captured

5810-417: The two societies held a meeting with the German Mathematical Society (DMV) in Jena . In its first volume, ZAMM (Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics) stated that this meeting "for the first time, applied mathematics and mechanics was coming to its own to a larger extent" This journal advertised the common goals of Prandtl, Theodore von Kármán , Richard von Mises , and Hans Reissner . On top of

5893-400: The war seven concentration camps were constructed in Hanover, in which many Jews were confined, but also Polish , French and Russian women. Of the approximately 4,800 Jews who had lived in Hanover in 1938, fewer than 100 were still in the city when troops of the United States Army arrived on 10 April 1945 to occupy Hanover at the end of the war. Today, a memorial at the Opera Square is

5976-471: The world. The Hanover Zoo received the Park Scout Award for the fourth year running in 2009–10, placing it among the best zoos in Germany. The zoo consists of several theme areas: Sambesi, Meyers Farm, Gorilla-Mountain, Jungle-Palace, and Mullewapp. Some smaller areas are Australia, the wooded area for wolves, and the so-called swimming area with many seabirds. There is also a tropical house,

6059-587: The world. It provides 496,000 square metres (5.34 million square feet) of covered indoor space, 58,000 square metres (620 thousand square feet) of open-air space, 27 halls and pavilions. Many of the Exhibition Centre's halls are architectural highlights. Furthermore, it offers the Convention Center with its 35 function rooms, glassed-in areas between halls, grassy park-like recreation zones and its own heliport. Two important sights on

6142-665: The world. Hanover hosts annual commercial trade fairs such as the Hanover Fair and up to 2018 the CeBIT . The IAA Commercial Vehicles show takes place every two years. It is the world's leading trade show for transport, logistics and mobility. Every year Hanover hosts the Schützenfest Hanover , the world's largest marksmen's festival, and the Oktoberfest Hanover . The name of the city may derive from

6225-580: Was George I Louis , who acceded to the British throne in 1714. The last British monarch who reigned in Hanover was William IV . Semi-Salic law , which required succession by the male line if possible, forbade the accession of Queen Victoria in Hanover. As a male-line descendant of George I, Queen Victoria was herself a member of the House of Hanover. Her descendants, however, bore her husband's titular name of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . Three kings of Great Britain, or

6308-863: Was a major target for strategic bombing during World War II , including the Oil Campaign . Targets included the AFA ( Stöcken ), the Deurag-Nerag refinery ( Misburg ), the Continental plants ( Vahrenwald and Limmer ), the United light metal works (VLW) in Ricklingen and Laatzen (today Hanover fairground ), the Hanover/Limmer rubber reclamation plant , the Hanomag factory ( Linden ) and

6391-420: Was also being investigated by Kármán, resulting in a race to formulate a solution for the velocity profile in developed turbulence. Regarding the professional rivalry that started between the two, Kármán commented: “I came to realize that ever since I had come to Aachen my old professor and I were in a kind of world competition. The competition was gentlemanly, of course. But it was first-class rivalry nonetheless,

6474-638: Was confiscated in 1945 by the British (until 1948), 1953 as "Aerodynamic Research Institute Göttingen e. V. re-opened in the Max Planck Society and fully integrated in 1956 as the "Aerodynamic Research Institute in the Max Planck Society". In 1969, the spin-off from the Max Planck Society and the founding of the "German Research and Experimental Institute for Aerospace e. V.". This article about an organisation based in Germany

6557-546: Was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum . Hanover Hanover ( / ˈ h æ n oʊ v ər , - n ə v -/ HAN -oh-vər, HAN -ə-vər ; German : Hannover [haˈnoːfɐ] ; Low German : Hannober ) is the capital and largest city of the German state of Lower Saxony . Its 535,932 (2021) population makes it

6640-622: Was installed. A local newspaper, the Hanoverscher Kurier , was published in Hanover at this time. After 1937 the lord mayor and the state commissioners of Hanover were members of the NSDAP (Nazi party). A large Jewish population then existed in Hanover. In October 1938, 484 Hanoverian Jews of Polish origin were expelled to Poland, including the Grynszpan family . However, Poland refused to accept them, leaving them stranded at

6723-529: Was reconstructed and reopened in 2013. Among its points of interest is the Grotto, with the interior designed by French artist Niki de Saint Phalle . The Great Garden consists of several parts and features Europe's tallest garden fountain. The historic Garden Theatre has hosted the musicals of the German rock musician Heinz Rudolf Kunze . Also at Herrenhausen, the Berggarten is a botanical garden with

6806-498: Was the only opportunity for applied mathematicians, physicists, and engineers in German speaking countries to discuss. In 1920, they met in Bad Nauheim and came to the conclusion that there was a need for a new umbrella for applied sciences due to their experience during the war. In the same year, physicists primarily from industrial laboratories formed a new society called the German Physical Society (DGTP). In September 1921,

6889-805: Was the site of EXPO 2000 fair. Some points of interest are the Planet M. , the former German Pavillon , some nations' vacant pavilions, the Expowale , the EXPO-Plaza and the EXPO-Gardens (Parc Agricole, EXPO-Park South and the Gardens of change). The fairground can be reached by the Exponale , one of the largest pedestrian bridges in Europe. The Hanover Fairground is the largest exhibition centre in

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