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126-592: The Airport Core Programme was a series of infrastructure projects centred on the new Hong Kong International Airport during the early 1990s. The programme was part of the Port and Airport Development Strategy , commonly known as the Rose Garden Project . The cost for the whole project was estimated at over HK$ 200 billion, and the Chinese Government was concerned about its impact on

252-504: A comparable assessment of countries' fiscal policies, promoting transparency and accountability at the international level. In addition, in an econometric study published in the Economic Modelling journal, an analysis on government energy technology spending showed that spending on the renewable energy sector created five more jobs per million dollars invested than spending on fossil fuels . Since sustainable infrastructure

378-426: A connection between cities, transportation for people and goods, and protection for land against flooding and erosion, they only last for 50 to 100 years. Many were built within the last 50 years, which means many infrastructures need substantial maintenance to continue functioning. However, concrete is not sustainable. The production of concrete contributes up to 8% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions. A tenth of

504-484: A coordinated focus on both creating the methods of transportation themselves and providing them with networks that are equally or more efficient than existing car networks such as aging highway systems. Another solution to transition into a more sustainable infrastructure is using more sustainable materials. A material is sustainable if the needed amount can be produced without depleting non-renewable resources. It also should have low environmental impacts by not disrupting

630-494: A higher level of relative sustainability than their traditional counterparts. In a sustainable city, urban resilience as well as infrastructure reliability must both be present. Urban resilience is defined by a city's capacity to quickly adapt or recover from infrastructure defects, and infrastructure reliability means that systems must work efficiently while continuing to maximize their output. When urban resilience and infrastructure reliability interact, cities are able to produce

756-568: A lesser extent, Tsuen Wan New Town , were revised downwards, and the plan for a new town in Tseung Kwan O was shelved. In this updated scenario, the consultants reduced the scale of the recommended system. The supplementary report stated that the originally suggested four tracks between Admiralty station and Mong Kok station should be reduced to two, and only parts of the Island line, Tsuen Wan line, and Kwun Tong line should be constructed for

882-522: A non-binding memorandum of understanding with the Hong Kong government , the owner of Kowloon–Canton Railway Corporation , to merge the operation of the two railway networks in Hong Kong in spite of the strong opposition of KCRC staff. The minority shareholders of the corporation approved the proposal at an extraordinary general meeting on 9 October 2007, allowing MTRCL to take over the operation of

1008-526: A rating of "D+" on its infrastructure. This aging infrastructure is a result of governmental neglect and inadequate funding. As the United States presumably looks to upgrade its existing infrastructure, sustainable measures could be a consideration of the design, build, and operation plans. Public infrastructure is that owned or available for use by the public (represented by the government ). It includes: A way to embody personal infrastructure

1134-403: A record high in 2010, partially due to governments' implemented economic stimulus measures with minimal consideration of the environmental consequences. The concern is whether this same pattern will repeat itself. The post-COVID-19 period could determine whether the world meets or misses the emissions goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement and limits global warming to 1.5 degrees C to 2 degrees C. As

1260-624: A region or district would be included with infrastructure, but the private irrigation systems on individual land parcels would be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. Service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term " public works " includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as public buildings, such as schools and courthouses. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services . Public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by

1386-510: A result of the COVID-19 epidemic, a host of factors could jeopardize a low-carbon recovery plan: this includes reduced attention on the global political stage (2020 UN Climate Summit has been postponed to 2021), the relaxing of environmental regulations in pursuit of economic growth, decreased oil prices preventing low-carbon technologies from being competitive, and finally, stimulus programs that take away funds that could have been used to further

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1512-402: A result, they soak 30% more water than conventional gardens. Bioswales are planted in paved areas like parking lots or sidewalks and are made to allow for overflow into the sewer system by trapping silt and other pollutants, which are normally left over from impermeable surfaces. Both rain gardens and bioswales mitigate flood impacts and prevent stormwater from polluting local waterways; increase

1638-514: A specified area by using property tax increases. In order to facilitate investment of the private sector in developing countries' infrastructure markets, it is necessary to design risk-allocation mechanisms more carefully, given the higher risks of their markets. The spending money that comes from the government is less than it used to be. From the 1930s to 2019, the United States went from spending 4.2% of GDP to 2.5% of GDP on infrastructure. These under investments have accrued, in fact, according to

1764-801: A specified standard of service by the continuing replacement and refurbishment of its components". Civil defense planners and developmental economists generally refer to both hard and soft infrastructure, including public services such as schools and hospitals , emergency services such as police and fire fighting, and basic services in the economic sector . The notion of infrastructure-based development combining long-term infrastructure investments by government agencies at central and regional levels with public private partnerships has proven popular among economists in Asia (notably Singapore and China), mainland Europe, and Latin America. Military infrastructure

1890-804: A total cost of construction (not adjusted for inflation) of HK$ 4.1 billion (US$ 526 million). The plan was modified from that in the 1970 report Hong Kong Mass Transit: Further Studies , with Kwai Chung station, Lap Sap Wan station, and a planned depot in Kwai Chung next to Lap Sap Wan station being replaced by stations in Kwai Hing and Kwai Fong and a depot in Tsuen Wan. Several stations also had names different to that during planning: So Uk station became Cheung Sha Wan , Cheung Sha Wan became Lai Chi Kok , and Lai Chi Kok became Lai Wan (later renamed Mei Foo ). When service of this line started,

2016-449: A total of US$ 24.9 billion. In irrigation , governments represent almost all spending. In transport and energy a majority of investment is government spending. In ICT and water supply and sanitation , the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure. Overall, between them aid, the private sector, and non- OECD financiers exceed government spending. The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though

2142-789: A transfer is made between Tsim Sha Tsui and East Tsim Sha Tsui stations, where two tickets are required. Student discounts on Octopus Card were also issued. The MTR system has been extended numerous times since the railway merger. Relevant projects include the LOHAS Park spur line (2009), the Kowloon Southern Link (2009), the West Island line (2014), the Kwun Tong line extension (2016), the South Island line (2016), Tuen Ma line Phase 1 (2020) and Phase 2 (2021) and

2268-644: Is a planned extension of the Tseung Kwan O line that will interchange at the future Tamar station with the Tung Chung line. It will alleviate traffic in the northern part of Hong Kong Island. There will be three new stations: Tamar , Exhibition Centre (which will be an interchange between the North Island line and the North South Corridor), and Causeway Bay North . There is currently no proposed construction time for this line, however in

2394-428: Is a rooftop that is partially or completely covered with growing vegetation planted over a membrane. It also includes additional layers, including a root barrier and drainage and irrigation systems. There are several categories of green roofs, including extensive (have a growing media depth ranging from two to six inches) and intensive (have a growing media with a depth greater than six inches). One benefit of green roofs

2520-675: Is available only when there are two continuous stations shared as interchange stations by two lines. Two major works were undertaken to ease interchange between the Kwun Tong line and East Rail line. The modification of Kowloon Tong station started in June 2001. A new pedestrian link to Kowloon Tong station southern concourse and a new entrance (Exit D) opened on 15 April 2004 to cope with the increase in interchange passenger flow. Modification to Tsim Sha Tsui station involved upgrading station facilities and concourse layout to facilitate access from

2646-438: Is defined as "those immobile, non-circulating capital goods that essentially contribute to the production of infrastructure goods and services needed to satisfy basic physical and social requirements of economic agents ". There are two distinct qualities of material infrastructures: 1) fulfillment of social needs and 2) mass production . The first characteristic deals with the basic needs of human life. The second characteristic

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2772-562: Is expected to be complete in 2030. The East Kowloon line is planned to serve the East Kowloon area to Tseung Kwan O New Town via the hilly Sau Mau Ping residential area. The South Island line (West) was part of the same original proposal as the South Island line, and would connect HKU to Wong Chuk Hang around the west coast of Hong Kong Island, however, construction has not started as of 2024 . The North Island line

2898-527: Is generally paid for by metered user fees. Major investment projects are generally financed by the issuance of long-term bonds . Government-owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the private sector or in public-private partnerships , in addition to in the public sector . As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2.3% and 3.6% of GDP since 1950. Many financial institutions invest in infrastructure. According to researchers at

3024-556: Is in current planning) by the Hong Kong government. It would help to connect planned population centres isolated in the New Territories with Kowloon and Hong Kong. Construction of Kwu Tung station began in 29 September 2023, and is expected to be completed in 2027, while construction of the Northern Link is expected to begin in 2025 and is scheduled to commence service in 2034. The Tung Chung line extension will extend

3150-484: Is more beneficial in both an economic and environmental context, it represents the future of infrastructure. Especially with increasing pressure from climate change and diminishing natural resources, infrastructure not only needs to maintain economic development and job development, and a high quality of life for residents, but also protect the environment and its natural resources. Sustainable energy infrastructure includes types of renewable energy power plants as well as

3276-430: Is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average thirty to forty percent returns for telecommunications ( ICT ) investments, over forty percent for electricity generation, and eighty percent for roads . The demand for infrastructure both by consumers and by companies is much higher than the amount invested. There are severe constraints on

3402-546: Is needed, and transmission of information within and between communities." The American Society of Civil Engineers publishes an "Infrastructure Report Card" which represents the organizations opinion on the condition of various infrastructure every 2–4 years. As of 2017 they grade 16 categories, namely aviation, bridges, dams, drinking water , energy, hazardous waste , inland waterways , levees , parks and recreation , ports , rail , roads , schools, solid waste , transit and wastewater . The United States has received

3528-472: Is now known as Tsing Kwai Highway . The Tsing Yi section comprises the 500-metre (550 yd) long Cheung Tsing Bridge , which crosses over Rambler Channel , and the 1.6 km (0.99 miles) Cheung Tsing Tunnel , which cuts through the high ground on Tsing Yi Island. This section is now known as the Cheung Tsing Highway . This is a six-lane motorway 4.2 km (2.6 miles) in length with

3654-409: Is that they reduce stormwater runoff because of its ability to store water in its growing media, reducing the runoff entering the sewer system and waterways, which also decreases the risk of combined sewer overflows. They reduce energy usage since the growing media provides additional insulation, reduces the amount of solar radiation on the roof's surface, and provides evaporative cooling from water in

3780-599: Is the buildings and permanent installations necessary for the support of military forces, whether they are stationed in bases, being deployed or engaged in operations. Examples include barracks, headquarters, airfields, communications facilities, stores of military equipment, port installations, and maintenance stations. Communications infrastructure is the informal and formal channels of communication, political and social networks , or beliefs held by members of particular groups, as well as information technology, software development tools. Still underlying these more conceptual uses

3906-482: Is the centrepiece of this massive project; it provided the foundation for the other nine core projects of the Airport Core Programme. Chek Lap Kok was selected as an optimal site due to its development potential. Construction finally started in 1992 and was planned to finish in mid-1997. Chris Patten , the last Governor of Hong Kong, expressed his hope of leaving Hong Kong via the new airport after

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4032-405: Is the idea that infrastructure provides organizing structure and support for the system or organization it serves, whether it is a city, a nation, a corporation, or a collection of people with common interests. Examples include IT infrastructure , research infrastructure, terrorist infrastructure, employment infrastructure, and tourism infrastructure. The term "infrastructure" may be confused with

4158-812: Is the non-availability of infrastructure goods and services. Today, there are various materials that can be used to build infrastructure. The most prevalent ones are asphalt, concrete, steel, masonry, wood, polymers and composites. According to the business dictionary, economic infrastructure can be defined as "internal facilities of a country that make business activity possible, such as communication, transportation and distribution networks , financial institutions and related international markets, and energy supply systems". Economic infrastructure support productive activities and events. This includes roads, highways, bridges, airports, cycling infrastructure , water distribution networks, sewer systems , and irrigation plants. Social infrastructure can be broadly defined as

4284-746: Is the object of economic and legal policy. It compromises the growth and sets norms. It refers to the degree of fair treatment of equal economic data and determines the framework within which economic agents may formulate their own economic plans and carry them out in co-operation with others. Sustainable infrastructure refers to the processes of design and construction that take into consideration their environmental, economic, and social impact. Included in this section are several elements of sustainable schemes, including materials, water, energy, transportation, and waste management infrastructure. Although there are endless other factors of consideration, those will not be covered in this section. Material infrastructure

4410-485: Is the second most popular means of transport to the airport after buses. In 2012, it had a 21.8 per cent of share of the traffic to and from the airport. However, this has declined from a peak of 32 per cent in 1999. The Quarry Bay Congestion Relief Works extended the Hong Kong Island end of the Kwun Tong line from Quarry Bay to North Point via a pair of 2.1-kilometre (1.3 mi) tunnels. The project

4536-514: Is to think of it in terms of human capital . Human capital is defined by the Encyclopædia Britannica as "intangible collective resources possessed by individuals and groups within a given population". The goal of personal infrastructure is to determine the quality of the economic agents' values. This results in three major tasks: the task of economic proxies in the economic process (teachers, unskilled and qualified labor, etc.);

4662-652: The Airport Express and the Tung Chung line which provides a commuter service linking the new town of Tung Chung to the city. These two lines share the same double-tracks for most of their routes, however, the railway was initially planned to have four tracks along its length. The commuter service offered by the Tung Chung line also provided relief to the overcrowded Tsuen Wan line of the MTR . Comprising Kap Shui Mun Bridge , Tsing Ma Bridge and Ma Wan Viaduct ,

4788-611: The East Rail line , phase two of the Sha Tin to Central Link (SCL) from Hung Hom station to Admiralty station across Victoria Harbour was completed and opened on 15 May 2022. An intermediate station was opened at Exhibition Centre . The Tuen Mun South extension on the Tuen Ma line is a proposed 2.4-kilometre (1.5 mi) extension to a new western terminus, Tuen Mun South, near Tuen Mun Ferry Pier . The extension will extend

4914-529: The East Rail line extension (2022). The LOHAS Park Spur Line is an extension of the Tseung Kwan O line , splitting off after Tseung Kwan O station . It serves the new residential development of LOHAS Park (formerly "Dream City"), a 3,550,000-square-foot (330,000 m ) estate with fifty residential towers. The project is divided into 9 to 13 phases and is about halfway complete as of 2016. These high rises sit above LOHAS Park station , which opened on 26 July 2009. The West Island line , first put forward to

5040-616: The East Tsim Sha Tsui station via its pedestrian links. New entrances to the subway links were opened on 19 September 2004 (Exit G) and 30 March 2005 (Exit F), with the whole scheme completed in May 2005. The Disneyland Resort line , previously known as Penny's Bay Rail Link, provides service to the Hong Kong Disneyland Resort station which was opened on 12 September 2005. Services to Sunny Bay station on

5166-774: The Hong Kong Mass Transport Study . In 1972, the Hong Kong government authorised construction of the Initial System , a 20-kilometre (12 mi) system that roughly translates to today's Kwun Tong line between Kwun Tong and Prince Edward, Tsuen Wan line between Mei Foo and Admiralty, and Island line between Sheung Wan and Admiralty. The Mass Transit Steering Committee, chaired by the Financial Secretary Philip Haddon-Cave , began negotiations with four major construction consortia in 1973. The government's intention

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5292-701: The KCR network and combine the fare system of the two networks on 2 December 2007. On 2 December 2007 the Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation (KCRC) granted a 50-year service concession (which may be extended) of the KCR network to MTRCL, in return for making annual payments to KCRC, thereby merging the railway operations of the two corporations under MTRCL's management. At the same time MTRCL changed its Chinese name from "地下鐵路有限公司" (Subway Limited Company) to "香港鐵路有限公司" (Hong Kong Railway Limited Company), but left its English name unchanged; at

5418-572: The MTR Corporation (MTRCL), it consists of heavy rail , light rail , and feeder bus services , centred around a 10-line rapid transit network, serving the urbanised areas of Hong Kong Island , Kowloon , and the New Territories . The system encompasses 245.3 km (152.4 mi) of railways, as of December 2022, with 179 stations—including 99 heavy rail stations , 68 light rail stops and 1 high-speed rail terminus. Under

5544-774: The New Territories . The Kwai Chung and Tsing Yi sections were built to link the Lantau Link and West Kowloon Expressway . The Kwai Chung section is 3 km (1.9 miles) in length. The route connects with the West Kowloon Highway near Lai Chi Kok , then bypasses the Kwai Tsing Container Terminals , finally connecting with the Cheung Tsing Bridge of the Tsing Yi section. It is an 8-lane elevated motorway. This section

5670-578: The Octopus smart card fare-payment technology into the MTR system in September 1997 has further enhanced the ease of commuting. During the 1960s, the government of Hong Kong saw a need to accommodate increasing road traffic as Hong Kong's economy grew rapidly. In 1966, British transport consultants Freeman, Fox, Wilbur Smith & Associates were appointed to study the transport system of Hong Kong. The study

5796-771: The Overseas Development Institute , the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) . Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa. It has been argued that infrastructure investments contributed to more than half of Africa's improved growth performance between 1990 and 2005, and increased investment

5922-535: The Tseung Kwan O line (called the Tseung Kwan O extension line in the planning stage) was approved on 18 August 1998 to serve the growing Tseung Kwan O New Town. Construction began on 24 April 1999 and the line officially opened in 2002. It took over the existing Kwun Tong line tracks running through the Eastern Harbour Tunnel , so that the full line stretches from Po Lam to North Point. When

6048-426: The Tung Chung line to the west by approximately 1.3 kilometres. Two new stations will also be built, namely; Tung Chung West and Tung Chung East , with Tung Chung West serving as the new terminus of the Tung Chung line. Construction began on 25 May 2023 and is expected to be completed in 2029. The Oyster Bay station is a planned infill station between Sunny Bay station and the future Tung Chung East station . It

6174-420: The government's rail-led transport policy, the MTR system is a common mode of public transport in Hong Kong , with over five and a half million trips made on an average weekday consistently achieving a 99.9% punctuality rate on its arrivals and departures. As of 2018, the MTR has a 49.3% share of the franchised public transport market, making it the most popular transport option in Hong Kong. The integration of

6300-495: The transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong , though this did not materialise. The airport finally came into operation on 6 July 1998, at a cost of around US$ 20 billion. The Airport Railway was built to connect Kowloon Peninsula and Hong Kong Island (over the Western Immersed Tube) to the airport and the planned new town of northern Lantau . The railway is operated by the MTR Corporation and has two routes:

6426-435: The 2017 ASCE Infrastructure Report Card, from 2016 to 2025, infrastructure will be underinvested by $ 2 trillion. Compared to the global GDP percentages, The United States is tied for second-to-last place, with an average percentage of 2.4%. This means that the government spends less money on repairing old infrastructure and or on infrastructure as a whole. In Sub-Saharan Africa , governments spend around US$ 9.4 billion out of

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6552-702: The French word structure . The army use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s, and by 1970 was adopted by urban planners in its modern civilian sense. A 1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the term " public works infrastructure", referring to: "... both specific functional modes – highways, streets, roads, and bridges; mass transit ; airports and airways; water supply and water resources ; wastewater management ; solid-waste treatment and disposal; electric power generation and transmission; telecommunications; and hazardous waste management – and

6678-567: The G20 COVID-19 related fiscal measures was found to be climate friendly. Although it is readily apparent that much effort is needed to repair the economic damage inflicted by the Coronavirus epidemic, an immediate return to business as usual could be environmentally harmful, as shown by the 2007-08 financial crisis in the United States. While the ensuing economic slowdown reduced global greenhouse gas emissions in 2009, emissions reached

6804-413: The Kwun Tong line. This forecast proved to be accurate, necessitating a bypass from the northwestern New Territories to Hong Kong Island . The Tung Chung line was therefore launched in 1998 with an interchange station at Lai King for that purpose. Although land acquisitions were made for a station at Tsuen Wan West (near Tsuen King Circuit ), beyond Tsuen Wan station, as part of the Tsuen Wan branch,

6930-618: The Lantau Link connects Lantau with Tsing Yi , via Ma Wan . It carries both road and railway traffic between the islands. This is the third cross-harbour tunnel for Victoria Harbour . Built under a build-operate-transfer agreement with the Western Harbour Tunnel Company , the tunnel was intended to relieve congestion at the Cross-Harbour Tunnel and is part of expressway Route 3 . With

7056-905: The Legislative Council passed legislation setting up the government-owned Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) to replace the Mass Transport Provisional Authority, the Mass Transit Railway Ordinance . Construction of the system began on 11 November 1975. The northern section was completed on 30 September 1979 and was opened on 1 October 1979 by Governor Murray MacLehose . Trains on this route ran from Shek Kip Mei to Kwun Tong in Phase 1, Tsim Sha Tsui to Kwun Tong in Phase 2 in December 1979, and Chater to Kwun Tong in

7182-556: The MTR. The first section of the Tuen Ma line , an extension of the former Ma On Shan line connecting Tai Wai via Hin Keng and Diamond Hill to Kai Tak station , opened on 14 February 2020. The second and final section of the line was completed and opened on 27 June 2021, linking the previously opened Tuen Ma Line Phase One and the West Rail Line together connecting from Kai Tak station to Hung Hom station . An extension of

7308-670: The MTRC to build a train line, then known as the Lantau Airport Railway, to the airport. Construction started in November 1994, after the Chinese and British governments settled their financial and land disagreements. The new line was included in the financing plans of the new Hong Kong International Airport as the airport was not considered viable without direct public transport links. Construction costs were also shared by

7434-479: The MTRC, which was granted many large-scale developments in the construction plans for the new stations. The Lantau Airport Railway included two MTR lines, the Tung Chung line and the Airport Express. The Tung Chung line was officially opened on 21 June 1998 by Hong Kong Chief Executive Tung Chee-hwa , and service commenced the next day. The Airport Express opened for service on 6 July 1998 along with

7560-587: The Mass Transit Steering Group was replaced by the Mass Transport Provisional Authority, which held more executive powers. It announced that the Initial System would be reduced to 15.6 kilometres (9.7 mi) and renamed the "Modified Initial System" (now part of the Kwun Tong and Tsuen Wan lines). Plans for a single contract were abandoned in favour of 25 engineering contracts and 10 electrical and mechanical contracts. On 7 May 1975

7686-460: The Tseung Kwan O line, are two stations long, allowing cross-platform interchange wherein a passenger leaves a train on one side of the platform and boards trains on the other side of the platform for another line. For example, when passengers are travelling on the Kwun Tong line towards Tiu Keng Leng , getting off at Yau Tong would allow them to switch trains across the platform for the Tseung Kwan O line towards North Point . Whereas, staying on

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7812-518: The Tsuen Wan line. Furthermore, each train was extended to eight cars. On 23 May 1986, the Island line was extended to Sheung Wan station . Construction was delayed for one year, as government offices which were located over the station had to be moved before the construction could start. In 1984, the government approved the construction of the Eastern Harbour Crossing , a tunnel to be used by cars and MTR trains. The Kwun Tong line

7938-480: The Tung Chung line started in 1 June 2005, but it was only opened to staff of Disneyland at first. It was finally opened to the general public two months later, on 8 August 2005. The new line and the Disneyland Resort station opened on 1 August 2005. It is a 3.5-kilometre (2.2 mi) single-track railway that runs between Sunny Bay station and Disneyland Resort station. The Disneyland Resort station itself

8064-410: The amount of greenhouse gases. There are a variety of types of bioretention and infiltration practices, including rain gardens and bioswales. A rain garden is planted in a small depression or natural slope and includes native shrubs and flowers. They temporarily hold and absorb rain water and are effective in removing up to 90% of nutrients and chemicals and up to 80% of sediments from the runoff. As

8190-428: The appropriate built environments for these ecologically preferable modes of transportation. Cities will need to invest in public transportation networks, as well as bike path networks among other sustainable solutions that incentivize citizens to use these alternate transit options. Reducing the urban dependency on cars is a fundamental goal of developing sustainable transportation, and this cannot be accomplished without

8316-471: The basis for any operation or system". It is a loanword from French, where it was already used for establishing a roadbed of substrate material, required before railroad tracks or constructed pavement could be laid on top of it. The word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra- , meaning "below", as many of these constructions are underground (for example, tunnels, water and gas systems, and railways), and

8442-582: The beginning of the Hong Kong government's initiative to reduce its interests in public utilities. Prior to its listing on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange , the Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) was wholly owned by the Hong Kong government. The offering involved the sale of about one billion shares , and the company now has the largest shareholder base of any company listed in Hong Kong. In June 2001, MTRCL

8568-401: The board. However, they must also scale up public investment to ensure successful reopening, boost growth and employment, and green their economies. The unusually large scale of the packages needed for COVID-19 was accompanied by widespread calls for "greening" them to meet the dual goals of economic recovery and environmental sustainability . However, as of March 2021, only a small fraction of

8694-461: The combined system these modal elements comprise. A comprehension of infrastructure spans not only these public works facilities, but also the operating procedures, management practices, and development policies that interact together with societal demand and the physical world to facilitate the transport of people and goods, provision of water for drinking and a variety of other uses, safe disposal of society's waste products, provision of energy where it

8820-613: The construction and maintenance of facilities that support social services . Social infrastructures are created to increase social comfort and promote economic activity. These include schools, parks and playgrounds , structures for public safety , waste disposal plants, hospitals, and sports areas. Core assets provide essential services and have monopolistic characteristics. Investors seeking core infrastructure look for five different characteristics: income, low volatility of returns, diversification, inflation protection, and long-term liability matching. Core infrastructure incorporates all

8946-563: The development of the Hung Shui Kiu New Town . The Northern Link is a proposed new line which connects Tuen Ma line with the Lok Ma Chau Spur Line of East Rail line. It also has Au Tau , Ngau Tam Mei , San Tin , a future interchange station between East Rail line and Northern Link, Kwu Tung , which will become a terminus for Northern link. This line would serve the future Northern Metropolis (which

9072-530: The economy. This has serious impacts on households, businesses, and federal, state and local governments. This is especially detrimental to infrastructure because it is so dependent on funding from government agencies – with state and local governments accounting for approximately 75% of spending on public infrastructure in the United States. Governments are facing enormous decreases in revenue, economic downturns, overworked health systems, and hesitant workforces, resulting in huge budget deficits across

9198-446: The established steady-state equilibrium of it. The materials should also be resilient, renewable, reusable, and recyclable. Today, concrete is one of the most common materials used in infrastructure. There is twice as much concrete used in construction than all other building materials combined. It is the backbone of industrialization, as it is used in bridges, piers, pipelines, pavements, and buildings. However, while they do serve as

9324-510: The exhibition centre. To cope with the projected increase in patronage, Airport Express trains were lengthened to eight cars from the previous seven. Additional trains are also deployed on the Tung Chung line during major exhibitions and events. On 5 October 2000 the operator of the MTR network, the Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC), became Hong Kong's first rail company to be partially privatised , marking

9450-728: The financial reserve of the future Hong Kong SAR Government . Several changes were made to the plan, including the shortening in distance of the two main towers of the Tsing Ma Bridge and the construction of the Airport Railway as a double-track railway. The project ended up costing HK$ 160.2 billion. The Programme formally commenced after the signing of a memorandum of understanding between British Prime Minister John Major and Chinese Premier Li Peng in Beijing on 3 September 1991, and lasted eight years in total. It

9576-458: The following overlapping or related concepts. Land improvement and land development are general terms that in some contexts may include infrastructure, but in the context of a discussion of infrastructure would refer only to smaller-scale systems or works that are not included in infrastructure, because they are typically limited to a single parcel of land , and are owned and operated by the landowner. For example, an irrigation canal that serves

9702-428: The form of a large network; in other words, hard infrastructure . Efforts to devise more generic definitions of infrastructures have typically referred to the network aspects of most of the structures, and to the accumulated value of investments in the networks as assets. One such definition from 1998 defined infrastructure as the network of assets "where the system as a whole is intended to be maintained indefinitely at

9828-598: The functioning of a modern industrial society or industry . This includes roads, bridges, and railways. Soft infrastructure is all the institutions that maintain the economic , health , social , environmental , and cultural standards of a country. This includes educational programs , official statistics , parks and recreational facilities, law enforcement agencies, and emergency services . The word "infrastructure" has been used in French since 1875 and in English since 1887, originally meaning "installations that form

9954-536: The government on 21 January 2003, is an extension of the Island line . It serves the Western District of Hong Kong Island. The construction of the West Island line started on 10 August 2009. Kennedy Town station and HKU station opened on 28 December 2014. Sai Ying Pun station opened later, on 29 March 2015, due to construction delays. A proposal to extend the existing Kwun Tong line to Whampoa Garden

10080-473: The government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by privately held companies, such as sole public utility or railway companies. Generally, most roads, major airports and other ports, water distribution systems, and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for from taxes, tolls, or metered user fees, whereas private infrastructure

10206-517: The growth of the economy of Hong Kong during the 1970s, the project reemerged for discussion. The government earmarked Chek Lap Kok , just off the north coast of Lantau Island near Tung Chung , as the designated site for the new airport. However, the plan was shelved in 1983 for economic reasons, as well as the question of Hong Kong's sovereignty and the impending signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration . The plan

10332-466: The highest posted speed limit in Hong Kong, at 110 km/h (68 mph) on most of its length, this six-lane motorway links Tung Chung in the west to the Lantau Link in the east, via the north coast of Lantau . A service road, Cheung Tung Road  [ zh ] , runs parallel to it between Tung Chung and Yam O . Route 3 is one of the 10 strategic expressway routes of Hong Kong, linking Sai Ying Pun on Hong Kong Island and Yuen Long in

10458-472: The holistic and effective management of water resources. Increasingly, policy makers and regulators are incorporating Nature-based solutions (NBS or NbS) into attempts to achieve sustainable water infrastructure. Sustainable waste management systems aim to minimize the amount of waste products produced by individuals and corporations. Commercial waste management plans have transitioned from simple waste removal plans into comprehensive plans focused on reducing

10584-480: The impact of raindrops on barren surfaces, minimize soil moisture through transpiration, and they help reduce stormwater runoff. Additionally, trees contribute to recharging local aquifers and improve the health of watershed systems. Trees also reduce energy usage by providing shade and releasing water into the atmosphere which cools the air and reduces the amount of heat absorbed by buildings. Finally, trees improve air quality by absorbing harmful air pollutants reducing

10710-451: The importance of personal infrastructure for an individual (short and long-term consumption of education); and the social relevance of personal infrastructure. Essentially, personal infrastructure maps the human impact on infrastructure as it is related to the economy, individual growth, and social impact. Institutional infrastructure branches from the term "economic constitution". According to Gianpiero Torrisi , institutional infrastructure

10836-631: The inaugural train through the immersed tube beneath Victoria Harbour to Central station . Trains were gradually extended to six cars to accommodate an increase in passenger numbers. The government approved construction of the Tsuen Wan line in 1977, then known as the Tsuen Wan Extension, and works commenced in November 1978. The project added a 10.5-kilometre (6.5 mi) section to the MTR system, from Prince Edward station to Tsuen Wan . The line started service on 17 May 1982 with

10962-533: The initial system. The other lines would be placed in the list of extensions. This report led to the final study in 1970. In 1970, a revised system with four lines was laid out in the British consultants' new report, Hong Kong Mass Transit: Further Studies . The four lines were to be the Kwun Tong line, Tsuen Wan line, Island line, and East Kowloon line . The lines that were eventually constructed were somewhat different compared to those presented in this report and

11088-509: The international community has created policy focused on sustainable infrastructure through the Sustainable Development Goals , especially Sustainable Development Goal 9 " Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure ". One way to describe different types of infrastructure is to classify them as two distinct kinds: hard infrastructure and soft infrastructure . Hard infrastructure is the physical networks necessary for

11214-512: The last phase , initially in a four-car configuration. The first train drivers were trained on the London Underground . It was designed by a consortium of consultants led by Freeman Fox and Partners . On later extensions to the railway the stations were designed under the supervision of Roland Paoletti , the chief architect at MTR. The full Modified Initial System was opened on 12 February 1980 by Princess Alexandra , who rode

11340-486: The line opened, the Kwun Tong line was extended to Tiu Keng Leng on the new line. Construction costs were partly covered by the Hong Kong Government and private developers which linked construction of the Tseung Kwan O line to new real estate and commercial developments. The interchange between the Kwun Tong line and the Tsuen Wan line (except Yau Ma Tei ) as well as that between the Kwun Tong line and

11466-575: The line southwards from the current terminus at Tuen Mun station . It will include the construction of the A16 station (placeholder name used by MTR) and the new terminus Tuen Mun South station . Additionally, the addition of a new infill station , Hung Shui Kiu station , along the Tuen Ma line between Siu Hong station and Tin Shui Wai station is currently under planning. It may be built depending on

11592-416: The little parts of the engineering world that make life more convenient and efficient. They are needed to ensure successful usage and marketing of an already finished product, like in the case of road bridges . Other examples are lights on sidewalks, landscaping around buildings, and benches where pedestrians can rest. Engineers generally limit the term "infrastructure" to describe fixed assets that are in

11718-635: The main types of infrastructure, such as roads, highways, railways, public transportation , water, and gas supply. Basic infrastructure refers to main railways, roads, canals, harbors and docks, the electromagnetic telegraph, drainage, dikes, and land reclamation. It consist of the more well-known and common features of infrastructure that we come across in our daily lives (buildings, roads, docks). Complementary infrastructure refers to things like light railways, tramways, and gas/electricity/water supply. To complement something means to bring it to perfection or complete it. Complementary infrastructure deals with

11844-487: The majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased in the 2000s (decade) and in Africa alone external infrastructure investments increased from US$ 7 billion in 2002 to US$ 27 billion in 2009. China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor. The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic has only exacerbated the underfunding of infrastructure globally that has been accumulating for decades. The pandemic has increased unemployment and has widely disrupted

11970-556: The market by prevailing non renewable energy sources. Sustainable water infrastructure is focused on a community's sufficient access to clean, safe drinking water. Water is a public good along with electricity, which means that sustainable water catchment and distribution systems must remain affordable to all members of a population. "Sustainable Water" may refer to a nation or community's ability to be self-sustainable, with enough water to meet multiple needs including agriculture, industry, sanitation, and drinking water. It can also refer to

12096-601: The means of exchange from the plant to the homes and businesses that use that energy. Renewable energy includes well researched and widely implemented methods such as wind, solar, and hydraulic power, as well as newer and less commonly used types of power creation such as fusion energy. Sustainable energy infrastructure must maintain a strong supply relative to demand, and must also maintain sufficiently low prices for consumers so as not to decrease demand. Any type of renewable energy infrastructure that fails to meet these consumption and price requirements will ultimately be forced out of

12222-627: The natural processes needed to manage water, reduce the effects of disasters such as flooding, and create healthier urban environments. In a more practical sense, it refers to a decentralized network of stormwater management practices, which includes green roofs, trees, bioretention and infiltration, and permeable pavement. Green infrastructure has become an increasingly popular strategy in recent years due to its effectiveness in providing ecological, economic, and social benefits – including positively impacting energy consumption, air quality, and carbon reduction and sequestration. A green roof

12348-402: The new Hong Kong International Airport. The Airport Express also offers flight check-in facilities at Kowloon station and Hong Kong station —the in-town check-ins offer a more convenient and time-saving routine; a free shuttle bus service transports travellers from these stations to their respective hotels as well. Porters are also available to help transport luggage from and onto trains. It

12474-466: The new town in Northern Lantau is centred on Tung Chung and was planned to provide housing to 18,000 people. The new town was meant to be a supporting community for the new Hong Kong International Airport , as well as to act as a "gateway" to Hong Kong for visitors. At present, phases I, II and IIIA of the new town have been completed, all around Tung Chung . When all 4 phases are completed,

12600-624: The new town will be home to 320,000 people, covering an area of 830 hectares (2,100 acres) between Tung Chung and the neighbouring area of Tai Ho . The Airport Core Programme Exhibition Centre introducing the programme is located in Ting Kau near Sham Tseng in Hong Kong. Infrastructure Especially in light of the massive societal transformations needed to mitigate and adapt to climate change, contemporary infrastructure conversations frequently focus on sustainable development and green infrastructure . Acknowledging this importance,

12726-726: The northern 2 km (1.2 miles) elevated for the Airport Railway running underneath. It links the Kowloon portal of the Western Harbour Crossing in the south to the Tsing Kwai Highway in the north and is built entirely on newly reclaimed land in West Kowloon . Reclamation work was needed along the west coast of Kowloon Peninsula to provide land for the expressway, Route 3 , as well as supporting infrastructure. The Airport Railway also runs through

12852-492: The plants, which reduce the roof surface temperatures and heat influx. Green roofs also reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide since the vegetation sequesters carbon and, since they reduce energy usage and the urban heat island by reducing the roof temperature, they also lower carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation. Tree planting provides a host of ecological, social, and economic benefits. Trees can intercept rain, support infiltration and water storage in soil, diminish

12978-622: The process of decarbonization . Research suggests that a recovery plan based on lower-carbon emissions could not only make significant emissions reductions needed to battle climate change, but also create more economic growth and jobs than a high-carbon recovery plan would. A study published in the Oxford Review of Economic Policy, more than 200 economists and economic officials reported that "green" economic-recovery initiatives performed at least as well as less "green" initiatives. There have also been calls for an independent body could provide

13104-423: The reclaimed land of West Kowloon . The reclamation work has increased the area of Kowloon Peninsula by 30%. This phase required the reclamation of an area of 20 hectares (49 acres) along the waterfront of Central to provide land for the Airport Railway's Hong Kong station . Two ferry piers serving outlying islands as well as a government dockyard had to be relocated to facilitate the work. The first phase of

13230-421: The same level of output at similarly reasonable costs as compared to other non sustainable communities, while still maintaining ease of operation and usage. MTR 4,823,000 (city metro lines only, without cross border passengers) 1,586,646,000 (city metro lines only, without cross border passengers) The Mass Transit Railway ( MTR ) is a major public transport network serving Hong Kong . Operated by

13356-535: The same time the system's Chinese name changed from "地鐵" ("underground railway") to "港鐵" ("Hong Kong Railway"). After the merger, the MTR network included three more lines— East Rail line , West Rail line , and Ma On Shan line (now the Tuen Ma line )—as well as the light rail network and Guangdong through train to Guangzhou . On 28 September 2008, fare zones of all urban lines, East Rail line, Ma On Shan line, and West Rail line were merged. A passenger could travel on these networks with only one ticket, except where

13482-419: The section of the Kwun Tong line from Chater to Argyle (since renamed Central and Mong Kok respectively) was transferred to the Tsuen Wan line. Thus, Waterloo station (since renamed Yau Ma Tei ) became the terminus of the Kwun Tong line, and both Argyle and Prince Edward stations became interchange stations. This change was made because system planners expected the patronage of the Tsuen Wan line to exceed that of

13608-446: The station was never built. This is not to be confused with the modern-day Tsuen Wan West station on Tuen Ma line , which lies on a newly reclaimed area near the former ferry pier. Since opening in 1982, the Tsuen Wan line is the line whose alignment has remained the same for the longest time. For example, the Kwun Tong line's alignment has changed three times since its opening—the taking over of Tsuen Wan line from Mong Kok to Central,

13734-506: The study. These four lines were the Kwun Tong line (from Mong Kok to Ma Yau Tong ), Tsuen Wan line (from Admiralty to Tsuen Wan ), Island line (from Kennedy to Chai Wan Central), and Shatin line (from Tsim Sha Tsui to Wo Liu Hang ). The study was submitted to the Legislative Council on 14 February 1968. The consultants received new data from the 1966 by-census on 6 March 1968. A short supplementary report

13860-478: The supply side of the provision of infrastructure in Asia. The infrastructure financing gap between what is invested in Asia-Pacific (around US$ 48 billion) and what is needed (US$ 228 billion) is around US$ 180 billion every year. In Latin America, three percent of GDP (around US$ 71 billion) would need to be invested in infrastructure in order to satisfy demand, yet in 2005, for example, only around two percent

13986-476: The taking over of Eastern Harbour Crossing section by the Tseung Kwan O line, and its extension to Whampoa . Government approvals were granted for construction of the Island line in December 1980. Construction commenced in October 1981. On 31 May 1985, the Island line was opened with service between Admiralty station and Chai Wan station . Both Admiralty and Central stations became interchange stations with

14112-471: The total amount of waste produced before removal. Sustainable waste management is beneficial environmentally, and can also cut costs for businesses that reduce their amount of disposed goods. Sustainable transportation includes a shift away from private, greenhouse gas emitting cars in favor of adopting methods of transportation that are either carbon neutral or reduce carbon emissions such as bikes or electric bus systems. Additionally, cities must invest in

14238-671: The train and reaching Tiu Keng Leng would allow them to board the Tseung Kwan O line trains towards Po Lam / LOHAS Park . This design makes interchanging more convenient and passengers do not have the need to change to different levels. However this interchange arrangement is not available for all transferring passengers at Kowloon Tong , Central , Hong Kong , Quarry Bay , Nam Cheong (except transfer between Tuen Mun and Hong Kong bound trains), Mei Foo , Tai Wai (only between southbound Tuen Ma line and East Rail line trains) and Sunny Bay (except transfer between Tung Chung and Disneyland Resort bound trains) stations, mainly because this service

14364-442: The usable water supply by reducing the amount of water needed for outdoor irrigation; improve air quality by minimizing the amount of water going into treatment facilities, which also reduces energy usage and, as a result, reduces air pollution since less greenhouse gases are emitted. Smart cities use innovative methods of design and implementation in various sectors of infrastructure and planning to create communities that operate at

14490-460: The world's industrial water usage is from producing concrete. Even transporting the raw materials to concrete production sites adds to airborne pollution. Furthermore, the production sites and the infrastructures themselves all strip away agricultural land that could have been fertile soil or habitats vital to the ecosystem. Green infrastructure is a type of sustainable infrastructure. Green infrastructure uses plant or soil systems to restore some of

14616-641: Was announced on 11 October 1989 by the then Governor David Wilson , and it was perceived to be part of the government's effort to reinstate confidence in Hong Kong after the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 . The public was initially surprised by the huge budget and there were concerns that it would drain much of the public revenue. The programme was completed with the opening of the new Hong Kong International Airport at Chek Lap Kok in July 1998. The programme included: The Hong Kong International Airport

14742-495: Was based on the projection of the population of Hong Kong for 1986, estimated at 6,868,000. On 1 September 1967, the consultants submitted the Hong Kong Mass Transport Study to the government, which recommended the construction of a 40-mile (64 km) rapid transit rail system in Hong Kong. The study suggested that four rail lines be developed in six stages, with a completion date set between December 1973 and December 1984. Detailed locations of lines and stations were presented in

14868-500: Was designed to blend in with the ambiance of the resort. The line operates fully automated trains running every four to ten minutes without a driver. The carriages are refurbished M-train rolling stock to match the recreational and adventurous nature of the 3.5-minute journey. The AsiaWorld–Expo station is an extension of the Airport Express serving a new international exhibition centre, AsiaWorld–Expo , at Hong Kong International Airport. The station opened on 20 December 2005 along with

14994-432: Was extended across the harbour on 5 August 1989 to Quarry Bay station , which became an interchange station for the Kwun Tong line and the Island line . An intermediate station, Lam Tin , started operations on 1 October 1989. The decision was made in October 1989 to construct a new international airport at Chek Lap Kok on Lantau Island to replace the overcrowded Kai Tak International Airport . The government invited

15120-426: Was initiated due to overcrowding at Quarry Bay and persistent passenger complaints about the five-minute walk from the Island line platforms to the Kwun Tong line platform. Construction began in September 1997 and was completed in September 2001 at a cost of HK$ 3.1 billion. As with most earlier interchange stations, a cross-platform interchange arrangement was provided here in both directions. Construction of

15246-772: Was invested leaving a financing gap of approximately US$ 24 billion. In Africa, in order to reach the seven percent annual growth calculated to be required to meet the MDGs by 2015 would require infrastructure investments of about fifteen percent of GDP, or around US$ 93 billion a year. In fragile states , over thirty-seven percent of GDP would be required. The source of financing for infrastructure varies significantly across sectors. Some sectors are dominated by government spending , others by overseas development aid (ODA) , and yet others by private investors. In California, infrastructure financing districts are established by local governments to pay for physical facilities and services within

15372-528: Was made in April 2006 and approved in March 2008 as part of the bid for the Sha Tin to Central Link . Two new stations at Whampoa and Ho Man Tin opened on 23 October 2016. The South Island line opened on 28 December 2016 between Admiralty and South Horizons , linking the MTR to Southern District for the first time. With the opening of the South Island line, all 18 districts of Hong Kong are served by

15498-459: Was submitted on 22 March 1968 and amended in June 1968. The by-census indicated that the projected 1986 population was reduced by more than one million from the previous estimate to 5,647,000. The dramatic reduction affected town planning . The population distribution was largely different from the original study. The projected 1986 populations of Castle Peak New Town , Sha Tin New Town , and, to

15624-624: Was the most expensive airport project in the world, according to the Guinness World Records . It was the biggest infrastructure programme in Hong Kong's history. Plans to replace the old Kai Tak Airport were drafted after the Second World War. However, for financial and political reasons, the plan was abandoned in 1951 and the Hong Kong Government decided to expand the original airport instead. With

15750-442: Was to tender the entire project, based on the British design, as a single tender at a fixed price. A consortium from Japan, led by Mitsubishi , submitted the only proposal within the government's $ 5-billion price ceiling. They signed an agreement to construct the system in early 1974, but in December of the same year, pulled out of the agreement for reasons stemming from fears of the oil crisis . Several weeks later, in early 1975,

15876-608: Was transferred to the Hang Seng Index . MTRCL has often developed properties next to stations to complement its profitable railway business. Many recently built stations were incorporated into large housing estates or shopping complexes. For example, Tsing Yi station is built next to the Maritime Square shopping centre and directly underneath the Tierra Verde housing estate. On 11 April 2006, MTRCL signed

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