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102-608: During the second decade of the 20th century, a socialist movement for the liberation of American blacks began to develop in the Harlem section of New York City . The movement included a substantial number of immigrants from the British West Indies and other islands from the Caribbean region, who, having been raised and educated as part of a racial majority population in their homelands, had found themselves thrust into

204-614: A carpenter . Following completion of his education, Otto began a second apprenticeship, this time working under a printer. Huiswoud was unhappy with his lot in life as a printer's apprentice, however, so in January ;1910 the 16-year-old convinced his father to allow him to depart to see the world and he shipped out on a banana boat bound for the Netherlands. Due to the abysmal working conditions on board, Huiswoud and two of his Surinamese mates decided to jump ship when it

306-562: A chapel on 128th Street in 2005. Many of the area's churches are " storefront churches ", which operate in an empty store, or a basement, or a converted brownstone townhouse. These congregations may have fewer than 30–50 members each, but there are hundreds of them. Others are old, large, and designated landmarks. Especially in the years before World War II, Harlem produced popular Christian charismatic "cult" leaders, including George Wilson Becton and Father Divine . Mosques in Harlem include

408-476: A decolonized Africa , a concept similar to the contemporary notion among some European Jews of Zionism and "return" to Palestine. The Crusader was started by George Wells Parker , a black businessman from Omaha, Nebraska , as the official organ of the League of Legends, a pan-African nationalist group. Parker published articles in the journal proclaiming that Africa was the cradle of civilization and arguing

510-749: A member of the Socialist Propaganda League , a revolutionary socialist organization which included the influential socialist writer S. J. Rutgers , a Dutch civil engineer who had previously worked in the Dutch East Indies . During the summer of 1918, Huiswoud took a job working on a pleasure boat that was part of the Fall River Line . Black crew members were not organized by the International Seamen's Union , so Huiswoud took it upon himself to lead

612-826: A policy of national self-determination for African-Americans living in the American South. The policy was neglected after the Popular Front period began in 1935, but was not formally replaced until 1959. As the Communist Party developed, it regularized its structure along the lines called for by the Communist International (Comintern). Semi-independent organizations such as the African Blood Brotherhood with its divergent Afro-Marxist political theories were anathema to

714-549: A return to civilian employment and the status quo ante bellum , and new immigrant black workers from the rural South formed a volatile mixture which erupted in mob violence in Chicago , Omaha, and cities throughout the Midwest and South. In response to these attacks, The Crusader advocated armed self-defense. Politically, Briggs drew comparisons between government attacks on white and black radicals. He identified capitalism as

816-554: A self-defense organization for blacks threatened by race riots and lynchings . This was accompanied by the re-publishing of Claude McKay 's poem If We Must Die . Not long afterwards, Briggs began to forge connections with pioneer black American Communists such as the Surinam -born Otto Huiswoud and Jamaican poet and writer Claude McKay . These in turn connected Briggs and his publication with native-born white Communists including Robert Minor and Rose Pastor Stokes , who took

918-411: A start at the school. By the 2010s, new dining hotspots were opening in Harlem around Frederick Douglass Boulevard. At the same time, some residents fought back against the powerful waves of gentrification the neighborhood is experiencing. In 2013, residents staged a sidewalk sit-in to protest a five-days-a-week farmers market that would shut down Macombs Place at 150th Street. Uptown Night Market

1020-589: A strong interest in the so-called "Negro Question." Briggs would join the Communist Party himself in 1921. The ABB attempted to organize from inside the UNIA-ACL and advocated a policy of critical support for its leader, Marcus Garvey . ABB leaders Briggs and Claude McKay participated in the UNIA's 1920 and 1921 international conferences in New York. At the second conference, McKay arranged for Rose Pastor Stokes ,

1122-824: A supporter of the Left Wing Section of the Socialist Party during the acrimonious factional war of 1919. He was one of 94 delegates to the June 1919 National Conference of the Left Wing , which elected a governing Left Wing National Council and participated in the formation of the Communist Party of America on September 1 of that year. Although not a delegate to either founding convention, according to Comintern records Huiswoud's party membership dated to 1919, and he has been recognized by historians as

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1224-621: A total membership of fewer than 3,000 members at its peak. Harlem Harlem is a neighborhood in Upper Manhattan , New York City. It is bounded roughly by the Hudson River on the west; the Harlem River and 155th Street on the north; Fifth Avenue on the east; and Central Park North on the south. The greater Harlem area encompasses several other neighborhoods and extends west and north to 155th Street, east to

1326-557: A walkout that led the company to negotiate for better pay and improved working conditions for its minority workers. News of the young leader of this Boston strike reached Socialist Party leaders, who offered Huiswoud a one-year scholarship to attend the Rand School of Social Science , the SPA's training school for party activists and trade union workers. Huiswoud accepted this offer and did not return to Cornell. Between his attendance of

1428-556: A white leader of the Communist Party , to address the assembly. The ABB became highly critical of Garvey following the apparent failure of the Black Star Line and Garvey's July 1921 Atlanta meeting with Grand Kleagle Clarke of the Ku Klux Klan . In June 1922, The Crusader announced that it had become the official organ of the African Blood Brotherhood. Arguing that the UNIA was doomed unless it developed new leadership,

1530-501: Is also the birthplace of popular hip-hop dances such as the Harlem shake , toe wop, and Chicken Noodle Soup . Harlem's classical music birthed organizations and chamber ensembles such as Roberta Guaspari 's Opus 118, Harlem Chamber Players, Omnipresent Music Festival BIPOC Musicians Festival , Harlem Quartet , and musicians such as violinist Edward W. Hardy . In the 1920s, African-American pianists who lived in Harlem invented their own style of jazz piano, called stride , which

1632-613: Is bounded by Cathedral Parkway/110th Street on the south; 155th Street on the north; Manhattan/Morningside Ave/St. Nicholas/Bradhurst/Edgecombe Avenues on the east; and Riverside Park/the Hudson River on the west. Manhattanville begins at roughly 123rd Street and extends northward to 135th Street. The northernmost section of West Harlem is Hamilton Heights. A chain of large linear parks includes West Harlem Piers , Riverbank State Park , St. Nicholas Park, and Jackie Robinson Park. East Harlem , also called Spanish Harlem or El Barrio ,

1734-461: Is home to over 400 churches, some of which are official city or national landmarks. Major Christian denominations include Baptists , Pentecostals, Methodists (generally African Methodist Episcopal Zionist , or "AMEZ" and African Methodist Episcopalian , or "AME"), Episcopalians , and Roman Catholic . The Abyssinian Baptist Church has long been influential because of its large congregation. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints built

1836-544: Is located within Manhattan Community District 11, which is bounded by East 96th Street on the south, East 138th Street on the north, Fifth Avenue on the west, and the Harlem River on the east. A chain of parks includes Thomas Jefferson Park and Marcus Garvey Park. In the 2010s some real estate professionals started rebranding south Harlem as "SoHa" (a name standing for "South Harlem" in

1938-464: Is now predominantly Hispanic / Latino, with a significant African-American presence. Otto Huiswoud Otto Eduard Gerardus Majella Huiswoud (October 28, 1893 – February 20, 1961) was a Surinamese political activist who was a charter member of the Communist Party of America . Huiswoud is regarded as the first black member of the American communist movement. Huiswoud served briefly as

2040-511: Is patrolled by the 28th and 32nd Precincts of the New York City Police Department . The greater Harlem area also includes Manhattan Community Districts 9 and 11 and several police precincts, while fire services are provided by four New York City Fire Department companies. Harlem is located in Upper Manhattan . The three neighborhoods comprising the greater Harlem area—West, Central, and East Harlem—stretch from

2142-470: The Encyclopedia of New York City takes a much more conservative view of Harlem's boundaries, regarding only central Harlem as part of Harlem proper. Central Harlem is the name of Harlem proper; it falls under Manhattan Community District 10. This section is bounded by Fifth Avenue on the east; Central Park on the south; Morningside Park, St. Nicholas Avenue and Edgecombe Avenue on the west; and

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2244-692: The 4th World Congress of the Comintern , held in Moscow from November 5 to December 5, 1922, attending its sessions together the Caribbean poet Claude McKay . Huiswoud addressed the assembled delegates on the situation facing black workers in the United States. Huiswoud was elected head of the Congress's Negro Commission and was instrumental in helping draft the thesis of the Comintern on

2346-641: The American Negro Labor Congress . The organization was headed by Lovett Fort-Whiteman , an individual with whom Huiswoud came into conflict, leading to Fort-Whiteman's ouster in 1927. During the bitter internal factional war which consumed the Workers Party during the decade of the 1920s, Huiswoud was a consistent supporter of the New York-based faction of Charles Ruthenberg , John Pepper , and Jay Lovestone against

2448-515: The Communist Party (Majority Group) . Huiswoud, on the other hand, ultimately chose to accept the decisions of the Comintern and remained at its service. In July 1928, the Red International of Labor Unions , the world communist movement's international trade union organization, had established a "Negro Section" dedicated to coordinating the activities of black workers from the Caribbean region and Sub-Saharan Africa . This would serve as

2550-565: The East River , and south to Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard , Central Park , and East 96th Street . Originally a Dutch village, formally organized in 1658, it is named after the city of Haarlem in the Netherlands. Harlem's history has been defined by a series of economic boom-and-bust cycles, with significant population shifts accompanying each cycle. Harlem was predominantly occupied by Jewish and Italian Americans in

2652-796: The First Red Scare . Government agents were secretly planted in the UNIA, ABB and The Messenger . These agents provided intelligence to the Bureau of Investigation while in some case sabotaging meetings, and acting as agents provocateurs . The ABB enjoyed a period of notoriety following the Tulsa Riot of 1921. Tulsa had an ABB chapter and news reports credited the organization with inspiring resistance to racist attacks. The Crusader ceased publication in February 1922, following Garvey's indictment for mail fraud . Briggs continued to operate

2754-444: The Harlem River and East River to the east, to the Hudson River to the west; and between 155th Street in the north, where it meets Washington Heights , and an uneven boundary along the south that runs along 96th Street east of Fifth Avenue , 110th Street between Fifth Avenue to Morningside Park , and 125th Street west of Morningside Park to the Hudson River. Encyclopædia Britannica references these boundaries, though

2856-479: The Interborough Rapid Transit and elevated railway lines, helped Harlem's economic growth, as they connected Harlem to lower and midtown Manhattan. The Jewish and Italian demographic decreased, while the black and Puerto Rican population increased in this time. The early-20th century Great Migration of black people to northern industrial cities was fueled by their desire to leave behind

2958-500: The Jim Crow South, seek better jobs and education for their children, and escape a culture of lynching violence; during World War I , expanding industries recruited black laborers to fill new jobs, thinly staffed after the draft began to take young men. In 1910, Central Harlem population was about 10% black people. By 1930, it had reached 70%. Starting around the time of the end of World War I, Harlem became associated with

3060-663: The Masjid Malcolm Shabazz (formerly Mosque No. 7 Nation of Islam , and the location of the 1972 Harlem mosque incident ), the Mosque of Islamic Brotherhood and Masjid Aqsa. Judaism, too, maintains a presence in Harlem through the Old Broadway Synagogue . A non-mainstream synagogue of Black Hebrews , known as Commandment Keepers , was based in a synagogue at 1 West 123rd Street until 2008. Many places in Harlem are official city landmarks labeled by

3162-646: The New Negro movement, and then the artistic outpouring known as the Harlem Renaissance , which extended to poetry, novels, theater, and the visual arts. So many black people came that it "threaten[ed] the very existence of some of the leading industries of Georgia, Florida, Tennessee and Alabama." Many settled in Harlem. By 1920, central Harlem was 32.43% black. The 1930 census revealed that 70.18% of central Harlem's residents were black and lived as far south as Central Park , at 110th Street. However, by

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3264-681: The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission or are listed on the National Register of Historic Places : Other prominent points of interest include: The demographics of Harlem's communities have changed throughout its history. In 1910, black residents formed 10% of Harlem's population, but by 1930, they had become a 70% majority. The period between 1910 and 1930 was marked by the Great Migration of African Americans from

3366-462: The Section 8 housing that was being placed, many were not able to live there and had to find homes elsewhere or become homeless. These policies are examples of societal racism , also known as structural racism. As public health leaders have named structural racism as a key social determinant of health disparities between racial and ethnic minorities, these 20th century policies have contributed to

3468-671: The Soviet Union several times in the mid-1920s, writing about conferences of the Communist International for African-American audiences. McKay's book, The Negroes in America (published in Russian in 1924 but not in the U.S. until 1979) argued, against the official Communist position of the time, that the oppression of black people in the U.S. was not reducible to economic oppression, but was unique. He argued against

3570-645: The redlining policy. This policy rated neighborhoods, such as Central Harlem, as unappealing based on the race, ethnicity, and national origins of the residents. Central Harlem was deemed 'hazardous' and residents living in Central Harlem were refused home loans or other investments. Comparably, wealthy and white residents in New York City neighborhoods were approved more often for housing loans and investment applications. Overall, they were given preferential treatment by city and state institutions. In

3672-495: The 109,091 counted in 2000 . Covering an area of 926.05 acres (374.76 ha), the neighborhood had a population density of 128.1 inhabitants per acre (82,000/sq mi; 31,700/km ). The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 9.5% (11,322) White , 63% (74,735) African American , 0.3% (367) Native American , 2.4% (2,839) Asian , 0% (46) Pacific Islander , 0.3% (372) from other races , and 2.2% (2,651) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 22.2% (26,333) of

3774-645: The 1930s, the neighborhood was hit hard by job losses in the Great Depression . In the early 1930s, 25% of Harlemites were out of work, and employment prospects for Harlemites stayed poor for decades. Employment among black New Yorkers fell as some traditionally black businesses, including domestic service and some types of manual labor, were taken over by other ethnic groups. Major industries left New York City altogether, especially after 1950. Several riots happened in this period, including in 1935 and 1943 . There were major changes following World War II . In

3876-484: The 1960s, uneducated black people could find jobs more easily than educated ones could, confounding efforts to improve the lives of people who lived in the neighborhood through education. Land owners took advantage of the neighborhood and offered apartments to the lower-class families for cheaper rent but in lower-class conditions. By 1999 there were 179,000 housing units available in Harlem. Housing activists in Harlem state that, even after residents were given vouchers for

3978-554: The 21st century, crime rates decreased significantly, and Harlem started to gentrify . The area is served by the New York City Subway and local bus routes. It contains several public elementary, middle, and high schools, and is close to several colleges, including Columbia University , Manhattan School of Music , and the City College of New York . Central Harlem is part of Manhattan Community District 10 . It

4080-765: The Black population's decrease by 11% (9,544). While the growth of the Hispanic / Latino was predominantly in Central Harlem North, the decrease in the Black population was slightly greater in Central Harlem South, and the drastic increase in the White population was split evenly across the two census tabulation areas. Meanwhile, the Asian population grew by 211% (1,927) but remained a small minority, and

4182-545: The Comintern and its Soviet leaders, who believed all communist and Marxist–Leninist organizations should be unified in a single communist party and platform in each nation under Moscow's overall direction and control. In the early 1920s the African Blood Brotherhood was dissolved, with its members merged into the Workers Party of America and later into the American Negro Labor Congress . Many early ABB members, however, went on to be key CP cadres for decades. The ABB had

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4284-579: The Communist Party's representative to the Executive Committee of the Communist International in 1922 and was a leading black Comintern functionary during the decade of the 1920s. Otto E. Huiswoud was born October 28, 1893, in Paramaribo , a South American coastal city in what was then the Dutch colony of Surinam and is today the capital of the independent country of Suriname . He was

4386-554: The Crusader News Service, providing news material to affiliated publications of the American black press. As cooperation with the Communist Party increased, the ABB ceased to recruit separately. The leadership of the Communist International , while largely ignorant about the particulars of the situation of blacks in the United States, did understand the importance of ethnic and other non-class forms of oppression, and pushed

4488-559: The Harlem River on the north. A chain of large linear parks includes Morningside Park, St. Nicholas Park , Jackie Robinson Park , as well as Marcus Garvey Park (also known as Mount Morris Park) which separates this area from East Harlem to the east. Central Harlem includes the Mount Morris Park Historic District . West Harlem ( Manhattanville , Hamilton Heights , and Sugar Hill ) comprises Manhattan Community district 9. The three neighborhoods' area

4590-463: The Midwest-based faction of William Z. Foster , James P. Cannon , and Alexander Bittelman . With the New York group in control of the party apparatus for most of this period, Huiswoud remained one of the organization's top-ranking black leaders. In March 1929, Huiswoud was elected as a delegate to the 6th National Convention of the Communist Party, held in New York City. He was at that time

4692-487: The National Organizing Secretary of the group until the termination of the organization. In February 1924, Huiswood attended the so-called " Negro Sanhedrin ," a national anti-racism conference, as one of two official delegates of the African Blood Brotherhood. The two ABB delegates were joined by five others representing the Workers Party of America . In June 1924, Huiswoud was a delegate to

4794-754: The Prohibition era, and was dubbed "Jungle Alley" because of "inter-racial mingling" on the street. Some jazz venues, including the Cotton Club , where Duke Ellington played, and Connie's Inn , were restricted to whites only. Others were integrated, including the Renaissance Ballroom and the Savoy Ballroom. In 1936, Orson Welles produced his black Macbeth at the Lafayette Theater in Harlem. Grand theaters from

4896-576: The Rand School and his participation in the 21st Assembly Branch of the SPA, located in Harlem , Huiswoud made the acquaintance of a number of influential figures in the history of American radicalism, including Japanese expatriate Sen Katayama —later a high-ranking functionary in the Communist International —trade unionist and newspaper editor A. Philip Randolph and his associate Chandler Owen , Richard B. Moore , Lovett Fort-Whiteman , Frank Crosswaith , and Edward Welsh . Huiswoud found himself

4998-477: The South to northern cities, including New York. Within the city, this era also witnessed an influx of black residents from downtown Manhattan neighborhoods, where black people were feeling less welcome, to the Harlem area. The black population in Harlem peaked in 1950, with a 98% share of the population of 233,000. As of 2000, central Harlem's black residents comprised 77% of the total population of that area; however,

5100-659: The St. Paul Convention of the Farmer-Labor Party , an attempt by the Workers Party of America to create and harness a mass political organization including the organized labor movement and disaffected farmers. At this gathering Huiswoud proposed a resolution calling for full social equality for American blacks and an end to lynching . A white Texas farmer rose to oppose Huiswoud's proposal, declaring that American blacks did not truly desire social equality with caucasians, only material benefits. Huiswoud responded by taking to

5202-531: The Workers Party. In 1933, The Negro Worker was headquartered in Hamburg. After the nazi party came to power, Huiswoud moved to Copenhagen, Paris, the Netherlands and back to Paris. In 1941, he arrived in Suriname. On January 31, 1941, Huiswoud was interned at Copieweg internment camp by Governor Johannes Kielstra as a communist propagandist. He was released on September 25, 1942, due to poor health and

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5304-508: The ages of 0–17, while 35% are between 25 and 44, and 24% between 45 and 64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 10% and 11% respectively. As of 2017, the median household income in Community District 10 was $ 49,059. In 2018, an estimated 21% of Community District 10 residents lived in poverty, compared to 14% in all of Manhattan and 20% in all of New York City. Around 12% of residents were unemployed, compared to 7% in Manhattan and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or

5406-432: The black population has recently declined as many African Americans move out and more immigrants move in. As of 2021, central Harlem's Black residents numbered 56,668, comprising 44% of the total population. In that regard, there are an estimated 27% (34,773) Hispanics, 18% (23,182) White, 4% (5,151) Asian, 6% (7,727) of two or more races and 2% (2,575) Other. Harlem suffers from unemployment rates generally more than twice

5508-419: The citywide average, as well as high poverty rates. and the numbers for men have been consistently worse than the numbers for women. Private and governmental initiatives to ameliorate unemployment and poverty have not been successful. During the Great Depression , unemployment in Harlem went past 20% and people were being evicted from their homes. At the same time, the federal government developed and instituted

5610-406: The color blindness that the Communists had inherited from the Socialist Party. McKay argued vociferously for national self-determination in support of national independence for oppressed peoples, which to him meant an independent African-American government separate and apart from that of the United States. Subsequently, in the aftermath of the Sixth Comintern Congress in 1928, the CPUSA adopted

5712-404: The community has also hosted numerous actors and theater companies, including the New Heritage Repertory Theater, National Black Theater, Lafayette Players, Harlem Suitcase Theater, The Negro Playwrights, American Negro Theater , and the Rose McClendon Players. The Apollo Theater opened on 125th Street on January 26, 1934, in a former burlesque house . The Savoy Ballroom , on Lenox Avenue ,

5814-408: The construction of new projects. From the mid-20th century, the low quality of education in Harlem has been a source of distress. In the 1960s, about 75% of Harlem students tested under grade levels in reading skills, and 80% tested under grade level in math. In 1964, residents of Harlem staged two school boycotts to call attention to the problem. In central Harlem, 92% of students stayed home. In

5916-423: The current population health disparities between Central Harlem and other New York City neighborhoods. For census purposes, the New York City government classifies Central Harlem into two neighborhood tabulation areas: Central Harlem North and Central Harlem South, divided by 126th street. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census , the population of Central Harlem was 118,665, a change of 9,574 (8.1%) from

6018-422: The directing center for an organization called the International Trade Union Committee of Negro Workers (ITUCNW), established in Hamburg , Germany, in July 1930. Headed by Trinidadian George Padmore , Huiswoud was named the editor of the ITUCNW's monthly publication, The Negro Worker. Completing the core cadres of this Comintern initiative was the American-born James W. Ford, former vice presidential nominee of

6120-438: The early CP to pay more attention to blacks in the U.S. Before this intervention by the Comintern, the party had largely ignored blacks, and thus was not particularly attractive to black radicals like Briggs. Instead, it was the Bolshevik Revolution that attracted their attention. Poet and ABB member Claude McKay had previously been active in the Left Communist Workers Socialist Federation in London and subsequently visited

6222-407: The educational system of the day conducted in the Dutch language and compulsory for children aged 7 to 12. Otto remained in school for five years, gaining exposure during this time not only to Dutch, but also the French and German languages. During his school years Huiswoud participated in the Roman Catholic Church on Sundays as an altar boy . After school he worked as an apprentice to

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6324-416: The factionalism which had plagued the American party throughout the decade of its existence by removing opposing factional leaders Lovestone and Alexander Bittelman and sending them to work in other communist parties abroad. Lovestone refused to accept this decision and returned home without authorization, resulting in his expulsion from the Communist Party and his eventual formation of a rival organization,

6426-426: The fewest opportunities for success. Though the federal government's Model Cities Program spent $ 100 million on job training, health care, education, public safety, sanitation, housing, and other projects over a ten-year period, Harlem showed no improvement. The city began auctioning its enormous portfolio of Harlem properties to the public in 1985. This was intended to improve the community by placing property in

6528-401: The first black member of the American Communist Party. Through his connection to the radical black political leaders of Harlem, Huiswoud eventually made his way to membership in the African Blood Brotherhood , a secret society established by Cyril Briggs to promote black liberation and self-defense against the Red Summer of 1919 . Although an active participant in the organization, Huiswoud

6630-614: The floor to denounce the farmer, an action that threatened the fragile alliance that the communists were attempting to build and which was regarded as a serious breach of discipline. The affair ended with Huiswoud being quietly suspended from the Workers Party for one year. In October 1925, the Workers Party launched a new organization directed at American blacks to replace the by now defunct African Blood Brotherhood. The party's best-regarded black activists, including Huiswoud, James W. Ford , Harry Haywood , Cyril Briggs, Richard B. Moore were put to work as functionaries of this new group, called

6732-408: The government began manipulating radical organizations in conjunction with legal prosecution under the pretence of disrupting opposition to World War I . Following the end of the war, a government campaign against communists, anarchists, and other radicals was instituted at the direction of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer (himself the victim of two anarchist bomb attacks) in what came to be called

6834-406: The hands of people who would live in them and maintain them. In many cases, the city would even pay to completely renovate a property before selling it (by lottery) below market value. After the 1990s, Harlem began to grow again. Between 1990 and 2006 the neighborhood's population grew by 16.9%, with the percentage of black people decreasing from 87.6% to 69.3%, then dropping to 54.4% by 2010, and

6936-438: The late 1950s and early 1960s, Harlem was the scene of a series of rent strikes by neighborhood tenants, led by local activist Jesse Gray , together with the Congress of Racial Equality , Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited (HARYOU), and other groups. These groups wanted the city to force landlords to improve the quality of housing by bringing them up to code, to take action against rats and roaches , to provide heat during

7038-414: The late 19th and early 20th centuries were torn down or converted to churches. Harlem lacked any permanent performance space until the creation of the Gatehouse Theater in an old Croton aqueduct building on 135th Street in 2006. From 1965 until 2007, the community was home to the Harlem Boys Choir , a touring choir and education program for young boys, most of whom are black. The Girls Choir of Harlem

7140-469: The late 19th century, while African-American residents began to arrive in large numbers during the Great Migration in the early 20th century. In the 1920s and 1930s, Central and West Harlem were the center of the Harlem Renaissance , a major African-American cultural movement. With job losses during the Great Depression of the 1930s and the deindustrialization of New York City after World War II , rates of crime and poverty increased significantly. In

7242-502: The leadership of Peter Stuyvesant . During the American Revolution , the British burned Harlem to the ground. It took a long time to rebuild, as Harlem grew more slowly than the rest of Manhattan during the late 18th century. After the American Civil War , Harlem experienced an economic boom starting in 1868. The neighborhood continued to serve as a refuge for New Yorkers, but increasingly those coming north were poor and Jewish or Italian. The New York and Harlem Railroad , as well as

7344-513: The magazine sought to convert the UNIA's membership to the ABB. In seeking to replace the UNIA, the ABB competed with Randolph's socialist publication The Messenger , which had called for Garvey's expulsion from the United States. In return, Garvey called for his followers to disrupt meetings of these oppositional groups. In addition to the dispute with Garvey, Briggs and the ABB were targeted for investigation by police and federal law enforcement agencies. Historian Theodore Kornweibel reports that

7446-546: The moderating influence of Eddy Bruma and Jules Sedney . During Huiswoud's tenure they started to demand a dominion status for Suriname. Otto Huiswoud died February 20, 1961, in Amsterdam . He was 67 years old at the time of his death. Huiswoud's papers, archived under the name of his wife, Hermina "Hermie" Dumont Huiswoud, reside at the Tamiment Library at New York University in two archival boxes. Use of

7548-652: The party's highest ranking black member, sitting on the governing Central Executive Committee and the Political Committee ("Polcom") which guided the party's day-to-day operations. Huiswoud additionally served as the Director of the Negro Department of the Communist Party at this time. Following the 6th Convention, Huiswoud was chosen as one of ten delegates to travel to Moscow in support of National Secretary Jay Lovestone and his policies, which

7650-560: The percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 48% in Community District 10, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 45% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, as of 2018 , Community District 10 is considered to be gentrifying : according to the Community Health Profile, the district was low-income in 1990 and has seen above-median rent growth up to 2010. In 2010,

7752-512: The percentage of whites increasing from 1.5% to 6.6% by 2006, and to "almost 10%" by 2010. A renovation of 125th Street and new properties along the thoroughfare also helped to revitalize Harlem. In the 1920s and 1930s, Central and West Harlem was the focus of the " Harlem Renaissance ", an outpouring of artistic work without precedent in the American Black community. Though Harlem musicians and writers are particularly well remembered,

7854-739: The population of West Harlem was 110,193. West Harlem, consisting of Manhattanville and Hamilton Heights , is predominately Hispanic / Latino, while African Americans make up about a quarter of the West Harlem population. In 2010, the population of East Harlem was 120,000. East Harlem originally formed as a predominantly Italian American neighborhood. The area began its transition from Italian Harlem to Spanish Harlem when Puerto Rican migration began after World War II, though in recent decades, many Dominican , Mexican and Salvadoran immigrants have also settled in East Harlem. East Harlem

7956-428: The population. Harlem's Black population was more concentrated in Central Harlem North, and its White population more concentrated in Central Harlem South, while the Hispanic / Latino population was evenly split. The most significant shifts in the racial composition of Central Harlem between 2000 and 2010 were the White population's increase by 402% (9,067), the Hispanic / Latino population's increase by 43% (7,982), and

8058-402: The position of an oppressed racial minority in America. As products of the unequal system of colonialism , many of these newcomers to America were predisposed to hostility towards capitalism and the notion of empire-building . One of these transplants from the Caribbean was Cyril Briggs , born in 1888 on the island of Nevis , who immigrated to Harlem in the summer of 1905. In 1912, Briggs

8160-412: The post-World War II era, Harlem ceased to be home to a majority of the city's black people, but it remained the cultural and political capital of black New York, and possibly black America. By the 1970s, many of those Harlemites who were able to escape from poverty left the neighborhood in search of better schools and homes, and safer streets. Those who remained were the poorest and least skilled, with

8262-706: The practice of rebranding historically recognized neighborhoods illegal. Politically, central Harlem is in New York's 13th congressional district . It is in the New York State Senate 's 30th district, the New York State Assembly 's 68th and 70th districts, and the New York City Council 's 7th, 8th, and 9th districts. Before the arrival of European settlers, the area that would become Harlem (originally Haarlem)

8364-424: The small population of all other races increased by 4% (142). The entirety of Community District 10, which comprises Central Harlem, had 116,345 inhabitants as of NYC Health 's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 76.2 years. This is lower than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are children and middle-aged adults: 21% are between

8466-422: The so-called "Negro Question" as well as four resolutions, all of which Huiswoud presented on the floor of the Congress. Owing to his presence in Moscow, in the first week of December 1922 Huiswoud briefly served as the Communist Party's representative to the Communist International when their regularly elected "CI Rep," L. E. Katterfeld , who was out on bail regarding a political case started against him in 1920,

8568-466: The son of Rudolf Huiswoud, a former slave who had gained his freedom as a boy of 11 and who learned the skills of a tailor , working at the trade until his death in 1920. His mother, Jacqueline Bernard Huiswoud, originally hailed from the island of Curaçao . Otto was the fifth child and the second son in a family of eight siblings. As a boy Otto was educated in Roman Catholic schools, with

8670-1211: The style of SoHo or NoHo ) in an attempt to accelerate gentrification of the neighborhoods. "SoHa", applied to the area between West 110th and 125th Streets, has become a controversial name. Residents and other critics seeking to prevent this renaming of the area have labelled the SoHa brand as "insulting and another sign of gentrification run amok" and have said that "the rebranding not only places their neighborhood's rich history under erasure but also appears to be intent on attracting new tenants, including students from nearby Columbia University". Multiple New York City politicians have initiated legislative efforts to curtail this practice of neighborhood rebranding, which when successfully introduced in other New York City neighborhoods, have led to increases in rents and real estate values, as well as "shifting demographics". In 2011, U.S. Representative Hakeem Jeffries attempted but failed to implement legislation "that would punish real estate agents for inventing false neighborhoods and redrawing neighborhood boundaries without city approval." By 2017, New York State Senator Brian Benjamin also worked to render

8772-544: The superiority of the black race. He contributed financially to the publication, which was essentially a vehicle for his views. In February 1919, Briggs began to change his ideas, and his new thinking was expressed in articles in the Crusader. He began to draw parallels between the plight of black workers in the United States and impoverished working class whites, who were mostly recent immigrants or their descendants from Europe . Over ensuing months, Briggs began to consider

8874-493: The system of capitalism as the villain, and he argued in favor of a common cause and common action by workers of all races. The Crusader eventually reached a total readership of 36,000 persons, mostly in Harlem. The summer of 1919 in America was a time of racial rioting and violence, remembered retrospectively by historians as the " Red Summer ." Returning soldiers from European battlefields, including blacks with heightened expectations of freedom and equality and whites seeking

8976-424: The underlying cause of oppression of poor people of all races. While endorsing a Marxist analysis, The Crusader advocated a separate organization of African-Americans to defend against racist attacks in the United States, and likened this to Africans' combating colonialism abroad. In September 1919, The Crusader announced the formation of a new organization called the African Blood Brotherhood (ABB), to serve as

9078-470: The winter, and to keep prices in line with existing rent control regulations. The largest public works projects in Harlem in these years were public housing, with the largest concentration built in East Harlem. Typically, existing structures were torn down and replaced with city-designed and managed properties that would, in theory, present a safer and more pleasant environment than those available from private landlords. Ultimately, community objections halted

9180-473: The words and phrases from the dictionary. He released several editions until 1944, the last being The New Cab Calloway's Hepsters Dictionary: Language of Jive . Poet Lemn Sissay observed that "Cab Calloway was taking ownership of language for a people who, just a few generations before, had their own languages taken away." Religious life has historically had a strong presence in Black Harlem. The area

9282-537: Was a renowned venue for swing dancing, and was immortalized in a popular song of the era, " Stompin' at the Savoy ". In the 1920s and 1930s, between Lenox and Seventh Avenues in central Harlem, over 125 entertainment venues were in operation, including speakeasies , cellars, lounges, cafes, taverns, supper clubs, rib joints, theaters, dance halls, and bars and grills. 133rd Street , known as "Swing Street", became known for its cabarets, speakeasies and jazz scene during

9384-840: Was docked in New York. He settled in Brooklyn , where he made ends meet by working at various jobs as a printer, cook, and janitor. In New York, Huiswoud was exposed to soapbox speakers in Union Square , where he was introduced to socialist arguments and literature for the first time. By 1916, he had become a member of the Socialist Party of America (SPA), participating actively in the Young People's Socialist League at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York , where he studied agriculture . Huiswoud would later also become

9486-501: Was forced to rush home to the United States to appear in court. Huiswoud returned to America in 1923, entering the country on March 1 legally as a passenger on a ship called the Ryndam and being entered on the books as a permanent resident of the United States. Huiswoud was set to work as a functionary in the African Blood Brotherhood, by then a mass organization of the Communist Party targeted towards black workers. Huiswoud served as

9588-626: Was founded in 1989, and closed with the Boys Choir. From 1967 to 1969, the Harlem Cultural Festival took place in Mount Morris Park . Another name for this festival is "Black Woodstock". Artists like Stevie Wonder , The 5th Dimension , and Gladys Knight performed here. Harlem is also home to the largest African American Day Parade , which celebrates the culture of African diaspora in America. The parade

9690-789: Was founded in 2021 to celebrate cuisine, community, and culture. It is one of the largest night markets in Manhattan . The main attractions include musical performances, arts and crafts shows, and food. Many R&B/Soul groups and artists formed in Harlem. The Main Ingredient , Frankie Lymon & The Teenagers , Black Ivory , Cameo , Keith Sweat , Freddie Jackson , Alyson Williams , Johnny Kemp , Teddy Riley , Dave Wooley , and others got their start in Harlem. Manhattan's contributions to hip-hop stems largely from artists with Harlem roots such as Doug E. Fresh , Big L , Kurtis Blow , The Diplomats , Mase or Immortal Technique . Harlem

9792-573: Was heavily influenced by ragtime . This style played a very important role in early jazz piano In 1938, jazz bandleader and singer Cab Calloway published the first dictionary by an African-American, Cab Calloway's Cat-ologue: A "Hepster's" Dictionary , which became the official jive language reference book of the New York Public Library . In 1939, Calloway published an accompanying book titled Professor Cab Calloway's Swingformation Bureau , which instructed readers how to apply

9894-602: Was hired as a journalist by one of the black community's leading newspapers, the New York Amsterdam News . He worked there throughout the years of the First World War . Inspired by the rhetoric of "national self-determination " espoused by President Woodrow Wilson , in September 1918 Briggs launched a monthly publication called The Crusader , to promote the idea of "repatriation" of blacks to

9996-470: Was inhabited by a Native American band , the Wecquaesgeek , dubbed Manhattans or Manhattoe by Dutch settlers, who along with other Native Americans, most likely Lenape , occupied the area on a semi-nomadic basis. As many as several hundred farmed the Harlem flatlands. Between 1637 and 1639, a few settlements were established. The settlement of Harlem was formally incorporated in 1660 under

10098-494: Was not among the group's founders, Cyril Briggs himself later recalled. In the summer of 1922, Huiswoud was chosen as the candidate of the Workers Party of America—the new "legal" political arm of what was then the underground Communist Party – as its candidate for the New York State Legislature in its 22nd Assembly District. Huiswoud was an official delegate of the Workers Party of America to

10200-494: Was not considered dangerous. In 1947, he moved to the Netherlands and worked for PTT  [ nl ] , the Dutch telephone company. He was an active member of Vereniging Ons Suriname  [ nl ] , an organisation to promote the interests of Surinamese people living in the Netherlands. In 1954, he became the chairperson of Vereniging Ons Suriname . The organisation was politically socialist, but less radical due to

10302-551: Was started up in the spring of 1969 with Congressman Adam Clayton Powell Jr. as the Grand Marshal of the first celebration. Arthur Mitchell , a former dancer with the New York City Ballet , established Dance Theatre of Harlem as a school and company of classical ballet and theater training in the late 1960s. The company has toured nationally and internationally. Generations of theater artists have gotten

10404-543: Was under review by a special American Commission established by the Presidium of the executive committee of the Communist International. Although the delegates presented a united front arguing for a continuation of the Lovestone leadership, the powerful American Commission, which included such top Soviet leaders as Joseph Stalin , Vyacheslav Molotov , and Otto Kuusinen , ultimately decided to take decisive action against

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