Airlines for America ( A4A ), formerly known as Air Transport Association of America ( ATA ), is an American trade association and lobbying group based in Washington, D.C. that represents major North American airlines since 1936.
99-547: The A4A is frequently involved in US government decisions regarding the aviation industry including the creation of the Civil Aeronautics Board , establishment of the air traffic control system and airline deregulation . In its lobbying efforts, A4A publicly promotes the air transport as safe and efficient, and it advocates for favorable regulations on taxation, competition, and environmental standards. Since 1956,
198-443: A runway is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft ". Runways may be a human-made surface (often asphalt , concrete , or a mixture of both) or a natural surface ( grass , dirt , gravel , ice , sand or salt ). Runways, taxiways and ramps , are sometimes referred to as "tarmac", though very few runways are built using tarmac . Takeoff and landing areas defined on
297-411: A windsock beside a landing strip. Types of runway safety incidents include: The choice of material used to construct the runway depends on the use and the local ground conditions. For a major airport, where the ground conditions permit, the most satisfactory type of pavement for long-term minimum maintenance is concrete . Although certain airports have used reinforcement in concrete pavements, this
396-480: A 7 will indicate 7,000 ft (2,134 m) remaining. The runway threshold is marked by a line of green lights. [REDACTED] There are three types of runways: Waterways may be unmarked or marked with buoys that follow maritime notation instead. For runways and taxiways that are permanently closed, the lighting circuits are disconnected. The runway threshold, runway designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated and yellow "Xs" are placed at each end of
495-451: A CAB certificate. The results of such investigations were not necessarily a foregone conclusion. In 1976, the CAB ended a long investigation by deciding ZIA was, in fact, not a common carrier (and thus did not require certification), going against the decision of its own administrative law judge. Ironically, this happened only a year before ZIA separately applied for and received certification as
594-673: A bigger impact on the CAB. The 1966 Act established the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) as part of DOT, which absorbed the CAB safety function, which was to investigate most airline accidents. Unlike the FAA, which (renamed as the Federal Aviation Administration) became part of DOT in the 1966 Act, the CAB remained an independent government agency. While CAB regulation suppressed free competition , it provided security for
693-698: A coalition of labor, business, and consumer advocacy groups in order to oppose increasing the tax on airline tickets that funds the Transportation Security Administration . A4A called this campaign "Stop Air Tax Now." A4A's efforts were in response to a proposal in late 2013 to increase the tax to $ 5.00 from $ 2.50 per ticket. In 2012 this tax generated about $ 2.3 billion in revenue, double the amount for 2002. A4A staffers handed out air-sickness bags and leaflets at Washington Reagan National Airport asking "Are higher taxes on air travel making you sick?" Nicholas Calio said, "Raising taxes
792-597: A handbook on the airline industry that provides background information on airline economics, operations, safety, security and history. The then Air Transport Association released the newest version of ATA Spec 100 in 1999. According to the A4A ;website, this information will not be revised and has been combined with ATA Spec 2100 to produce the ATA ; iSpec 2200: Information Standards for Aviation Maintenance manual. This specification defines
891-486: A landing site for the Space Shuttle . Takeoff and landing distances available are given using one of the following terms: There are standards for runway markings. There are runway markings and signs on most large runways. Larger runways have a distance remaining sign (black box with white numbers). This sign uses a single number to indicate the remaining distance of the runway in thousands of feet. For example,
990-531: A large Indiana-based air travel club. Voyager, which had a fleet comprising a Boeing 720 , two Lockheed Electras and some piston aircraft and its own terminal at Indianapolis Airport , unsuccessfully appealed to the federal courts. The chief pilot of Voyager was George Mikelsons , who left to found what later became ATA Airlines . The CAB went on to shut two other large clubs in 1974 and 1975. Notwithstanding these enforcement actions, in November 1979 (within
1089-406: A misnomer to characterize the current law as a consumer protection rule when it really protects the government, not airline passengers, and it's disingenuous for Washington to hide the ball and not be held responsible for the taxes they impose on air travel." A4A said that as of 2014, $ 61 of a $ 300 domestic airfare is taxes. Airlines for America also has been involved in promoting fuel efficiency and
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#17327731032591188-551: A new rule that says air and rail union elections must be decided by a majority of votes cast. Previously under the Railway Labor Act , which covers rail and airline workers, every worker who did not cast a vote in a representation election was automatically counted as a “No” vote. The Air Transport Association and ten of its member airlines, filed suit in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia to block
1287-542: A periodic basis. Fields with very low traffic of light planes may use a sod surface. Some runways make use of salt flats. For pavement designs, borings are taken to determine the subgrade condition, and based on the relative bearing capacity of the subgrade, the specifications are established. For heavy-duty commercial aircraft, the pavement thickness, no matter what the top surface, varies from 10 to 48 in (25 to 122 cm), including subgrade. Airport pavements have been designed by two methods. The first, Westergaard ,
1386-537: A supplemental air carrier. Air travel clubs were membership organizations, nominally private, that had their own aircraft and ran trips for members. In 1968, the FAA instituted Part 123 of the Federal Aviation Regulations under which air travel clubs had their own operational requirements. Starting in the early 1970s, the CAB went after some of the largest air travel clubs for being de-facto common carriers. In 1973, it shut down Voyager 1000,
1485-415: A third parallel runway was opened at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport in 2000 to the south of existing 8R/26L—rather than confusingly becoming the "new" 8R/26L it was instead designated 7R/25L, with the former 8R/26L becoming 7L/25R and 8L/26R becoming 8/26. Suffixes may also be used to denote special use runways. Airports that have seaplane waterways may choose to denote the waterway on charts with
1584-429: A widely used numbering scheme for aircraft parts and the appearance of printed aircraft maintenance information. The Federal Aviation Administration 's JASC (Joint Aircraft System/Component) code table provides a modified version of ATA Spec 100. ATA Spec 100 contains format and content guidelines for technical manuals written by aviation manufacturers and suppliers, and is used by airlines and other segments of
1683-445: Is an extrapolation of the original test results, which are not applicable to modern aircraft pavements or to modern aircraft landing gear . Some designs were made by a mixture of these two design theories. A more recent method is an analytical system based on the introduction of vehicle response as an important design parameter. Essentially it takes into account all factors, including the traffic conditions, service life, materials used in
1782-469: Is based on the assumption that the pavement is an elastic plate supported on a heavy fluid base with a uniform reaction coefficient known as the K value . Experience has shown that the K values on which the formula was developed are not applicable for newer aircraft with very large footprint pressures. The second method is called the California bearing ratio and was developed in the late 1940s. It
1881-399: Is considered to have the longest takeoff distance of the more common aircraft types and has set the standard for runway lengths of larger international airports. At sea level , 3,200 m (10,500 ft) can be considered an adequate length to land virtually any aircraft. For example, at O'Hare International Airport , when landing simultaneously on 4L/22R and 10/28 or parallel 9R/27L, it
1980-418: Is generally found to be unnecessary, with the exception of expansion joints across the runway where a dowel assembly, which permits relative movement of the concrete slabs, is placed in the concrete. Where it can be anticipated that major settlements of the runway will occur over the years because of unstable ground conditions, it is preferable to install asphalt concrete surface, as it is easier to patch on
2079-408: Is included for all ICAO and some U.S. military airports (such as Edwards Air Force Base ). However, most U.S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield . This American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It
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#17327731032592178-464: Is lose-lose for airlines, passengers, jobs and our overall economy – it’s inappropriate for Congress to use airline passengers as an ATM when it needs more money. Doubling the TSA passenger security tax would cost passengers more than $ 730 million annually, placing a huge additional tax on the traveling public, with no direct benefit to those who pay it.” In 2014, Airlines for America supported legislation,
2277-454: Is most nearly aligned with the wind. Airports with one runway are often constructed to be aligned with the prevailing wind . Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary steps taken in constructing airport runways. Wind direction is given as the direction the wind is coming from : a plane taking off from runway 09 faces east, into an "east wind" blowing from 090°. Originally in the 1920s and 1930s, airports and air bases (particularly in
2376-578: Is routine for arrivals from East Asia , which would normally be vectored for 4L/22R (2,300 m (7,546 ft)) or 9R/27L (2,400 m (7,874 ft)) to request 28R (4,000 m (13,123 ft)). It is always accommodated, although occasionally with a delay. Another example is that the Luleå Airport in Sweden was extended to 3,500 m (11,483 ft) to allow any fully loaded freight aircraft to take off. These distances are also influenced by
2475-451: Is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon, and not welcomed, as they require an accompanying change in aeronautical charts and descriptive documents. When a runway designation does change, especially at major airports, it is often done at night, because taxiway signs need to be changed and the numbers at each end of the runway need to be repainted to the new runway designators. In July 2009 for example, London Stansted Airport in
2574-459: Is usually adequate for aircraft weights below approximately 100,000 kg (220,000 lb). Larger aircraft including widebodies will usually require at least 2,400 m (7,900 ft) at sea level. International widebody flights, which carry substantial amounts of fuel and are therefore heavier, may also have landing requirements of 3,200 m (10,500 ft) or more and takeoff requirements of 4,000 m (13,000 ft). The Boeing 747
2673-557: Is very common in a country such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04, and the pilot read back the clearance as runway 4. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U.S. usage to airports around the world. For example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Military airbases may include smaller paved runways known as "assault strips" for practice and training next to larger primary runways. These strips eschew
2772-459: The Civil Aeronautics Board , the creation of the air traffic control system and airline deregulation . It also advocates that the American government implement a national airline policy that will enable U.S. airlines to function as effective multinational enterprises. Furthermore, it declares that an element of such a policy is the modernization of the U.S. air traffic management system,
2871-905: The Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative (CAAFI), the Farm to Fly program. A4A opposed efforts by the European Union to unilaterially extend its Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) to international aviation. The European Union Parliament stayed the extension of the ETS until 2016. The extension of "stop the clock" on ETS was consistent with the agreement reached at the International Civil Aviation Organization Assembly in 2013, which rejected unilateral regulations of carbon emissions while committing
2970-510: The Federal Aviation Administration just like any other carrier. Uncertificated carriers , known by a variety of names over time, such as contract carriers or Part 45 carriers , were airlines which escaped CAB regulation by not being common carriers - in other words, they did not hold themselves out to the public as a carrier. Zantop Air Transport was an example of such a company, flying aircraft on behalf of
3069-826: The Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen). Nicholas Calio became president of the Air Transport Association (as Airlines for America was then known), in January 2011. Calio was hired after the Republicans made big gains in the 2010 midterm elections. Hiring Calio, "a brand name" Republican, known for working well with Democrats, was seen as a positive for the ATA. Democratic lobbyist Jimmy Ryan said: "He’s so well liked by both Democrats and Republicans that for
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3168-527: The Transparent Airfares Act of 2014 (H.R. 4156; 113th Congress) , to advertise ticket prices by their base fare in addition to various government fees and taxes. The legislation would reverse Department of Transportation regulations implemented in 2012 that force airlines to advertise base fares lumped together with taxes and fees. Airlines for America argues that current regulations hide excessive taxes on air travel. Nicholas Calio said, "It's
3267-614: The Watres Act , which had regulated commercial aviation since the mid-1920s, and created a new agency, the Civil Aeronautics Authority. The agency was renamed in 1940, due to a merger with the Air Safety Board. It became an independent agency under Reorganization Plans Nos. III and IV of 1940, effective on June 30, 1940. The Air Safety Board had formed in 1938. Other predecessor agencies included
3366-420: The 1999 revision level. ATA Spec 300 establishes regulations that ensure effective packaging for supplies and equipment shipped by airlines. It stipulates, for example, that a shipping case be able to withstand a minimum of 100 shipments, have durable recessed handles, be coated with non-corrosive products, and have rounded well constructed edges. There has been an increased use of personal luggage that meets
3465-698: The A4A has been responsible for publishing numerical technical classifications and defining specifications for electronic technical data interchange of aircraft systems and sub-systems used in aircraft engineering and aircraft maintenance . These are grouped into 100 Chapters, referred to by civil aviation standards as spec 100 , containing the data specifications for maintenance requirements and procedures, aircraft configuration control, and flight operations. In 2000, ATA incorporated earlier specifications into spec 2100 and eventually ATA iSpec 2200 as Information Standards for Aviation Maintenance . In that publication,
3564-509: The ATA described iSpec 2200 as "a global aviation industry standard for the content, structure, and electronic exchange of aircraft engineering, maintenance, and flight operations information". A4A's stated purpose is to "foster a business and regulatory environment that ensures safe and secure air transportation and enables U.S. airlines to flourish, stimulating economic growth locally, nationally and globally". A4A advocates on behalf of participating regularly scheduled airline corporations to
3663-608: The ATA it’s a huge coup. The new challenge is figuring out how to get things done in a bipartisan manner and Nick is the guy who’s got the record to do it.” Senator Harry Reid said, "...Nick was a straight shooter and I appreciated that about him when he was at the White House. The ATA is fortunate to have a seasoned hand who understands the importance of finding bipartisan solutions.” A4A senior staff members have testified before Congress in favor of lowering taxes on airlines, arguing that current policies reduce profits and growth in
3762-629: The ATA 300 required standards. The ATA Spec 300 was first published on August 1, 1960. On October 27, 2015, Delta Air Lines , Inc. (DL) elected to leave A4A at the end of April 2016, following various disagreements with other members. However, on October 29, 2015, A4A voted to remove Delta Air Lines effective immediately so the Members would speak with one voice. On December 18, 2019, Delta Air Lines , Inc. (DL) and A4A jointly announced that Delta Air Lines would rejoin in 2020. Civil Aeronautics Board The Civil Aeronautics Board ( CAB )
3861-647: The Aeronautics Branch (1926–1934), the Bureau of Air Commerce (1934–1938), and the Bureau of Air Mail, Interstate Commerce Commission (1934–38). The first air accident investigation led by the CAB was the 1940 Lovettsville air disaster . Some duties were transferred to the Federal Aviation Agency in 1958. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) was established in 1967, taking over air accident investigation duties. Under
3960-399: The CAB allowed local service carriers to compete on some routes with trunklines and some local service carriers became sizeable airlines. However, as shown in the table below, in 1978, just prior to deregulation, the largest local service carrier Allegheny (soon to rename itself USAir ) was still smaller in revenue terms than the smallest trunk, National , and basic operating statistics show
4059-401: The CAB from regulating certain things: frequency, equipment, accommodations and facilities. It was up to the carrier to determine what aircraft it flew and how often and what airport or ticket facilities it built/rented, and so forth. However, the CAB did generally require a minimum adequate service, e.g. often two flights/day, in a market. The Civil Aeronautics Authority Act of 1938 superseded
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4158-647: The CAB saw as making them common carriers. For instance, in February 1961, the issued a cease-and-desist order to, among others, Trans Global Airlines, Inc. aka Golden State Airlines, a Part 45 carrier, for carrying passengers to the Dunes Hotel in Las Vegas for "free". The fact that transportation was provided as part of the cost of accommodation did not make the airline any less a common carrier, and therefore guilty of providing interstate air transportation without
4257-481: The CAB's taxonomy of certificated scheduled airlines (see "Airline categories" below). However, in 1972 the CAB expanded this category to include aircraft of 30 passengers or fewer, with a payload of less than 7,500 lbs. Such carriers did have to obtain Federal Aviation Administration operational/safety certification but were otherwise able to fly wherever they pleased. The CAB would, on occasion, also exempt air-taxi or commuter operators to operate aircraft larger than
4356-599: The Civil Aeronautics Authority Act that created the CAB. These were carriers such as United Air Lines , American , TWA , etc, all with origins going back to the 1920s and 1930s. For a summary, see the table below. After World War II, the CAB certificated a second set of scheduled carriers, the local service carriers . In theory, local service airlines served smaller routes than the trunklines, though most trunklines tended to have some legacy points on their networks that were quite small. Over time,
4455-724: The Civil Aeronautics Board to regulate airlines was established by the Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938. The 1938 Act was amended by the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, but the main effect of that was to establish the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), which among other things regulated (as it still does) airline operations and safety. The 1966 Department of Transportation Act, which established the US Department of Transportation (DOT), had
4554-718: The Commerce Building (a.k.a. the Herbert C. Hoover Building ), and its offices were in several buildings. After moving into the Universal Building, CAB leased space there. By 1968 the agency had acquired an additional approximately 2,000 square feet (190 m ) of space in the same building, resulting in additional rent expenses. Runway According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO),
4653-632: The NMB ;ruling. The court upheld the new rule and denied ATA's (A4A's) request for an injunction. A4A advocated for ending federal transportation mask mandates during the COVID-19 pandemic. Since 1937 A4A has released an annual economic report on the U.S. airline industry that includes statistics on operational and financial results for passenger and cargo operations. This report includes data on industry revenue, expenses, traffic, fuel use, safety, economic impact and employment. A4A also publishes
4752-408: The U.S. Congress, state legislatures, the U.S. Department of Transportation , including the Federal Aviation Administration , and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security , including the Transportation Security Administration and Customs and Border Protection . Since its founding, A4A has played a major role in all government decisions concerning aviation, including the creation of
4851-609: The US automakers on a private basis (before it acquired a supplemental certificate in 1962). "Part 45" was a reference to the then Civil Aviation Regulations under which the then Federal Aviation Agency regulated the operations/safety of such non-common carrier operators. Over time, the Civil Aviation Regulations (subsequently the Federal Aviation Regulations ) changed. Instead of Part 45, such uncertificated carriers were moved to being regulated under Part 42. They then became known as Part 42 carriers . Finally,
4950-659: The United Kingdom changed its runway designations from 05/23 to 04/22 during the night. Runway dimensions vary from as small as 245 m (804 ft) long and 8 m (26 ft) wide in smaller general aviation airports, to 5,500 m (18,045 ft) long and 80 m (262 ft) wide at large international airports built to accommodate the largest jets , to the huge 11,917 m × 274 m (39,098 ft × 899 ft) lake bed runway 17/35 at Edwards Air Force Base in California – developed as
5049-468: The United Kingdom) were built in a triangle-like pattern of three runways at 60° angles to each other. The reason was that aviation was only starting, and although it was known that wind affected the runway distance required, not much was known about wind behaviour. As a result, three runways in a triangle-like pattern were built, and the runway with the heaviest traffic would eventually expand into
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#17327731032595148-547: The air traffic control system would also reduce the amount of time that airplanes spend waiting on runways and in holding patterns. Officially, the A4A has announced five "core elements" of a national airline policy include reducing taxes on the industry, reducing regulation, increased access to foreign markets, making the industry more attractive for investors, and improving the air traffic control system. A4A President and CEO, Nicholas E. Calio, said, "Airlines enable their local businesses to export goods, connect their residents to
5247-489: The air traffic control system; and reducing taxes on airlines. Airlines for America supports NextGen modernization of the air traffic control system. This system will update the current 1950s radar-based technology with a modern, satellite-based navigation system. Aviation experts predict that a modern air traffic management system will save jet fuel and reduce delays by allowing planes to fly shorter routes and by allowing more aircraft to fly safely at any given time. Modernizing
5346-559: The aircraft tyres. To maintain the macrotexturing built into the runway by the grooves, maintenance crews engage in airfield rubber removal or hydrocleaning in order to meet required FAA , or other aviation authority friction levels. Subsurface underdrains help provide extended life and excellent and reliable pavement performance. At the Hartsfield Atlanta, GA airport the underdrains usually consist of trenches 18 in (46 cm) wide and 48 in (120 cm) deep from
5445-614: The aircraft. The legislation further penalizes airlines up to $ 27,500 per passenger if left stranded aboard an aircraft, on a tarmac for more than three hours. In 2010 the then Air Transport Association and the Regional Airline Association both opposed this legislation. The ATA stated, "As we have noted before, competition in the marketplace and existing Department regulations supported by fair enforcement are sufficient to ensure airlines continue to deliver good customer service." In 2013, Airlines for America assembled
5544-550: The airline industry to achieve carbon neutral growth starting from 2020. The US Congress passed a law authorising the secretary of transportation to prohibit American aircraft operators from complying with the EU ETS. In 2010 a federal court upheld new democratic voting procedures for workers in the airline and rail industries who want to form unions. Earlier that year, the National Mediation Board (NMB) issued
5643-447: The airport's main runway, while the other two runways would be either abandoned or converted into taxiways. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the runway's heading in deca degrees . This heading differs from true north by the local magnetic declination . A runway numbered 09 points east (90°), runway 18 is south (180°), runway 27 points west (270°) and runway 36 points to
5742-543: The ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this system results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L, and 7R, even though all four runways are actually parallel at approximately 69°. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport , there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, and 18R, all oriented at a heading of 175.4°. Occasionally, an airport with only three parallel runways may use different runway identifiers, such as when
5841-454: The case of Hawaii, flying overwater between the islands, which was upheld in court as being intrinsically interstate commerce because the Federal government had domain over the seas. Note that the Federal government, while not providing economic regulation over intrastate carriers, did regulate them from an operational/safety standpoint. For those purposes intrastate airlines were regulated by
5940-448: The case of air taxis, the CAB chose not to regulate. In the case of intrastate airlines, it was legally unable to. Restriction of flying to a single state was not sufficient to avoid CAB regulation; the additional measures to avoid interstate commerce were critical. Furthermore, flying within a single state was generally interpreted strictly. An aircraft flying outside the boundaries of that one state could trigger CAB authority, including, in
6039-524: The chairmanship of John Robson, the Civil Aeronautics Board "in April 1976 did the unthinkable, becoming the first regulatory body to support deregulation," which President Gerald Ford first spurred in February 1975 with a proposal to abolish the CAB altogether. In the late 1970s, during the administration of President Jimmy Carter , and under the guidance of his economic advisor Alfred E. Kahn (who had specialized in regulatory economics, having written one of
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#17327731032596138-411: The construction, and, especially important, the dynamic response of the vehicles using the landing area. Because airport pavement construction is so expensive, manufacturers aim to minimize aircraft stresses on the pavement. Manufacturers of the larger planes design landing gear so that the weight of the plane is supported on larger and more numerous tires. Attention is also paid to the characteristics of
6237-533: The development of alternative fuels . In April 2014, Nancy Young, A4A's Vice President of Environmental Affairs, testified before the Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry on alternative aviation fuels. Young pointed out that airlines have a natural incentive to be energy efficient and outlined what the airline is doing to support aviation biofuels. Young encouraged the federal government to further support public-private partnerships such as
6336-589: The economy. Calio said that the regulatory and tax environment, in addition to inadequate infrastructure, are making it hard for the US airline industry to compete internationally and still turn a profit. On April 25, 2011, the Enhancing Airline Passenger Protections, "76 Federal Regulation 23110" rule was enacted. Amongst other items, the rule includes raising the minimum "denied boarding compensation" to customers with valid tickets yet still not allowed to board
6435-568: The environment; training; security; facilitation; ground safety; cargo; passenger services; communications; government affairs; and international affairs. A4A advocates common association member positions before state and local governments to assure governmental and public understanding of the A4A's positions on the aspects of commercial airlines. A4A's priorities include maintaining airline safety; maximizing airline profits; reforming energy-commodity markets; creating an international framework for reducing industry emissions; accelerating modernization of
6534-496: The existing airlines, avoided gluts and shortages of passengers on certain routes, and (partly by allowing airlines to carry air mail ) secured airline service for communities that would have otherwise been served less, or not have been served at all (due to low passenger traffic or other reasons). CAB authority included: Airlines had no ability to make competitive decisions, absent CAB approval, on choice of route or fare charged on any particular route. The Act also prevented
6633-475: The first federal regulatory regime, since the 1930s, to be totally dismantled — and this happened on January 1, 1985. The remaining tasks were transferred to the Secretary of Transportation except for a few going to the U.S. Postal Service . The CAB regulated almost all air transportation in the US, but there were some exceptions. The CAB chose not to regulate airlines flying "small aircraft". This
6732-441: The first year of deregulation) there were still 11 air travel clubs operationally regulated under Part 123, though by May 1980 it had dropped to seven. The CAB divided the airlines it regulated into categories according to the roles they were meant to play. The following draws from the CAB's FY 1977 Report to Congress dated May 1978, and so reflects the state of CAB airline certification just prior to deregulation. The first split
6831-638: The following: According to Transport Canada 's regulations, the runway-edge lighting must be visible for at least 2 mi (3 km). Additionally, a new system of advisory lighting, runway status lights , is currently being tested in the United States. The edge lights must be arranged such that: Typically the lights are controlled by a control tower , a flight service station or another designated authority. Some airports/airfields (particularly uncontrolled ones ) are equipped with pilot-controlled lighting , so that pilots can temporarily turn on
6930-489: The industry in the maintenance of their respective products. This document provides the industrywide standard for aircraft systems numbering, often referred to as the ATA system or ATA chapter numbers . The format and content guidelines define the data prepared as conventional printed documentation. In 2000 ATA Spec 100 and ATA Spec 2100 were incorporated into ATA i Spec 2200: Information Standards for Aviation Maintenance. ATA Spec 100 and Spec 2100 will not be updated beyond
7029-405: The industry. The A4A has also lobbied on topics such as enhancing competition in international markets and advocating for a comprehensive review of the FAA's NextGen program costs, benefits, progress and management. A4A works with its members on legal and technical issues affecting the U.S. airline industry. A4A operates member committees related to fuel; airports; engineering and maintenance;
7128-496: The lack of designated landing direction. If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways), each runway is identified by appending left (L), center (C) and right (R) to the end of the runway number to identify its position (when facing its direction)—for example, runways one-five-left (15L), one-five-center (15C), and one-five-right (15R). Runway zero-three-left (03L) becomes runway two-one-right (21R) when used in
7227-432: The landing gear itself, so that adverse effects on the pavement are minimized. Sometimes it is possible to reinforce a pavement for higher loading by applying an overlay of asphaltic concrete or portland cement concrete that is bonded to the original slab. Post-tensioning concrete has been developed for the runway surface. This permits the use of thinner pavements and should result in longer concrete pavement life. Because of
7326-409: The lights when the relevant authority is not available. This avoids the need for automatic systems or staff to turn the lights on at night or in other low visibility situations. This also avoids the cost of having the lighting system on for extended periods. Smaller airports may not have lighted runways or runway markings. Particularly at private airfields for light planes, there may be nothing more than
7425-623: The limits. For instance, in 1971, it exempted Executive Airlines and Air New England (at that time a commuter carrier) to fly propeller aircraft up to 44 seats to expand service in New England. On five occasions, the CAB certificated former air taxi/commuter airlines to fly larger aircraft. These airlines were then regulated by the CAB like any other CAB carrier: An airline that restricted flying to within one state and took other steps to minimize participation in interstate commerce could avoid CAB regulation and fly as an intrastate airline . In
7524-593: The local service carriers as flying distinctly less capacity, smaller aircraft and shorter routes than the trunks. Local service carriers were also the biggest recipients of CAB subsidies, as shown below. In 1978, the CAB paid a total of $ 66.3 million in subsidies to airlines (over $ 275 million in 2024 dollars) of which $ 58.5 million was paid to local service carriers, equivalent to over 40% of local service carrier operating profits that year. Other CAB domestic categories included intra-Alaskan , Hawaiian , helicopter , regional , air taxi , and cargo . Historically there
7623-458: The nearest 10°, this affects some runways sooner than others. For example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233°, it is designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changes downwards by 5 degrees to 228°, the runway remains Runway 23. If on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226° (Runway 23), and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224°, the runway becomes Runway 22. Because magnetic drift itself
7722-521: The need for "distinctly marked and carefully prepared landing places, [but] the preparing of the surface of reasonably flat ground [is] an expensive undertaking [and] there would also be a continuous expense for the upkeep." For fixed-wing aircraft , it is advantageous to perform takeoffs and landings into the wind to reduce takeoff or landing roll and reduce the ground speed needed to attain flying speed . Larger airports usually have several runways in different directions, so that one can be selected that
7821-581: The north (360° rather than 0°). When taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane is heading around 90° (east). A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each direction separately: e.g., "runway 15" in one direction is "runway 33" when used in the other. The two numbers differ by 18 (= 180°). For clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually: runway one-five, runway three-three, etc. (instead of "fifteen" or "thirty-three"). A leading zero, for example in "runway zero-six" or "runway zero-one-left",
7920-589: The opposite direction (derived from adding 18 to the original number for the 180° difference when approaching from the opposite direction). In some countries, regulations mandate that where parallel runways are too close to each other, only one may be used at a time under certain conditions (usually adverse weather ). At large airports with four or more parallel runways (for example, at Chicago O'Hare , Los Angeles , Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County , Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta , Denver , Dallas–Fort Worth and Orlando ), some runway identifiers are shifted by 1 to avoid
8019-457: The regulations were completely revamped, with most commercial operations moved to Part 121. Such operators were then known as Part 121 commercial operators or simply just commercial operators . A prominent example of such a carrier was Zantop International Airlines (ZIA), which started in 1972 as a Part 121 commercial operator, uncertificated by the CAB. The CAB regularly enforced its powers against uncertificated carriers engaged in activities
8118-478: The runway grade (slope) such that, for example, each 1 percent of runway down slope increases the landing distance by 10 percent. An aircraft taking off at a higher altitude must do so at reduced weight due to decreased density of air at higher altitudes, which reduces engine power and wing lift. An aircraft must also take off at a reduced weight in hotter or more humid conditions (see density altitude ). Most commercial aircraft carry manufacturer's tables showing
8217-406: The runway and at 1,000 ft (305 m) intervals. A line of lights on an airfield or elsewhere to guide aircraft in taking off or coming in to land or an illuminated runway is sometimes also known as a flare path . Runway lighting is used at airports during periods of darkness and low visibility. Seen from the air, runway lights form an outline of the runway. A runway may have some or all of
8316-421: The same kind of proceedings as huge airlines like United and American. 1975 certification proceedings for Munz Northern were memorialized in 32 pages of CAB reports, encompassing the deliberations of the (usually five but in this case four) member CAB board itself, plus the earlier deliberations of an administrative law judge in front of whom six people appeared, representing Munz and two other interested parties. At
8415-642: The scheduled carriers. Scheduled carriers were split between domestic and international. Two carriers were exclusively international: Air Micronesia (a subsidiary of Continental Airlines ) and cargo carrier Seaboard . One carrier was almost exclusively international: Pan Am and, until deregulation, was not permitted to sell tickets for transport within the continental US. While it could fly aircraft from, say, New York to Los Angeles, it could not sell tickets between New York and Los Angeles despite having significant international operations in both cities. All other international carriers were also domestic carriers. There
8514-623: The standard numerical naming convention and instead employ the runway's full three digit heading; examples include Dobbins Air Reserve Base 's Runway 110/290 and Duke Field 's Runway 180/360. Runways with non-hard surfaces, such as small turf airfields and waterways for seaplanes , may use the standard numerical scheme or may use traditional compass point naming, examples include Ketchikan Harbor Seaplane Base 's Waterway E/W. Airports with unpredictable or chaotic water currents, such as Santa Catalina Island 's Pebbly Beach Seaplane Base, may designate their landing area as Waterway ALL/WAY to denote
8613-597: The standard texts and previously been chairman of the New York Public Service Commission , the body regulating utilities in New York State , and was appointed CAB Chairman), the CAB continued to be the focus of the early deregulation movement, and its dissolution was one of the most conspicuous pioneering events of the movement. The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 specified that the CAB would eventually be disestablished —
8712-414: The suffix T; this is advantageous for certain airfields in the far north such as Thule Air Base (08T/26T). Runway designations may change over time because Earth's magnetic lines slowly drift on the surface and the magnetic direction changes. Depending on the airport location and how much drift occurs, it may be necessary to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to
8811-577: The suffix W; such as Daniel K. Inouye International Airport in Honolulu and Lake Hood Seaplane Base in Anchorage . Small airports that host various forms of air traffic may employ additional suffixes to denote special runway types based on the type of aircraft expected to use them, including STOL aircraft (S), gliders (G), rotorcraft (H), and ultralights (U). Runways that are numbered relative to true north rather than magnetic north will use
8910-652: The surface of water for seaplanes are generally referred to as waterways . Runway lengths are now commonly given in meters worldwide , except in North America where feet are commonly used. In 1916, in a World War I war effort context, the first concrete-paved runway was built in Clermont-Ferrand in France , allowing local company Michelin to manufacture Bréguet Aviation military aircraft. In January 1919, aviation pioneer Orville Wright underlined
9009-441: The susceptibility of thinner pavements to frost heave , this process is generally applicable only where there is no appreciable frost action . Runway pavement surface is prepared and maintained to maximize friction for wheel braking. To minimize hydroplaning following heavy rain, the pavement surface is usually grooved so that the surface water film flows into the grooves and the peaks between grooves will still be in contact with
9108-493: The time, Munz had six aircraft, each carrying 10 people or fewer. Further, Munz then had the same reporting requirement as carriers like United, all the usual reams of data that had to be sent to the CAB, for a carrier a tiny fraction of the size. The agency had its headquarters in the Universal Building in Dupont Circle , Washington, D.C. The agency had moved there by May 1959. Previously it had been headquartered in
9207-547: The top of the pavement. A perforated plastic tube (5.9 in (15 cm) in diameter) is placed at the bottom of the ditch. The ditches are filled with gravel size crushed stone. Excessive moisture under a concrete pavement can cause pumping, cracking, and joint failure. In aviation charts, the surface type is usually abbreviated to a three-letter code. The most common hard surface types are asphalt and concrete. The most common soft surface types are grass and gravel. A runway of at least 1,800 m (5,900 ft) in length
9306-460: The world for business and leisure travel – and, importantly, create good-paying jobs. We face the very real risk of U.S. airlines increasingly shifting to feeding foreign airlines at our gateways, rather than expanding their flying of lucrative international routes." In 2011, Calio said that the value of American exports shipped by air was 117 times the value of exports transported by sea and that commercial aviation had become an important catalyst for
9405-522: Was a territorial category, superseded by Hawaiian and Intra-Alaskan after Hawaii and Alaska became states. Some carriers had more than one domestic status. For instance, Alaska Airlines was listed as both an Alaska carrier and a trunk, however, for the purposes of 1978 CAB statistics it was counted as an Alaska carrier. The wide variety of carriers in the table below hints at problems with just one facet of CAB regulation. Tiny Alaskan back-country carriers like Munz Northern and Kodiak-Western were subject to
9504-410: Was a split within international between passenger airlines (which were always free to carry cargo and sometimes flew pure cargo aircraft) and cargo airlines. Domestic had many subcategories. The original CAB scheduled carriers were known as trunkline carriers , trunklines , trunk airlines or simply just trunks, with most (but not all) such carriers having certificates dating back to 1938, the date of
9603-571: Was an agency of the federal government of the United States , formed in 1940 from a split of the Civil Aeronautics Authority and abolished in 1985, that regulated aviation services (including scheduled passenger airline service ) and, until the establishment of the National Transportation Safety Board in 1967, conducted air accident investigations. The agency was headquartered in Washington, D.C. The authority of
9702-475: Was between scheduled and non-scheduled (charter carriers). The CAB referred to non-scheduled carriers, in 1978, as supplemental air carriers . Prior to 1955, the CAB called them irregular air carriers . Scheduled carriers were also free to offer charters. Throughout the history of the CAB, the supplementals constantly attempted to become scheduled carriers and the CAB constantly rejected them. There were also tight restrictions on supplementals, designed to protect
9801-570: Was formalized in Part 298 of the Board's economic regulations, which in 1952 gave a blanket authorization for any airline operating an aircraft with a maximum gross takeoff weight of 12,500 lbs or less. Such airlines were originally known as "air taxis", later as commuter airlines or Part 298 carriers . Confusingly, "air taxi" was also the term by which the CAB referred to Aspen Airways and Wright Air Lines (after they became certificated carriers) within
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