Divisions
50-655: The Aindra (of Indra) school of Sanskrit grammar is one of the eleven schools of Sanskrit grammar mentioned in Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi . It is named after Indra as a reference to Lord Indra , the king of deities in Hindu mythology . Arthur Coke Burnell , a renowned orientologist , in his 1875 book, "On the Aindra school of Sanskrit grammars", describes this school. Burnell believed that most non-Pāṇinian systems of Sanskrit grammar were traceable to this school of grammar, believed to be
100-684: A rishi ( Sanskrit : ऋषि IAST : ṛṣi ) is an accomplished and enlightened person. They find mention in various Vedic texts . Rishis are believed to have composed hymns of the Vedas . The Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the rishis as "great yogis " or "sages" who after intense meditation ( tapas ) realized the supreme truth and eternal knowledge, which they composed into hymns. The term appears in Pali literature as Ishi; in Buddhism they can be either Buddhas , Paccekabuddhas , Arahats or
150-421: A monk of high rank. According to Indian tradition, the word may be derived from two different meanings of the root 'rsh' ( ṛṣ ). Sanskrit grammarians derive this word from the second meaning: "to go, to move". V. S. Apte gives this particular meaning and derivation, and Monier-Williams also gives the same, with some qualification. Another form of this root means "to flow, to move near by flowing". (All
200-402: A Brahmin last name. In Carnatic music , "Rishi" is the seventh chakra (group) of Melakarta ragas . The names of chakras are based on the numbers associated with each name. In this case, there are seven rishis and hence the 7th chakra is "Rishi". The descendant families of these Rishis, refer to their ancestral lineage through their family " gotra ". This is a common practice among
250-628: A list of fourteen groups of sounds, in three sections called the Shiva-sutra, Pratyahara-sutra and Maheshvara-sutra. The Aṣṭādhyāyī groups the rules of language, for clear expression and understanding, into two, the verbal ( Dhatupatha ) and the nominal bases ( Ganapatha ). The text consists of an analytical part covered in the first five chapters, and a synthetic part found in the last three chapters. The Aṣṭādhyāyī manuscript has survived with sets of ancillary texts (appendices) whose dates of composition and authors are contested. The main text
300-535: A prediction or prophecy by a Buddha to a Bodhisattva who has just embarked on the path, that he will achieve enlightenment and be a buddha , in other words, an enlightened one. Vyākaraṇa emerged as a distinct auxiliary field of Vedic study in ancient times. Its aim was to prevent sloppy usage and transmission of the Vedic knowledge, states Howard Coward – a professor emeritus at the University of Victoria and
350-675: A simplified grammatical system called Sārasvatavyākaraṇa . In the 14th century grammarian Padmanabhadatta , founder of the Supadma School, composed the Supadmavyākaraṇa . The text is based on Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi , but remodeled and rearranged with explanatory notes. It is written in Bengali alphabet , making it accessible to the Bengal provinces by removing the complexity of Sanskrit grammar. The main objective of Padmanabhadatta
400-673: A temporal sequence while nouns are static elements, states K Kunjunni Raja. Patañjali's 2nd-century BCE Mahābhāṣya is another important ancient text in Vyākaraṇa scholarship. It is not a full commentary on everything Pāṇini wrote in Aṣṭādhyāyī , but it is more a commentary on Kātyāyana's text on grammar called Varttikas , as well as the ideas of Vyadi. While Kātyāyana's additions have survived, Vyadi have not. The Kātyāyana's text reflects an admiration for Pāṇini, an analysis of his rules, their simplification and refinement. The differences between
450-494: A word at the time the text was composed supersedes the historical or etymologically derived meanings of that word. A word has the conventional meaning at the time the text was composed, but it is not so when it is quoted (cited or referred to) from another prior art text. In the latter case, the Sanskrit word is suffixed with iti (literally, thus), whereupon it means what the prior text meant it to be. Yāska asserted that both
500-476: Is carried out everywhere, by recognizing: In this speech, so much is one sentence; In this sentence then, so much is one word; In this word then, this is the base and this is the suffix. A word that is a verb is concerned with bhava (to become), while a noun is concerned with sattva (to be, reality as it is). Sattva and bhava are two aspects of the same existence seen from the static and dynamic points of view. Verbs according to Vyākaraṇa indicate action in
550-426: Is notable for its details and systematic nature, syntactic functions and arranging the sutras in an algorithmic fashion where the grammar rules typically apply in the order of sutras. The Aṣṭādhyāyī sutras were widely studied and a subject of the bhāṣya (review and commentary) tradition of Hinduism. The oldest emendation and commentary on the Aṣṭādhyāyī is attributed to Kātyāyana (~3rd century BCE), followed by
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#1732772731405600-460: Is quoted in Patañjali's Mahābhāṣya on Vyākaraṇa as asserting the nature of a sentence as follows: A sentence consists of a finite verb together with indeclinables, karakas and qualifiers. – Mahābhāṣya 1.367.10 A sentence has one finite verb. – Mahābhāṣya 1.367.16 Similarly, Sayana asserts the scope of Vyākaraṇa to be as follows: Grammar [Vyākaraṇa] is that process by which division
650-461: Is related to the fourth Vedānga called Nirukta . Vyākaraṇa scholarship has dealt with linguistic analysis to establish the exact form of words to properly express ideas, and Nirukta scholarship has focussed on linguistic analysis to help establish the proper meaning of the words in context. Vyākaraṇa ( IPA: [ʋjaːkɐrɐɳɐ] ) means "separation, distinction, discrimination, analysis, explanation" of something. It also refers to one of
700-485: Is stated, how, where and when. The Aṣṭādhyāyī tradition of Sanskrit language, with some reservations, accepts the premise that all words have verbal roots, and that words are created by affixing fragments to these roots. However, Pāṇini asserts that it is impossible to derive all nouns from verbal roots. The Aṣṭādhyāyī is primarily focussed on the study of words, how words are formed, and their correct architecture. However, it does not exclude syntax. Pāṇini includes
750-416: Is the most important surviving text of the Vyākaraṇa traditions. This text, as its very title suggests, consists of eight chapters, each divided into four padas, cumulatively containing 4000 sutras. The text is preceded by abbreviation rules grouping the phonemes of Sanskrit. Pāṇini quotes ten ancient authorities whose texts have not survived, but they are believed to have been Vyākaraṇa scholars. Vyākaraṇa
800-434: Is the popular usage. The artha (meaning) of a shabda (word) is established by popular usage at the time the text was composed, not by etymological theory nor historical usage nor later usage. A sentence is a collection of words, a word is a collection of phonemes, states Pāṇini. The meaning of Vedic passages has to be understood through context, the purpose stated, keeping in mind the subject matter being discussed, what
850-491: The Brahmanas , Aranyakas and Upanishads , states Moriz Winternitz . The extant manuscripts of Pāṇini and Yaksa suggest that the Vedic age had competing schools of grammar. One school, for example, held that all nouns have verbal roots, while another held that not all nouns have verbal roots. However, it is unclear how, who or when these ancient Vedic theories of grammar originated, because those texts have not survived into
900-651: The Buddhist Jataka scriptures , this Ruesi is mentioned as the bodhisatta and practiced his ascetism in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia . Veneration of Ruesis is a notable practice in Southeast Asian Buddhism . The name "Rishi" (pronounced "ruesi") is also the basis of one of the letters of the Thai alphabet , so reu-si ( Thai : ษ ฤๅษี ). Rishi is also a male given name , and less commonly
950-680: The Buddhist texts . In Pali , they are known as "Isi"s. A Rishi can also be called a Buddha, Paccekabuddha, Arhat or monk of high rank. In Buddhist Pali literature , Buddha is called many times as "Mahesi"(Pali; Sanskrit: Maharṣi; meaning the greatest sage). The Isigili Sutta in Pali Canon , mentions the name of Five hundred Rishis (Paccekabuddhas). The Buddhist text, Mahamayuri Tantra , written during 1–3rd centuries CE, mentions Rishis throughout Jambudvipa (modern day India , Pakistan , Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Nepal ) and invokes them for
1000-577: The Mahābhāṣya . The author of the Mahābhāṣya is named Patañjali, who may or may not be the same person as the one who authored Yogasutras . The Mahābhāṣya , or "Great Commentary", is more than a commentary on the Aṣṭādhyāyī, it is the earliest known philosophical text of the Hindu grammarians. Non-Hindu texts and traditions on grammar emerged after Patañjali, some of which include the Sanskrit grammar by
1050-400: The 1st-millennium CE, all of them condensed Pāṇini, accepted and flowered largely from his theories of Vyākaraṇa. The nature of grammar The energy called word has the nature of an egg. It develops in the form of an action, and realizes itself as a sequence of parts. — Bhartṛhari , Vākyapadīya 1.52 Translator: Tibor Kiss The 5th-century Hindu scholar Bhartṛhari has been
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#17327727314051100-579: The Jain author Jainendra and the Cāndra grammar by the Buddhist Candragomin. Patanjali's Great Grammatical Discourse [ Vyakrana-Mahābhāṣya ] is regarded as the classical model for academic texts. It is written with a great deal of didactic skill as a dialog in clear, simple Sanskrit, and contains many enlightening examples. One notices that the text follows in the tradition of instruction, similar to
1150-900: The Rishis as "sages" or saints , constituting a peculiar class of divine human beings in the early mythical system, as distinct from Asuras , Devas and mortal men. Swami Vivekananda described "Rishi"s as Mantra-drashtas or "the seers of thought". He told— "The truth came to the Rishis of India — the Mantra-drashtâs, the seers of thought — and will come to all Rishis in the future, not to talkers, not to book-swallowers, not to scholars, not to philologists, but to seers of thought." The Rig Veda mentions female rishikas such as Romasha, Lopamudra , Apala , Kadru , Visvavara, Ghosha , Juhu, Vagambhrini, Paulomi, Yami , Indrani , Savitri and Devayani . The Sama Veda adds Nodha, Akrishtabhasha, Sikatanivavari and Gaupayana. In Mahabharata 12, on
1200-633: The case open, and do not prefer a connection to ṛṣ "pour, flow" ( PIE *h 1 ers ), rather one with German rasen "to be ecstatic, be in a different state of mind" (and perhaps Lithuanian aršus ). In the Vedas , the word denotes an inspired poet of Vedic hymns. In particular, Ṛṣi refers to the authors of the hymns of the Rigveda . Some of the earliest lists of Rishi are found in Jaiminiya Brahmana verse 2.218 and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad verse 2.2.4. Post-Vedic tradition regards
1250-427: The commentaries and rebuttals by later authors. Yāska 's Nirukta is one of the earlier surviving texts, and he mentions Śākaṭāyana, Krauṣṭuki, Gārgya among others. Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī is the most ancient extant manuscript on Vyākaraṇa. It is a complete and descriptive treatise on Sanskrit grammar in aphoristic sutras format. This text attracted a famous and one of the most ancient commentary ( bhāṣya ) called
1300-475: The dialog stye of the Western classics of antiquity. Later Indian scholars simplified Pāṇini rules, and trimmed his compilation of sutras to essential 1,400 from comprehensive 4,000, eliminating those they felt were too difficult and complicated or those narrowly concerned with Vedic language. Non-Hindu traditions, such as Jainism and Buddhism, developed their own Vyākaraṇa literature, but all of them are dated to
1350-469: The discussion of sentence structure. The text, state Howard and Raja, describes compound word formation based on syntactic and semantic considerations, such as in sutra 2.1.1. Pāṇini asserts that a proper sentence has a single purpose, and is formed from a group of words such that, on analysis, the separate words are found to be mutually expecting each other. A sentence, states Pāṇini, must have syntactic unity, which includes mutual expectancy ( Akansha ) of
1400-496: The famous Mahābhāṣya of Patañjali (~2nd century BCE) which has survived into the modern age. Other commentaries on the Aṣṭādhyāyī likely existed, because they are cited by other Indian scholars, but these texts are believed to be lost to history. Pāṇini writes that the Anjna (popular usage of a word) is the superseding authority, and the theoretically derived meaning of a word must be discarded and instead superseded by that which
1450-540: The foundation of works of the Buddhist Jinendrabuddhi who is known for his grammar insights in Buddhist literature. The most studied Vyākaraṇa scholars of early and mid-second millennium are Ksirasvamin, Haradatta, Maitreya Rakshita, and Kaiyata. The modern era Vyākaraṇa scholars have included Bhattoji Dikshita, Konda Bhatta and Nagesha Bhatta. Between 1250 and 1450 Anubhūti Svarūpācārya created
1500-519: The founding editor of the Journal for Hindu-Christian Studies . Vyākaraṇa helped ensure that the Vedic scriptures of Hinduism and its message of "Sabda Brahman" (explanation of metaphysical truths through words) that Vedic Rishis had realized by their efforts, remains available to all in a pristine form. In Indian traditions, Vyākaraṇa has been one of the most important sciences, one extensively studied over its history, and that led to major treatises in
1550-451: The grammar rules of Pāṇini and of Kātyāyana may be because of historical changes to Sanskrit language over the centuries, state Howard Coward and K Kunjunni Raja. Language and spirituality The word is subsumed by the sentence, the sentence by the paragraph, the paragraph by the chapter, the chapter by the book, and so on, until all speech is identified with Brahman . — Bhartṛhari Rishi In Indian religions ,
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1600-661: The influence of Sanskrit on the Tolkappiyam has met with some approval, his attribution and approximation of all non Pāṇinian schools of Sanskrit grammar with the Aindra school has met with resistance. Some scholars have also taken a less committal line on the question of Sanskrit influence itself. Schools of Sanskrit grammar Sama vedic Yajur vedic Atharva vedic Vaishnava puranas Shaiva puranas Shakta puranas Vyākaraṇa ( Sanskrit : व्याकरण , lit. 'explanation, analysis', IPA: [ˈʋjaːkɐrɐɳɐ] ) refers to one of
1650-522: The last half of the first millennium, particularly by the ritual-driven , Mīmāṃsā school of Hindu philosophy and by Dharmakirti of Buddhism . The Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism defended the ideas of Bhartṛhari. About the seventh century, the Kāśikāvṛttī co-authored by Jayaditya and Vamana, and the tenth century studies of Helaraja on Vyākaraṇa were the next major milestone. These Hindu texts were not only commented in Hindu tradition, but were
1700-420: The meaning and the etymology of words is always context dependent. Vyākaraṇa in the Hindu traditions has been a study of both the syntax structure of sentences, as well as the architecture of a word. For instance, Pāṇini asserts that grammar is about the means of semantically connecting a word with other words to express and understand meaning, and words are to be analyzed in the context they are used. Kātyāyana
1750-467: The meanings and derivations cited above are based upon Sanskrit English Dictionary of Monier-Williams). Monier-Williams also quotes Tārānātha who compiled the great (Sanskrit-to-Sanskrit) dictionary named "ṛṣati jñānena saṃsāra-pāram" (i.e., "one who reaches beyond this mundane world by means of spiritual knowledge"). Before Monier-Williams' work was published, Yāska suggested it came from "drish" and quotes Aupamanyava to support his opinion. However,
1800-506: The modern era. There were many schools of Sanskrit grammar in ancient India, all established before the mid 1st-millennium BCE. Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī , which eclipsed all other ancient schools of grammar, mentions the names of ten grammarians. ). Some of these pre-Pāṇinian scholars mentioned by Pāṇini include Apisali, Kasyapa, Gargya, Galava, Cakravarmana, Bharadvaja, Sakatayana, Sakalya, Senaka and Sphoṭayāna. The works of most these authors are lost but we find reference of their ideas in
1850-483: The next most influential Vyākaraṇa thinker , wherein he presented his philosophy of grammar and how language affects thoughts. His theories on "philosophical problem of meaning", contained in the Vākyapadīya , has been unique, states Howard Coward. Bhartṛhari is considered to be a major architect of the " sphoṭa theory" of meaning, in the Hindu traditions. Bhartṛhari ideas were widely studied, but challenged as well in
1900-415: The older one and more known for Nirukta (etymology) – the fourth auxiliary field of Vedic studies, but the evidence for him preceding Pāṇini is scanty and uncertain. In terms of dedicated treatise on Vyākaraṇa, Pāṇini is the most recognized ancient Hindu scholar, and his Aṣṭādhyāyī ("Eight Chapters") is the most studied extant ancient manuscript on Sanskrit grammar. Pāṇini's fame spread outside India, and
1950-508: The oldest and reputed to be founded by Indra himself. Burnell's search for the Aindra school took him to Southern India where he came across the Tamil grammatical work Tolkappiyam . A preface of this work, written during the twelfth century CE by Ilampuranar describes the work as aindiram nirainda Tolkappiyam ('comprising Aindra'). Burnell posits that this is an allusion to the pre-Pāṇinian Aindra school of grammar. While his demonstration of
2000-842: The other hand, there is the post-Vedic list of Marīci , Atri , Angiras , Pulaha , Kratu , Pulastya and Vashista . The Mahābhārata list explicitly refers to the saptarshis of the first manvantara and not to those of the present manvantara. Each manvantara had a unique set of saptarshi. In Harivamsha 417ff, the names of the Rishis of each manvantara are enumerated. In addition to the Sapta rṣi , there are other classifications of sages. In descending order of precedence, they are Brahmarshi , Maharshi , Rajarshi . Deva rṣi , Param rṣi , Shruta rṣi and Kānda rṣi are added in Manusmriti iv-94 and xi-236 and in two dramas of Kālidasa. The Chaturvarga-Chintāmani of Hemādri puts ' riṣi ' at
2050-411: The philosophy of language. Pāṇini and Yāska, two celebrated ancient scholars of Vyākaraṇa, are both dated to several centuries prior to the start of the common era, likely the 5th-century BCE. However, both of them cite prior scholars and texts, which though lost to history, imply that the field of Vyākaraṇa was an established and developed science of language before them. Between the two, Yaksa may be
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2100-694: The protection of the Buddhadharma . Many Jatakas also mentions various Rishis. The Naḷinikā Jātaka (Jā 526) introduces a past life of the Buddha , a Rishi(Isi), living alone in the Himālayas. His son, who was also a Rishi, was named Isisiṅga ( Pali ; Sanskrit: Ṛṣyaśṛṅga ). The Agastya Jataka (Sanskrit; Pali: Akitta Jataka) story, mentions Bodhisattva , named Agastya(Sanskrit; Pali: Akkhata) as Rishi. Most medieval era Hindu temples of Java , Indonesia show Rishi Agastya statues or reliefs, usually guarding
2150-469: The reverence for ancient Pāṇini in northwest India is mentioned in Chinese texts of Xuanzang – the 7th-century traveller and scholar. The study of grammar and the structure of language is traceable to the Rigveda , or 2nd millennium BCE, in hymns attributed to sage Sakalya. Sakalya is acknowledged by Pāṇini's works. The literary evidence that the science of Vyākaraṇa existed in Vedic times abound in
2200-556: The root has a close Avestan cognate ərəšiš "an ecstatic " (see also Yurodivy , Vates ). Yet the Indo-European dictionary of Julius Pokorny connects the word to a PIE root *h 3 er-s meaning "rise, protrude", in the sense of "excellent" and thus cognate with Ṛta and right and Asha . In Sanskrit, forms of the root rish become arsh- in many words, (e.g., arsh ) Modern etymological explanations such as by Manfred Mayrhofer in his Etymological Dictionary leave
2250-446: The seventh place in the eightfold division of Brāhmanas. Amarakosha (the famous Sanskrit synonym lexicon compiled by Amarasimha) mentions seven types of riṣi s : Shrutarshi, Kāndarshi, Paramarshi, Maharshi, Rājarshi, Brahmarshi and Devarshi. Amarakosha strictly distinguishes Rishi from other types of sages, such as sanyāsi, bhikṣu , parivrājaka, tapasvi, muni, brahmachāri, yati, etc. The term Rishi found mentions throughout
2300-457: The six Vedāngas, or the Vedic field of language analysis, specifically grammatical analysis, grammar, linguistic conventions which creates, polishes, helps a writer express and helps a reader discriminate accurate language. The word Vyākaraṇa is also found in Mahayana sutras and first-millennium Mahayana Buddhist texts, but with a different meaning. Vyākaraṇa, in these Buddhist texts, means
2350-472: The six ancient Vedangas , ancillary science connected with the Vedas , which are scriptures in Hinduism . Vyākaraṇa is the study of grammar and linguistic analysis in Sanskrit language. Pāṇini and Yāska are the two celebrated ancient scholars of Vyākaraṇa; both are dated to several centuries prior to the start of the common era, with Pāṇini likely from the fifth century BCE. Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī
2400-670: The southern side of Shaivite temples. Some examples include Candi Sambisari and the Prambanan temple near Yogyakarta . Ruesi (Sanskrit: ṛṣi , Khmer : តាឥសី , Thai : ฤๅษี , Lao : ລືສີ ) is a hermit sage , the equivalent of Rishi in India . In Myanmar , there are some known as ရေသ့ Rase . Rishi Akkhata(Pali; Sanskrit: Agastya), known as Phra Reusi Akkhot in Thailand , is an important Ruesi in Southeast Asia , as in
2450-431: The words and phonetic contiguity ( Sannidhi ) of construction. Pāṇini adds semantic fitness ( Yogayata ), but not tacitly. He accepts that a sentence can be grammatically correct even if it is semantically inappropriate or a deviant. The Aṣṭādhyāyī describes numerous usage of words, and how the meaning of a word is driven by overall context of the sentences and composition it is found in. The popular usage and meaning of
2500-505: Was to make knowledge of Sanskrit grammar clear and simple and to Sanskritize the new words that developed in the language. In terms of the place of Vyākaraṇa scholarship over South Asian history, from ancient to 16th-century, Kashmir, Kerala, Nepal, Andhra Pradesh, Varanasi and Bengal have been influential, but the location of many Vyākaraṇa scholars is unknown. Pāṇini's text Aṣṭādhyāyī is in sutras format, has eight chapters, and cumulative total of 4,000 sutras. These rules are preceded by
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