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145-490: Against Method contains many verbatim excerpts from Feyerabend's earlier papers including "Explanation, Reduction, and Empiricism", "How to be a Good Empiricist: A Plea for Tolerance in Matters Epistemological", and "Problems of Empiricism, Part I." Because of this, Feyerabend claims that "[Against Method] is not a book, it is a collage ." Later editions of Against Method included passages from Science in

290-415: A consensus to emerge since the different parties may be unable to agree even on what the evidence is. When understood in the widest sense, it is not controversial that some form of theory-ladenness exists. But it is questionable whether it constitutes a serious threat to scientific evidence when understood in this sense. Philosophers in the 20th century started to investigate the "evidential relation",

435-405: A criminal act. The focus of criminal evidence is to connect physical evidence and reports of witnesses to a specific person. The path that physical evidence takes from the scene of a crime or the arrest of a suspect to the courtroom is called the chain of custody . In a criminal case, this path must be clearly documented or attested to by those who handled the evidence. If the chain of evidence

580-418: A "point of attack" in scientific practice. This is because the two contexts are not separated in different phases of scientific research, but are always comingled. Discounting evidence, for example, is often necessary for discovery is disbarred for the sake of justification. Justifying scientific theories has implications for what research is conducted and, therefore, questions about what is justified also affects

725-1020: A Free Society . Feyerabend began writing Against Method in 1968 and it was originally released as a long paper in the Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science series in 1970. At the behest of Lakatos , who originally planned to write For Method in contrast to Against Method but then died, the paper was expanded into a book published in 1975. Lakatos originally encouraged Feyerabend to publish with Cambridge University Press because they would be less concerned with their reputation than smaller presses, but Feyerabend chose to publish with Verso Books (then called New Left Books). Feyerabend came to regret this decision because of their editorial choices. Three more editions were released, in 1988, 1993, and posthumously in 2010. Significant changes were made including removing or adding chapters and appendices with new, updated introductions. Against Method

870-415: A Free Society . He was extremely frustrated by the quality of the reviews of Against Method , leading him to accuse them of illiteracy and a lack of competence. In his autobiography , he writes that he sometimes wishes that "he had never written that fucking book." This response led to Feyerabend's gradual removal from the academic community which also corresponded to changes of research topics in his work in

1015-422: A break his new theory is from then common sense. Herbert Feigl criticizes Feyerabend's earlier work, including the paper edition of Against Method , for conflating the distinction between the context of discovery and the context of justification. According to this distinction, formulated by Hans Reichenbach and Karl Popper , there is no logic about how scientists develop scientific theories but there should be

1160-437: A canvas (if there is painting involved), or on a wooden board. Such framed, picture-like, wood- relief collages offer the artist an opportunity to explore the qualities of depth, natural color, and textural variety inherent in the material, while drawing on and taking advantage of the language, conventions, and historical resonances that arise from the tradition of creating pictures to hang on walls. The technique of wood collage

1305-403: A case. The decision-maker, often a jury, but sometimes a judge decides whether the burden of proof has been fulfilled. After deciding who will carry the burden of proof, the evidence is first gathered and then presented before the court: In a criminal investigation, rather than attempting to prove an abstract or hypothetical point, the evidence gatherers attempt to determine who is responsible for

1450-534: A collage created by using computer tools. Though Le Corbusier and other architects used techniques that are akin to collage, collage as a theoretical concept only became widely discussed after the publication of Collage City (1978) by Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter. Rowe and Koetter were not, however, championing collage in the pictorial sense, much less seeking the types of disruptions of meaning that occur with collage. Instead, they were looking to challenge

1595-491: A kind of semiotic collision. A truncated wooden chair or staircase newel used in a Nevelson work can also be considered a potential element of collage in the same sense: it had some original, culturally determined context. Unaltered, natural wood, such as one might find on a forest floor, arguably has no such context; therefore, the characteristic contextual disruptions associated with the collage idea, as it originated with Braque and Picasso, cannot really take place. ( Driftwood

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1740-483: A layering of ideas or images. Collage is utilized in fashion design in the sketching process, as part of mixed media illustrations, where drawings together with diverse materials such as paper, photographs, yarns or fabric bring ideas into designs. Collage film is traditionally defined as, “A film that juxtaposes fictional scenes with footage taken from disparate sources, such as newsreels.” Combining different types of footage can have various implications depending on

1885-464: A logic of confirming or disconfirming scientific theories. Once this distinction is accepted, then Feyerabend's claim that 'anything goes' would be a truism and would not run against logical empiricism . Feyerabend's response in Against Method is to reject the validity of the discovery/justification distinction. He argues that while the distinction can be maintained abstractly, it does not find

2030-546: A modicum of intellectual, stylistic, emotional temperament tell us about our 'condition' and the means of improving it." He distinguishes between a general education, which is focused on the development of free individuals, and professionalization where one learns the ideology of a specific trade. In a general education, pupils are introduced to many intellectual and cultural traditions which they then engage with critically to make free choices about how they want to live their lives. Professionalization, by contrast, introduces pupils to

2175-593: A new form of scientific rationality. The historical argument provides examples of scientists profitably violating rules. Against Method contains dozens of case studies, though the majority of them are relegated to footnotes or passing remarks. The primary case study in Against Method is Galileo's hypothesis that the earth rotates on its axis . Scholars have disputed the precise meaning of epistemological anarchism. John Preston claims that 'anything goes' signals Feyerabend's abandonment of normative philosophy. In other words, while Feyerabend defended pluralism in his works in

2320-496: A new perspective on painting when the patches "collided with the surface plane of the painting". In this perspective, collage was part of a methodical reexamination of the relation between painting and sculpture, and these new works "gave each medium some of the characteristics of the other", according to the Guggenheim essay. Furthermore, these chopped-up bits of newspaper introduced fragments of externally referenced meaning into

2465-405: A number of other photographs. The composite picture was sometimes photographed so that the final image is converted back into a seamless photographic print. The same method is accomplished today using image-editing software. The technique is referred to by professionals as compositing . Just what is it that makes today's homes so different, so appealing? was created in 1956 for the catalogue of

2610-492: A perceived failure to fulfill the burden of proof. Two principal considerations are: The latter question depends on the nature of the point under contention and determines the quantity and quality of evidence required to meet the burden of proof. In a criminal trial in the United States, for example, the prosecution carries the burden of proof since the defendant is presumed innocent until proven guilty beyond

2755-453: A philosophical debate , there is an implicit burden of proof on the party asserting a claim, since the default position is generally one of neutrality or unbelief. Each party in a debate will therefore carry the burden of proof for any assertion they make in the argument, although some assertions may be granted by the other party without further evidence. If the debate is set up as a resolution to be supported by one side and refuted by another,

2900-412: A piece of paper or canvas. The origins of collage can be traced back hundreds of years, but this technique made a dramatic reappearance in the early 20th century as an art form of novelty. The term Papier collé was coined by both Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso in the beginning of the 20th century when collage became a distinctive part of modern art . Techniques of collage were first used at

3045-447: A pre-existing hypothesis. Logical positivists , on the other hand, held that this priority is semantic in nature, i.e. that the meanings of the theoretical terms used in the hypothesis are determined by what would count as evidence for them. Counterexamples for this view come from the fact that our idea of what counts as evidence may change while the meanings of the corresponding theoretical terms remain constant. The most plausible view

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3190-399: A promissory note that locomotion will eventually explain everything Aristotle's theory was able to explain. Feyerabend does not just argue that Galileo and his followers acted "irrationally" from the perspective of inductivism and falsificationism, but that it was reasonable that they did so. This is because Galileo's conjecture was able to reveal the natural interpretations that followed from

3335-530: A proposition is evidence for a hypothesis if it entails the "development of the hypothesis". Intuitively, the development of the hypothesis is what the hypothesis states if it was restricted to only the individuals mentioned in the evidence. In the case above, we have the hypothesis " ∀ x ( s w a n ( x ) → w h i t e ( x ) ) {\displaystyle \forall x(swan(x)\rightarrow white(x))} " (all swans are white) which, when restricted to

3480-403: A radical generalization of his earlier arguments for pluralism. Feyerabend contends that for every methodological rule, there is a 'counter rule' – namely, a methodological rule that recommends the opposite of its counter – which also has value. As an example of this general hypothesis, Feyerabend defends 'counterinduction' as the counter rule to inductivism and " induction by falsification " as

3625-408: A reasonable doubt . Similarly, in most civil procedures , the plaintiff carries the burden of proof and must convince a judge or jury that the preponderance of the evidence is on their side. Other legal standards of proof include "reasonable suspicion", "probable cause" (as for arrest ), " prima facie evidence", "credible evidence", "substantial evidence", and "clear and convincing evidence". In

3770-430: A rectangular plane to be viewed from the front, Sky Cathedral has the pictorial quality of a painting..." Yet such pieces also present themselves as massive walls or monoliths, which can sometimes be viewed from either side, or even looked through . Much wood collage art is considerably smaller in scale, framed and hung as a painting would be. It usually features pieces of wood, wood shavings, or scraps, assembled on

3915-435: A simpler formula would appear more evident to them. Riofrio has detected some characteristics that are present in evident arguments and proofs. The more they are evident, the more these characteristics will be present. There are six intrinsic characteristics of evidence: In addition, four subjective or external characteristics can be detected over those things that are more or less evident: These ten characteristics of what

4060-416: A single methodological rule upon scientific practices. Rather, 'anything goes', meaning that scientists should be free to pursue whatever research seems interesting to them. The primary target of Against Method is 'rationalism', or the view that there are rational rules that should guide scientific practices. The German title of Against Method , Wider den Methodenzwang translates more directly to "Against

4205-452: A single tradition and often involves teaching this tradition as epistemically superior to its rivals. Feyerabend claims that increasing pushes for professionalization were coming at the expense of a general education. Feyerabend criticizes this on ethical grounds, as it reduces students to intellectual slaves, and on the grounds that a general education is more conductive to the development of knowledge. The immediate reaction to Against Method

4350-551: A strawman. One positive review came from Arne Naess , who had sympathies for epistemological anarchism. Despite this, Against Method has remained one of the classic texts of 20th century philosophy of science and has been influential on subsequent philosophers of science (especially the Stanford School ). Feyerabend responded to these criticisms in several follow-up publications, many of which he collected in Science in

4495-428: A surreal aspect to an otherwise realistic film. When collage uses existing works, the result is what some copyright scholars call a derivative work . The collage thus has a copyright separate from any copyrights pertaining to the original incorporated works. Due to redefined and reinterpreted copyright laws, and increased financial interests, some forms of collage art are significantly restricted. For example, in

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4640-460: A symptom of the truth of the hypothesis. Against this approach, it has been argued that it is too liberal because it allows accidental generalizations as evidence. Finding a nickel in one's pocket, for example, raises the probability of the hypothesis that "All the coins in my pockets are nickels". But, according to Alvin Goldman , it should not be considered evidence for this hypothesis since there

4785-453: A theory has been accepted for a long period of time, it becomes habit to describe events or processes using certain concepts. Because, Feyerabend argues, observation underdetermines the ways we describe what we observe, theories that redescribe experience in new ways force us to make comparisons between old natural interpretations and new ones. This is the first step to evaluating the plausibility of either and so counterinduction aids in providing

4930-470: A thorough critical assessment of our acceptance of particular theories. The primary case study in Against Method is Galileo 's hypothesis that the earth rotates on its axis . According to Feyerabend's reconstruction, Galileo did not justify this hypothesis by reference to known facts nor did he offer an unfalsified conjecture that had more empirical content than its predecessor. Rather, Galileo's hypothesis would rationally have been considered to be false by

5075-468: A tower lands directly beneath it shows that the earth is stationary. They thought that, if the earth moved while the stone was falling, the stone would have been "left behind." Objects would fall in a parabola instead of vertically. Since this does not happen, Aristotelians thought the earth did not move. Galileo's hypothesis reveals that this assumes that all motion is "operative" (i.e., noticeable in perception). Galileo denies this assumption and argues that

5220-642: A valuable methodological rule. Counterinduction involves developing theories that are inconsistent with currently accepted empirical evidence , which is the opposite of the (then) commonly accepted rule that theories should be developed that are consistent with known facts. Feyerabend argues for counterinduction by showing that theories that conflict with known facts are useful for revealing 'natural interpretations' which must be made explicit so that they can be examined. Natural interpretations are interpretations of experience, expressed in language, that follow automatically and unconsciously from describing observations. After

5365-490: A what he called "literature of sound." In 2000, The Avalanches released Since I Left You , a musical collage consisting of approximately 3,500 musical sources (i.e., samples). Collage is commonly used as a technique in children's picture book illustration . Eric Carle is a prominent example, using vividly colored hand-textured papers cut to shape and layered together, sometimes embellished with crayon or other marks. See image at The Very Hungry Caterpillar . Collage

5510-504: A while. Another member of that group was Bernhard Hoesli , a Swiss architect who went on to become an important educator at the ETH -Zurich. Whereas for Rowe, collage was more a metaphor than an actual practice, Hoesli actively made collages as part of his design process. He was close to Robert Slutzky, a New York-based artist, and frequently introduced the question of collage and disruption in his studio work. The concept of collage has crossed

5655-473: A year 2000 interpretation. Other methods for combining pictures are also called photomontage, such as Victorian "combination printing", the printing from more than one negative on a single piece of printing paper (e.g. O. G. Rejlander , 1857), front-projection and computer montage techniques. Much as a collage is composed of multiple facets, artists also combine montage techniques. Romare Bearden ’s (1912–1988) series of black and white "photomontage projections"

5800-483: Is Matisse's Blue Nude II . There are many varieties on the traditional technique involving purpose made 'glue' requiring fewer layers (often 5 or 20, depending on the amount of paper involved). Cutouts are also applied under glass or raised to give a three-dimensional appearance according to the desire of the decouper . Currently decoupage is a popular handicraft . The craft became known as découpage in France (from

5945-421: Is a collage made by cutting an image into squares which are then reassembled automatically or at random. Collages produced using a similar, or perhaps identical, method are called etrécissements by Marcel Mariën from a method first explored by Mariën. Surrealist games such as parallel collage use collective techniques of collage making. The Sidney Janis Gallery held an early Pop Art exhibit called

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6090-448: Is accumulated through observations of phenomena that occur in the natural world, or which are created as experiments in a laboratory or other controlled conditions. Scientists tend to focus on how the data used during statistical inference are generated. Scientific evidence usually goes towards supporting or rejecting a hypothesis . The burden of proof is on the person making a contentious claim. Within science, this translates to

6235-647: Is also sometimes combined with painting and other media in a single work of art. Frequently, what is called "wood collage art" uses only natural wood - such as driftwood , or parts of found and unaltered logs, branches, sticks, or bark. This raises the question of whether such artwork is collage (in the original sense) at all (see Collage and modernism ). This is because the early, paper collages were generally made from bits of text or pictures - things originally made by people, and functioning or signifying in some cultural context. The collage brings these still-recognizable " signifiers " (or fragments of signifiers) together, in

6380-432: Is an example. His method began with compositions of paper, paint, and photographs put on boards 8½ × 11 inches. Bearden fixed the imagery with an emulsion that he then applied with hand roller. Subsequently, he enlarged the collages photographically. The 19th-century tradition of physically joining multiple images into a composite and photographing the results prevailed in press photography and offset lithography until

6525-620: Is broken, a defendant may be able to persuade the judge to declare the evidence inadmissible . Presenting evidence before the court differs from the gathering of evidence in important ways. Gathering evidence may take many forms; presenting evidence that tends to prove or disprove the point at issue is strictly governed by rules. Failure to follow these rules leads to any number of consequences. In law, certain policies allow (or require) evidence to be excluded from consideration based either on indicia relating to reliability, or broader social concerns. Testimony (which tells) and exhibits (which show) are

6670-436: Is built. This evidence-based method is meant to make it possible for philosophy to overcome many of the traditionally unresolved disagreements and thus become a rigorous science. This far-reaching claim of phenomenology, based on absolute certainty, is one of the focal points of criticism by its opponents. Thus, it has been argued that even knowledge based on self-evident intuition is fallible. This can be seen, for example, in

6815-485: Is closely related to the idea that how rational someone is, is determined by how they respond to evidence. Another intuition, which is more dominant in the philosophy of science, focuses on evidence as that which confirms scientific hypotheses and arbitrates between competing theories. On this view, it is essential that evidence is public so that different scientists can share the same evidence. This leaves publicly observable phenomena like physical objects and events as

6960-535: Is elevated to one of the basic principles of philosophy, giving philosophy the ultimate justifications that are supposed to turn it into a rigorous science. In a more modern usage, the plural form is also used. In academic discourse, evidence plays a central role in epistemology and in the philosophy of science . Reference to evidence is made in many different fields, like in science, in the legal system, in history, in journalism and in everyday discourse. A variety of different attempts have been made to conceptualize

7105-492: Is especially relevant for choosing between competing theories. So in the case above, evidence plays the role of neutral arbiter between Newton's and Einstein's theory of gravitation. This is only possible if scientific evidence is public and uncontroversial so that proponents of competing scientific theories agree on what evidence is available. These requirements suggest scientific evidence consists not of private mental states but of public physical objects or events . It

7250-741: Is evident allowed Riofrio to formulate a test of evidence to detect the level of certainty or evidence that one argument or proof could have. Important theorists of evidence include Bertrand Russell , Willard Van Orman Quine , the logical positivists , Timothy Williamson , Earl Conee and Richard Feldman. Russell, Quine and the logical positivists belong to the empiricist tradition and hold that evidence consists in sense data, stimulation of one's sensory receptors and observation statements, respectively. According to Williamson, all and only knowledge constitute evidence. Conee and Feldman hold that only one's current mental states should be considered evidence. The guiding intuition within epistemology concerning

7395-468: Is less troubled, although still ambiguous. For instance, some visual collage artists have argued that the first-sale doctrine protects their work. The first-sale doctrine prevents copyright holders from controlling consumptive uses after the "first sale" of their work, although the Ninth Circuit has held that the first-sale doctrine does not apply to derivative works . The de minimis doctrine and

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7540-578: Is limited to intuitive knowledge, often associated with the controversial assumption that it provides indubitable access to truth. In the philosophy of science , evidence is material that confirms or disconfirms scientific hypotheses , acting as a neutral arbiter between competing theories. Measurements of Mercury's "anomalous" orbit , for example, are seen as evidence that confirms Einstein 's theory of general relativity . Philosophers of science tend to understand evidence not as mental states but as observable physical objects or events, secured by following

7685-402: Is no lawful connection between this one nickel and the other coins in the pocket. Hypothetico-deductivism is a non-probabilistic approach that characterizes the evidential relations in terms of deductive consequences of the hypothesis. According to this view, "evidence for a hypothesis is a true observational consequence of that hypothesis". One problem with the characterization so far

7830-461: Is no unitary concept corresponding to the different theoretical roles ascribed to evidence, i.e. that we do not always mean the same thing when we talk of evidence. On the other hand, Aristotle, phenomenologists, and numerous scholars accept that there could be several degrees of evidence. For instance, while the outcome of a complex equation may become more or less evident to a mathematician after hours of deduction, yet with little doubts about it,

7975-425: Is of course sometimes ambiguous: while a piece of driftwood may once have been a piece of worked wood - for example, part of a ship - it may be so weathered by salt and sea that its past functional identity is nearly or completely obscured.) Decoupage is a type of collage usually defined as a craft . It is the process of placing a picture into an object for decoration . Decoupage can involve adding multiple copies of

8120-478: Is often combined with the idea that evidence, propositional or otherwise, determines what it is rational for us to believe. But it can be rational to have a false belief. This is the case when we possess misleading evidence. For example, it was rational for Neo in the Matrix movie to believe that he was living in the 20th century because of all the evidence supporting his belief despite the fact that this evidence

8265-534: Is often held as an argument against this view since sensory impressions are commonly treated as evidence. Propositionalism is sometimes combined with the view that only attitudes to true propositions can count as evidence. On this view, the belief that the corner shop sells milk only constitutes evidence for the belief that the corner shop sells dairy products if the corner shop actually sells milk. Against this position, it has been argued that evidence can be misleading but still count as evidence. This line of thought

8410-411: Is often held that evidence is in some sense prior to the hypotheses it confirms. This was sometimes understood as temporal priority , i.e. that we come first to possess the evidence and later form the hypothesis through induction. But this temporal order is not always reflected in scientific practice, where experimental researchers may look for a specific piece of evidence in order to confirm or disconfirm

8555-426: Is sometimes held that only propositional mental states can play this role, a position known as "propositionalism". A mental state is propositional if it is an attitude directed at a propositional content. Such attitudes are usually expressed by verbs like "believe" together with a that-clause, as in "Robert believes that the corner shop sells milk". Such a view denies that sensory impressions can act as evidence. This

8700-529: Is sometimes used alone or in combination with other techniques in artists' books , especially in one-off unique books rather than as reproduced images in published books. Collage novels are books with images selected from other publications and collaged together following a theme or narrative. The bible of discordianism , the Principia Discordia , is described by its author as a literary collage. A collage in literary terms may also refer to

8845-403: Is that hypotheses usually contain relatively little information and therefore have few if any deductive observational consequences. So the hypothesis by itself that there is a fire does not entail that smoke is observed. Instead, various auxiliary assumptions have to be included about the location of the smoke, the fire, the observer, the lighting conditions, the laws of chemistry, etc. In this way,

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8990-402: Is that justified belief has to be connected to or grounded in the mental state acting as its evidence. So Phoebe's belief that the speakers are on is not justified by her auditory experience if the belief is not based in this experience. This would be the case, for example, if Phoebe has both the experience and the belief but is unaware of the fact that the music is produced by the speakers. It

9135-532: Is that this priority is epistemic in nature, i.e. that our belief in a hypothesis is justified based on the evidence while the justification for the belief in the evidence does not depend on the hypothesis. A central issue for the scientific conception of evidence is the problem of underdetermination , i.e. that the evidence available supports competing theories equally well. So, for example, evidence from our everyday life about how gravity works confirms Newton's and Einstein's theory of gravitation equally well and

9280-554: Is the application, typically with glue, of separately painted canvas patches to the surface of a painting's main canvas. Well known for use of this technique is British artist John Walker in his paintings of the late 1970s, but canvas collage was already an integral part of the mixed media works of such American artists as Conrad Marca-Relli and Jane Frank by the early 1960s. The intensely self-critical Lee Krasner also frequently destroyed her own paintings by cutting them into pieces, only to create new works of art by reassembling

9425-415: Is the hypothesis rejected: this can be referred to as ' refutation of the hypothesis'. The rules for evidence used by science are collected systematically in an attempt to avoid the bias inherent to anecdotal evidence . In law, the production and presentation of evidence depend first on establishing on whom the burden of proof lies. Admissible evidence is that which a court receives and considers for

9570-420: Is therefore unable to establish consensus among scientists. But in such cases, it is often the gradual accumulation of evidence that eventually leads to an emerging consensus. This evidence-driven process towards consensus seems to be one hallmark of the sciences not shared by other fields. Another problem for the conception of evidence in terms of confirmation of hypotheses is that what some scientists consider

9715-499: Is why evidence is often associated with the controversial thesis that it constitutes an immediate access to truth. In this sense, the evidently given phenomenon guarantees its own truth and is therefore considered indubitable. Due to this special epistemological status of evidence, it is regarded in phenomenology as the basic principle of all philosophy. In this form, it represents the lowest foundation of knowledge, which consists of indubitable insights upon which all subsequent knowledge

9860-551: The This Is Tomorrow exhibition in London , England in which it was reproduced in black and white. In addition, the piece was used in posters for the exhibit. Richard Hamilton has subsequently created several works in which he reworked the subject and composition of the pop art collage, including a 1992 version featuring a female bodybuilder. Many artists have created derivative works of Hamilton's collage. P. C. Helm made

10005-819: The New Realist Exhibition in November 1962, which included works by the American artists Tom Wesselmann , Jim Dine , Robert Indiana , Roy Lichtenstein , Claes Oldenburg , James Rosenquist , George Segal , and Andy Warhol ; and Europeans such as Arman , Baj, Christo , Yves Klein , Festa, Mimmo Rotella , Jean Tinguely , and Schifano. It followed the Nouveau Réalisme exhibition at the Galerie Rive Droite in Paris , and marked

10150-476: The fair use exception also provide important defenses against claimed copyright infringement. The Second Circuit in October, 2006, held that artist Jeff Koons was not liable for copyright infringement because his incorporation of a photograph into a collage painting was fair use. Evidence Evidence for a proposition is what supports the proposition. It is usually understood as an indication that

10295-457: The mise en scène takes on a highly fantasized style, including fictitious elements like swirling tunnels of color and light. David O. Russell's I Heart Huckabees (2004) incorporates CGI effects to visually demonstrate philosophical theories explained by the existential detectives (played by Lily Tomlin and Dustin Hoffman ). In this case, the effects serve to enhance clarity, while adding

10440-468: The scientific method . The problems of underdetermination and theory-ladenness are two obstacles that threaten to undermine the role of scientific evidence. In law , evidence is information to establish or refute claims relevant to a case, such as testimony , documentary evidence , and physical evidence . The relation between evidence and a supported statement can vary in strength, ranging from weak correlation to indisputable proof . Theories of

10585-426: The 'internal' growth of knowledge and ignore the 'external' (e.g., sociological, psychological, political) features of scienfic practice. However, without knowledge of the external features of scientific practice, Feyerabend claims that we cannot know whether a theory of scientific rationality will actually succeed in practice. Feyerabend provides numerous criticisms of scientific education in his time. He claims that

10730-580: The 13th century. Gold leaf panels started to be applied in Gothic cathedrals around the 15th and 16th centuries. Gemstones and other precious metals were applied to religious images, icons , and also, to coats of arms . An 18th-century example of collage art can be found in the work of Mary Delany . In the 19th century, collage methods also were used among hobbyists for memorabilia (e.g. applied to photo albums ) and books (e.g. Hans Christian Andersen , Carl Spitzweg ). Many institutions have attributed

10875-516: The 17th century, Italy , especially in Venice , was at the forefront of trade with the Far East and it is generally thought that it is through these trade links that the cut out paper decorations made their way into Europe. Collage made from photographs, or parts of photographs, is called photomontage. Photomontage is the process (and result) of making a composite photograph by cutting and joining

11020-475: The 1950s and 60s, Against Method represents a development in Feyerabend's thought where he abandons pluralism as well as normative theorizing altogether. A more common interpretation is that 'anything goes' does not represent a positive conviction of Feyerabend's but is the conclusion of a reductio ad absurdum . 'Anything goes' is therefore not a methodological prescription but "the terrified exclamation of

11165-487: The 1970s and 1980s, the likes of Christian Marclay and the group Negativland reappropriated old audio in new ways. By the 1990s and 2000s, with the popularity of the sampler , it became apparent that " musical collages " had become the norm for popular music , especially in rap , hip-hop and electronic music . In 1996, DJ Shadow released the groundbreaking album, Endtroducing..... , made entirely of preexisting recorded material mixed together in audible collage. In

11310-636: The 1980s. Collage Collage ( / k ə ˈ l ɑː ʒ / , from the French : coller , "to glue" or "to stick together"; ) is a technique of art creation, primarily used in the visual arts , but in music too, by which art results from an assemblage of different forms, thus creating a new whole. (Compare with pastiche , which is a "pasting" together.) A collage may sometimes include magazine and newspaper clippings , ribbons , paint , bits of colored or handmade papers, portions of other artwork or texts, photographs and other found objects , glued to

11455-470: The Aristotelian worldview, Feyerabend suggests that Galileo was right to conjecture a new theory that revealed its natural interpretations. The main example of the influence of natural interpretations that Feyerabend provided was the tower argument presented as an objection to the theory of a moving earth. Aristotelians accepted the proposition that a stone, or any solid body made of earth, dropped from

11600-500: The Aristotelian worldview. Natural interpretations, defined by Feyerabend, are interpretations of phenomena which happen naturally and automatically in our perception and the ways we attach language to what we observe. After accepting a theory for a long period of time, natural interpretations become implicit and forgotten and, therefore, difficult to test. By contrasting natural interpretations with other interpretations, they are made explicit and can be tested. Therefore, to fully scrutinize

11745-540: The Aristotelian worldview. Specifically, Galileo makes it seem as if his conception of relative motion is embedded in Aristotelian common sense when it isn't (Aristotelian relative motion involves many moving bodies with dynamic effects noticeable in perception). According to Feyerabend, Galileo uses the technique of anamnēsis where he invites readers to "remember" that they already believed in relation motion in Galileo's sense. Using this method, he disguises how radical of

11890-472: The Forced Constraint of Method" emphasizing that it is the imposition of methodological rules that is rejected rather that the uses of methods altogether. Feyerabend offers two parallel arguments for this position, one conceptual and one historical. The conceptual argument aims to establish that it is always legitimate to violate established forms of scientific practice with the hopes of establishing

12035-464: The area of sound collage (such as hip hop music ), some court rulings effectively have eliminated the de minimis doctrine as a defense to copyright infringement , thus shifting collage practice away from non-permissive uses relying on fair use or de minimis protections, and toward licensing . Examples of musical collage art that have run afoul of modern copyright are The Grey Album and Negativland 's U2 . The copyright status of visual works

12180-475: The artist to "undo" errors. Yet some artists are pushing the boundaries of digital image editing to create extremely time-intensive compositions that rival the demands of the traditional arts. The current trend is to create pictures that combine painting, theatre, illustration and graphics in a seamless photographic whole. Digital collage is the technique of using computer tools in collage creation to encourage chance associations of disparate visual elements and

12325-476: The beginning of decoupage to 17th century Venice . However it was known before this time in Asia. The most likely origin of decoupage is thought to be East Siberian funerary art . Nomadic tribes would use cut out felts to decorate the tombs of their deceased. From Siberia, the practice came to China , and by the 12th century, cut out paper was being used to decorate lanterns, windows, boxes and other objects. In

12470-428: The beginnings of the practice of collage to Picasso and Braque in 1912, however, early Victorian photocollage suggest collage techniques were practiced in the early 1860s. Many institutions recognize these works as memorabilia for hobbyists, though they functioned as a facilitator of Victorian aristocratic collective portraiture, proof of female erudition, and presented a new mode of artistic representation that questioned

12615-413: The best candidates for evidence, unlike private mental states. One problem with these approaches is that the resulting definitions of evidence, both within a field and between fields, vary a lot and are incompatible with each other. For example, it is not clear what a bloody knife and a perceptual experience have in common when both are treated as evidence in different disciplines. This suggests that there

12760-500: The boundaries of visual arts. In music , with the advances on recording technology, avant-garde artists started experimenting with cutting and pasting since the middle of the twentieth century. In the 1960s, George Martin created collages of recordings while producing the records of The Beatles . In 1967 pop artist Peter Blake made the collage for the cover of the Beatles seminal album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band . In

12905-412: The burden resting on presenters of a paper, in which the presenters argue for their specific findings. This paper is placed before a panel of judges where the presenter must defend the thesis against all challenges. When evidence is contradictory to predicted expectations, the evidence and the ways of making it are often closely scrutinized (see experimenter's regress ) and only at the end of this process

13050-461: The collision: "References to current events, such as the war in the Balkans, and to popular culture enriched the content of their art." This juxtaposition of signifiers, "at once serious and tongue-in-cheek", was fundamental to the inspiration behind collage: "Emphasizing concept and process over end product, collage has brought the incongruous into meaningful congress with the ordinary." Collage in

13195-414: The concept of collage itself before Picasso, applying it to charcoal drawings. Picasso adopted collage immediately after (and could be the first to use collage in paintings, as opposed to drawings): "It was Braque who purchased a roll of simulated oak-grain wallpaper and began cutting out pieces of the paper and attaching them to his charcoal drawings. Picasso immediately began to make his own experiments in

13340-409: The conditional probability of this hypothesis relative to the evidence is higher than the unconditional probability of the hypothesis by itself. Smoke (E), for example, is evidence that there is a fire (H), because the two usually occur together, which is why the likelihood of fire given that there is smoke is higher than the likelihood of fire by itself. On this view, evidence is akin to an indicator or

13485-585: The director's approach. Collage film can also refer to the physical collaging of materials onto filmstrips. Canadian filmmaker Arthur Lipsett was especially renowned for his collage films, many of which were made from the cutting room floors of the National Film Board studios. The use of CGI , or computer-generated imagery , can be considered a form of collage, especially when animated graphics are layered over traditional film footage. At certain moments during Amélie (Jean-Pierre Juenet, 2001),

13630-399: The domain "{a}", containing only the one individual mentioned in the evidence, entails the evidence, i.e. " s w a n ( a ) ∧ w h i t e ( a ) {\displaystyle swan(a)\land white(a)} " (this swan is white). One important shortcoming of this approach is that it requires that the hypothesis and the evidence are formulated in

13775-593: The early stages of modernism. For example, the Tate Gallery 's online art glossary states that collage "was first used as an artists' technique in the twentieth century". According to the Guggenheim Museum 's online art glossary, collage is an artistic concept associated with the beginnings of modernism, and entails much more than the idea of gluing something onto something else. The glued-on patches which Braque and Picasso added to their canvases offered

13920-507: The elimination of research programs, these rules are empty because they do not forbid any kind of behavior. Therefore, Lakatos is an 'anarchist in disguise' since it provides methodological rules that do not need to be followed. Feyerabend provides a second criticism that ends with the same conclusion. According to Lakatos, his theory of scientific rationality only contains heuristics for its implementation rather than direct advice. Because of this, Lakatos' theory on its own provides no advice and

14065-455: The evidence to be may already involve various theoretical assumptions not shared by other scientists. This phenomenon is known as theory-ladenness . Some cases of theory-ladenness are relatively uncontroversial, for example, that the numbers output by a measurement device need additional assumptions about how this device works and what was measured in order to count as meaningful evidence. Other putative cases are more controversial, for example,

14210-518: The evidential relation becomes a three-place relation between evidence, hypothesis and auxiliary assumptions. This means that whether a thing is evidence for a hypothesis depends on the auxiliary assumptions one holds. This approach fits well with various scientific practices. For example, it is often the case that experimental scientists try to find evidence that would confirm or disconfirm a proposed theory. The hypothetico-deductive approach can be used to predict what should be observed in an experiment if

14355-403: The evidential relation examine the nature of this connection. Probabilistic approaches hold that something counts as evidence if it increases the probability of the supported statement. According to hypothetico-deductivism , evidence consists in observational consequences of a hypothesis. The positive-instance approach states that an observation sentence is evidence for a universal statement if

14500-409: The evidential relation in terms of probabilities. They hold that all that is necessary is that the existence of the evidence increases the likelihood that the hypothesis is true. This can be expressed mathematically as P ( H ∣ E ) > P ( H ) {\displaystyle P(H\mid E)>P(H)} . In words: a piece of evidence (E) confirms a hypothesis (H) if

14645-422: The existing evidence at the time and it is lower in empirical content than Aristotelian theory of motion . Moreover, Galileo did not provide arguments to justify his contention but instead used propaganda . According to the existing evidence in the early 17th century, the position that the earth rotates on its axis would have rightly been regarded as false. For example, Galileo's theory of the tides suggested by

14790-432: The fact that Socrates's wisdom is irrelevant here. According to the positive-instance approach , an observation sentence is evidence for a universal hypothesis if the sentence describes a positive instance of this hypothesis. For example, the observation that "this swan is white" is an instance of the universal hypothesis that "all swans are white". This approach can be given a precise formulation in first-order logic :

14935-449: The fact that even among phenomenologists, there is much disagreement about the basic structures of experience. In the sciences, evidence is understood as what confirms or disconfirms scientific hypotheses . The term "confirmation" is sometimes used synonymously with that of "evidential support". Measurements of Mercury's "anomalous" orbit, for example, are seen as evidence that confirms Einstein's theory of general relativity. This

15080-403: The former requiring evidence beyond a reasonable doubt , the latter considering only which side has the preponderance of evidence , or whether the proposition is more likely true or false. The parts of a legal case that are not in controversy are known, in general, as the "facts of the case." Beyond any facts that are undisputed, a judge or jury is usually tasked with being a trier of fact for

15225-402: The idea that different people or cultures perceive the world through different, incommensurable conceptual schemes , leading them to very different impressions about what is the case and what evidence is available. Theory-ladenness threatens to impede the role of evidence as neutral arbiter since these additional assumptions may favor some theories over others. It could thereby also undermine

15370-402: The implausible consequence that many of simple everyday-beliefs would be unjustified. The more common view is that all kinds of mental states, including stored beliefs that are currently unconscious, can act as evidence. It is sometimes argued that the possession of a mental state capable of justifying another is not sufficient for the justification to happen. The idea behind this line of thought

15515-600: The international debut of the artists who soon gave rise to what came to be called Pop Art in Britain and The United States and Nouveau Réalisme on the European continent. Many of these artists used collage techniques in their work. Wesselmann took part in the New Realist show with some reservations, exhibiting two 1962 works: Still life #17 and Still life #22 . Another technique is that of canvas collage, which

15660-468: The mid-1940s that Louise Nevelson evolved her sculptural wood collages, assembled from found scraps, including parts of furniture , pieces of wooden crates or barrels, and architectural remnants like stair railings or moldings. Generally rectangular, very large, and painted black, they resemble gigantic paintings. Concerning Nevelson's Sky Cathedral (1958), the Museum of Modern Art catalogue states, "As

15805-429: The modernist sense began with Cubist painters Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso . Snippets and fragments of different and unrelated subject matter made up Cubism collages, or papier collé , which gave them a deconstructed form and appearance. According to some sources, Picasso was the first to use the collage technique in oil paintings. According to the Guggenheim Museum 's online article about collage, Braque took up

15950-401: The motion of the earth was inaccurate and the differences "were big enough to be known even to the most bleary-eyed sailor." In addition, the motion of the earth on its axis leads to the wrong predictions of the relative brightness of Mars and Venus when measured with the naked eye . To correct for these mistakes, Galileo introduces new evidence through his telescope . However, the telescope

16095-503: The nature of evidence. These attempts often proceed by starting with intuitions from one field or in relation to one theoretical role played by evidence and go on to generalize these intuitions, leading to a universal definition of evidence. One important intuition is that evidence is what justifies beliefs . This line of thought is usually followed in epistemology and tends to explain evidence in terms of private mental states, for example, as experiences, other beliefs or knowledge. This

16240-474: The new medium." In 1912 for his Still Life with Chair Caning (Nature-morte à la chaise cannée) , Picasso pasted a patch of oilcloth with a chair-cane design onto the canvas of the piece. Surrealist artists have made extensive use of collage and have swayed away from the still-life focus of Cubists. Rather, in keeping with surrealism, surrealist artists such as Joseph Cornell created collages consisting of fictional and strange, dream-like scenes. Cubomania

16385-400: The other issues of a case. Evidence and rules are used to decide questions of fact that are disputed, some of which may be determined by the legal burden of proof relevant to the case. Evidence in certain cases (e.g. capital crimes ) must be more compelling than in other situations (e.g. minor civil disputes), which drastically affects the quality and quantity of evidence necessary to decide

16530-603: The paths open to discovery. The first edition of Against Method contains a chapter devoted to critically discussing Lakatos' methodological of research programs, although this chapter was removed in subsequent editions. Feyerabend offers several criticisms. Lakatos claims that research programs should be permitted 'breathing space' where research programs are allowed to be pursued regardless of their lack of empirical content, internal inconsistency, or conflicts with experimental results. Feyerabend agrees with this claim but argues that applying it consistently entails that we cannot cease

16675-431: The pieces into collages. The wood collage is a type that emerged somewhat later than paper collage. Kurt Schwitters began experimenting with wood collages in the 1920s after already having given up painting for paper collages. The principle of wood collage is clearly established at least as early as his 'Merz Picture with Candle', dating from the mid to late 1920s. In a sense, wood collage made its debut indirectly at

16820-453: The primary role of education was to stunt individual creativity by forcing them to accept and research on topics that students did not choose for themselves. He also claims that education is responsible for what he calls "intellectual pollution" where "illiterate and incompetent books flood the market, empty verbiage full of strange and esoteric terms claims to express profound insights, 'experts' without brains, without character, and without even

16965-439: The proposition is true . The exact definition and role of evidence vary across different fields. In epistemology , evidence is what justifies beliefs or what makes it rational to hold a certain doxastic attitude. For example, a perceptual experience of a tree may serve as evidence to justify the belief that there is a tree. In this role, evidence is usually understood as a private mental state . In phenomenology , evidence

17110-465: The purposes of deciding a particular case. Two primary burden-of-proof considerations exist in law. The first is on whom the burden rests. In many, especially Western, courts, the burden of proof is placed on the prosecution in criminal cases and the plaintiff in civil cases. The second consideration is the degree of certitude proof must reach, depending on both the quantity and quality of evidence. These degrees are different for criminal and civil cases,

17255-673: The pursuit of research programs after they have been degenerating (i.e., becoming increasingly ad hoc ) (regardless of how long they've been degenerating for). Feyerabend uses the example of Boltzmann 's atomism as a theory that was degenerating in the 19th century as a result of the Zermelo-Poincaré recurrence objection and Loschmidt’s reversibility objection but was then vindicated in the early 20th century with Einstein 's development of statistical mechanics to illustrate this point. Because of this, Feyerabend claims that although Lakatos insists that he has provided rational rules for

17400-433: The rationalist who takes a closer look at history". More recently, it has been argued that epistemological anarchism is a positive methodological proposal but comes in two inconsistent guises. On the one hand, epistemological anarchism means that scientists should be opportunists who adapt their methods to the situation at hand while, on the other hand, anarchism also signifies an unrestricted pluralism and therefore constitutes

17545-479: The relation between evidence and the proposition supported by it. The issue of the nature of the evidential relation concerns the question of what this relation has to be like in order for one thing to justify a belief or to confirm a hypothesis. Important theories in this field include the probabilistic approach , hypothetico-deductivism and the positive-instance approach . Probabilistic approaches , also referred to as Bayesian confirmation theory , explain

17690-459: The role of evidence is that it is what justifies beliefs . For example, Phoebe's auditory experience of the music justifies her belief that the speakers are on. Evidence has to be possessed by the believer in order to play this role. So Phoebe's own experiences can justify her own beliefs but not someone else's beliefs. Some philosophers hold that evidence possession is restricted to conscious mental states, for example, to sense data. This view has

17835-407: The same image, cut and layered to add apparent depth. The picture is often coated with varnish or some other sealant for protection. In the early part of the 20th century, decoupage, like many other art methods, began experimenting with a less realistic and more abstract style. 20th-century artists who produced decoupage works include Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse . The most famous decoupage work

17980-454: The same time as paper collage, since according to the Guggenheim online, Georges Braque initiated use of paper collage by cutting out pieces of simulated oak-grain wallpaper and attaching them to his own charcoal drawings. Thus, the idea of gluing wood to a picture was implicit from the start, since the paper used was a commercial product manufactured to look like wood. It was during a fifteen-year period of intense experimentation beginning in

18125-430: The same vocabulary, i.e. use the same predicates, like " s w a n {\displaystyle swan} " or " w h i t e {\displaystyle white} " above. But many scientific theories posit theoretical objects, like electrons or strings in physics, that are not directly observable and therefore cannot show up in the evidence as conceived here. In scientific research evidence

18270-631: The same year, New York City based artist, writer, and musician, Paul D. Miller aka DJ Spooky 's work pushed the work of sampling into a museum and gallery context as an art practice that combined DJ culture's obsession with archival materials as sound sources on his album Songs of a Dead Dreamer and in his books Rhythm Science (2004) and Sound Unbound (2008) (MIT Press). In his books, "mash-up" and collage based mixes of authors, artists, and musicians such as Antonin Artaud , James Joyce , William S. Burroughs , and Raymond Scott were featured as part of

18415-419: The sentence describes a positive instance of this statement. Understood in its broadest sense, evidence for a proposition is what supports this proposition. Traditionally, the term is sometimes understood in a narrower sense: as the intuitive knowledge of facts that are considered indubitable. In this sense, only the singular form is used. This meaning is found especially in phenomenology, in which evidence

18560-444: The specific advise follows from considerations of concrete research practices. His third criticism concerns Lakatos' argument that theories of rationality should be tested against the value judgments of the 'scientific elite' in specific historical episodes. First, Feyerabend claims that the value judgments of the scientific elite are rarely uniform and so they will not uniquely choose a particular theory of scientific rationality. Second,

18705-522: The stone falls in a parabola relative to absolute space , although the notion of absolute space was not made explicit and coherent until Newton . However, Galileo did not present his work in this vein. If he did, Feyerabend conjectures that his new theory would have received little attention and would not have stimulated further inquiry into the Copernican system. Because of this, Galileo uses propaganda to make it seem as if his theories are implicit in

18850-445: The subsequent transformation of the visual results through the use of electronic media . It is commonly used in the creation of digital art using programs such as Photoshop. A 3D collage is an art of putting altogether three-dimensional objects such as rocks, beads, buttons, coins, or even soil to form a new whole or a new object. Examples can include houses, bead circles, etc. The term "eCollage" (electronic Collage) can be used for

18995-486: The telescope with many observational astronomers in Padua on terrestrial objects, it produced indeterminate and double images, optical illusions about the placement and magnification of celestial bodies, and after images even when tested on terrestrial objects. Because of this, Galileo had no new evidence to support his conjecture that the earth completes a diurnal rotation on its axis and the existing evidence suggested that it

19140-403: The term "evidence" in phenomenology shows many parallels to its epistemological usage, but it is understood in a narrower sense. Thus, evidence here specifically refers to intuitive knowledge, which is described as "self-given" ( selbst-gegeben ). This contrasts with empty intentions, in which one refers to states of affairs through a certain opinion, but without an intuitive presentation. This

19285-402: The theory was true. It thereby explains the evidential relation between the experiment and the theory. One problem with this approach is that it cannot distinguish between relevant and certain irrelevant cases. So if smoke is evidence for the hypothesis "there is fire", then it is also evidence for conjunctions including this hypothesis, for example, "there is fire and Socrates was wise", despite

19430-724: The time of the invention of paper in China , around 200 BC. The use of collage, however, did not arise until the 10th century in Japan , when calligraphers began to apply glued paper, using texts on surfaces, when writing their poems . Some surviving pieces in this style are found in the collection at the Nishi Hongan-ji temple, containing many volumes of the Sanju Rokunin Kashu anthologies of waka poems. The technique of collage appeared in medieval Europe during

19575-618: The two main categories of evidence presented at a trial or hearing. In the United States, evidence in federal court is admitted or excluded under the Federal Rules of Evidence . The burden of proof is the obligation of a party in an argument or dispute to provide sufficient evidence to shift the other party's or a third party's belief from their initial position. The burden of proof must be fulfilled by both establishing confirming evidence and negating oppositional evidence. Conclusions drawn from evidence may be subject to criticism based on

19720-460: The uniformity of Modernism and saw collage with its non-linear notion of history as a means to reinvigorate design practice. Not only does historical urban fabric have its place, but in studying it, designers were, so it was hoped, able to get a sense of how better to operate. Rowe was a member of the so-called Texas Rangers , a group of architects who taught at the University of Texas for

19865-506: The value judgments of scientific elites are often made on the basis of ignorance. Therefore, there seem to be strong reasons to not accept those value judgments. Third, Lakatos assumes that the standards of the scientific elite are superior to other value judgments (e.g., of witches) and therefore does not provide an argument against relativism. Finally, Feyerabend provides a 'cosmological' criticism of Lakatos' theory of rationality. Lakatos claims that theories of scientific rationality reconstruct

20010-421: The verb découper , 'to cut out') as it attained great popularity during the 17th and 18th centuries. Many advanced techniques were developed during this time, and items could take up to a year to complete due to the many coats and sandings applied. Some famous or aristocratic practitioners included Marie Antoinette , Madame de Pompadour , and Beau Brummell . In fact the majority of decoupage enthusiasts attribute

20155-621: The way in which photography is truthful. In 2009, curator Elizabeth Siegel organized the exhibition: Playing with Pictures at the Art Institute Chicago to acknowledge collage works by Alexandra of Denmark and Mary Georgina Filmer among others. The exhibition later traveled to The Metropolitan Museum of Art and The Art Gallery of Ontario . Despite the pre-twentieth-century use of collage-like application techniques, some art authorities argue that collage, properly speaking, did not emerge until after 1900, in conjunction with

20300-418: The widespread use of digital image editing . Contemporary photo editors in magazines now create "paste-ups" digitally. Creating a photomontage has, for the most part, become easier with the advent of computer software such as Adobe Photoshop , Pixel image editor, and GIMP . These programs make the changes digitally, allowing for faster workflow and more precise results. They also mitigate mistakes by allowing

20445-400: Was an international best seller and, as a result, it has been translated into many languages. This includes: The 4th edition, released after Feyerabend's death on the 35th anniversary of the initial book release, includes an introduction from Ian Hacking . The primary thesis of Against Method is that there is no such thing as the scientific method and that it is not appropriate to impose

20590-500: Was false. Galileo's hypothesis also does not follow Popper's falsificationism, which suggests that we do not use ad hoc hypotheses . Aristotle's theory of motion was a part of a broader theory of change, which included growth, decay and qualitative changes (such as changes in color). Galileo's theory of motion focuses solely on locomotion and, therefore, has less empirical content than Aristotle's theory. This also makes it more ad hoc, because it makes no new predictions and offers only

20735-467: Was largely negative amongst philosophers of science, with a few notable exceptions. Most of the commentary focused on Feyerabend's philosophical arguments rather than the Galileo case study. The primary criticisms were that epistemological anarchism is nothing but a repetition of Pyrrhonian skepticism or relativism , that Feyerabend is inconsistent with himself by arguing against method while arguing for methods (like counterinduction), and that he criticizes

20880-460: Was misleading since it was part of a simulated reality. This account of evidence and rationality can also be extended to other doxastic attitudes, like disbelief and suspension of belief. So rationality does not just demand that we believe something if we have decisive evidence for it, it also demands that we disbelieve something if we have decisive evidence against it and that we suspend belief if we lack decisive evidence either way. The meaning of

21025-517: Was not theoretically understood at the time. The best theory of optics was Kepler's, which Galileo didn't understand personally, which says nothing about how light reflects off convex lenses . Moreover, there were well-confirmed reasons to think – as the Aristotelians thought – that light behaves differently outside of the sublunar sphere and so telescopic vision would not have any justification for being veridical. In addition, when Galileo tested

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