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146-526: The Zamoyski Academy was designed to educate szlachta (noble) youth in Humanist culture and prepare them for work in the public interest—though, from its early years, most of the students were burghers , not nobles. It was founded in 1594 by Crown Chancellor Jan Zamoyski in Zamość (a city, also founded by Zamoyski) with the assistance of poet Szymon Szymonowic , aka Simon Simonides (who would be one of

292-503: A Palikot Movement member of the Polish parliament, announced his plan to send thousands of postcards to European politicians and journalists, in which he wanted to convince the recipients that Poland should get financial compensation from Sweden for the destruction of the country in the deluge. Poznański claims that in the 1660 Treaty of Oliwa, Sweden pledged to return all stolen goods, which never happened. The MP had previously intervened at

438-462: A Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Trojga Narodów , "Commonwealth of Three Nations"). Supported by Cossack Hetman Ivan Vyhovsky and the starshyna , the treaty aimed to change the face of Eastern Europe. However, its terms never came into full operation: in addition to the unpopularity of continued integration with the Commonwealth with the majority of

584-521: A fief of Poland since 1466). This treaty is regarded by historian Józef Włodarski as one of the worst mistakes in Polish history. In the spring of 1658, the Polish army, together with its Austrian allies under Raimondo Montecuccoli , began a campaign in Royal Prussia, where several key towns and cities were still in Swedish hands. On July 1, the siege of Toruń began. The heavily fortified city

730-515: A liege Lord . Unlike absolute monarchs who eventually took reign in most other European countries, the Polish king was not an autocrat and not the szlachta's overlord. The relatively few hereditary noble titles in the Kingdom of Poland were bestowed by foreign monarchs, while in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, princely titles were mostly inherited by descendants of old dynasties. During

876-547: A "cultural desert". Poland and Lithuania lost 67 libraries and 17 archives. Of all major cities of the country, only Lwów and Gdańsk were not destroyed, and when Swedish soldiers were unable to steal an item, they would destroy or burn it. In ruins were castles, palaces, churches, abbeys, towns and villages. As a result of the Swedish invasion, few pre-Baroque buildings remained in Poland. An estimated 3 million died. Among others, Swedish troops stole such items as: According to

1022-404: A farm, often little different from a peasant's dwelling, sometimes referred to as drobna szlachta , "petty nobles" or yet, szlachta okoliczna , meaning "local". Particularly impoverished szlachta families were often forced to become tenants of their wealthier peers. They were described as szlachta czynszowa , or "tenant nobles" who paid rent. See " Szlachta categories " for more. The origins of

1168-418: A few decades earlier. ..." Escutcheons and hereditary coats of arms with eminent privileges attached is an honor derived from the ancient Germans. Where Germans did not inhabit, and where German customs were unknown, no such thing existed. The usage of heraldry in Poland was brought in by knights arriving from Silesia , Lusatia , Meissen , and Bohemia . Migrations from here were the most frequent, and

1314-405: A highly developed sense of solidarity. (See gens .) The starosta (or starszyna ) had judicial and military power over the ród/clan, although this power was often exercised with an assembly of elders. Strongholds called grόd were built where the religious cult was powerful, where trials were conducted, and where clans gathered in the face of danger. The opole was the territory occupied by

1460-472: A king, exercised supreme political power over that republic and elected kings as servants of a republic the szlachta regarded as the embodiment of their rights. Over time, numerically most lesser szlachta became poorer, or were poorer than, their few rich peers with the same political status and status in law, and many lesser szlachta were worse off than commoners with land. They were called szlachta zagrodowa , that is, "farm nobility", from zagroda ,

1606-406: A lower species. Quoting Bishop of Poznań, Wawrzyniec Goślicki, herbu Grzymała (between 1530 and 1540–1607): "The kingdome of Polonia doth also consist of the said three sortes, that is, the king, nobility and people. But it is to be noted, that this word people includeth only knights and gentlemen. ... The gentlemen of Polonia doe represent the popular state, for in them consisteth a great part of

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1752-582: A member of the Jesuits and had received the title of Cardinal . Nevertheless, in December 1646, he returned to Poland and, in October 1647, resigned his position as Cardinal to stand for election to the Polish throne, after the death of his brother Władysław IV Vasa . He became King in 1648. However, some of the nobility supported Charles Gustav (King of Sweden from 1654 to 1660 and John Casimir's cousin) for

1898-457: A member of the family would simply use his Christian name (e.g., Jakub, Jan, Mikołaj, etc.), and the name of the coat of arms common to all members of his clan. A member of the family would be identified as, for example, "Jakub z Dąbrówki", herbu Radwan, (Jacob to/at Dąbrówki of the knights' clan Radwan coat of arms ), or "Jakub z Dąbrówki, Żądło ( cognomen ) (later a przydomek/nickname/ agnomen ), herbu Radwan" (Jacob to/at [owning] Dąbrówki with

2044-400: A new term for Lithuanian nobility appearing in the 16th century — šlėkta , a direct loanword from Polish szlachta . Recently, Lithuanian linguists advocated dropping the usage of this Polish loanword. The process of Polonization took place over a lengthy period. At first only the leading members of the nobility were involved. Gradually the wider population became affected. Major effects on

2190-463: A non- Slavic warrior class, forming a distinct element known as the Lechici /Lekhi ( Lechitów ) within the ancient Polonic tribal groupings ( Indo-European caste systems ). Similar to Nazi racial ideology, which dictated the Polish elite were largely Nordic (the szlachta Boreyko coat of arms heralds a swastika ), this hypothesis states this upper class was not of Slavonic extraction and

2336-518: A peace treaty with the Commonwealth, in which he promised to break the alliance with Sweden, withdraw his troops from Kraków and Brześć Litewski, and pay for the damage inflicted by his army. On July 26, remnants of the Transylvanian army were surrounded by the Tatars near Skałat . Rákóczi himself managed to flee, and the army was temporarily commanded by John Kemény , who himself was captured by

2482-522: A person's place of residence, birth or family origin). In antiquity, the szlachta used topographic surnames to identify themselves. The expression " z " (meaning "from" sometimes "at") plus the name of one's patrimony or estate (dominion) carried the same prestige as "de" in French names such as "de Châtellerault", and " von " or " zu " in German names such as "von Weizsäcker" or "zu Rhein" . For example,

2628-468: A policy that was greatly eased in 1596 by the Union of Brest . See, for example, the careers of Senator Adam Kisiel and Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki . The Proto-Slavic suffix "-ьskъ" means "characteristic of", "typical of". This suffix exists in Polish as "-ski" (feminine: "-ska"). It's attached to surnames derived from a person's occupation, characteristics, patronymic surnames, or toponymic surnames (from

2774-467: A retinue, as well. Another group of knights were granted land in allodium , not feudal tenure , by the prince, allowing them the economic ability to serve the prince militarily. A Polish warrior belonging to the military caste living at the time prior to the 15th century was referred to as a "rycerz", very roughly equivalent to the English "knight," the critical difference being the status of "rycerz"

2920-606: A series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland , the existing Lithuanian and Ruthenian nobilities formally joined the szlachta . As the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) evolved and expanded territorially after the Union of Lublin , its membership grew to include the leaders of Ducal Prussia and Livonia . Over time, membership in

3066-478: A single tribe. ( Manteuffel 1982 , p. 44) The family unit of a tribe is called the rodzina , while a collection of tribes is a plemię . Mieszko I of Poland (c. 935 – 25 May 992) established an elite knightly retinue from within his army, which he depended upon for success in uniting the Lekhitic tribes and preserving the unity of his state. Documented proof exists of Mieszko I's successors utilizing such

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3212-605: A three-day siege, the Swedes, Cossacks, and Transylvanians captured Warsaw. Soon afterwards, however, the Dano-Swedish War began, and Charles X Gustav left Poland with most of his troops. The remaining Swedish army was commanded by Gustaf Otto Stenbock . The Swedish withdrawal made Rákóczi uneasy, as he was well aware of the poor quality of his soldiers. On July 7–8, 1656, at Łańcut Castle, King John Casimir and his hetmans agreed that Stefan Czarniecki would follow Rákóczi and

3358-399: A unifying religious cult, governed by the wiec , an assembly of free tribesmen. Later, when safety required power to be consolidated, an elected prince was chosen to govern. The election privilege was usually limited to elites. The tribes were ruled by clans ( ród ) consisting of people related by blood or marriage and theoretically descending from a common ancestor, giving the ród/clan

3504-654: The Battle of Berestechko (1651), it brought into focus the rivalry between Russia and the Commonwealth for hegemony over Ukraine and over the eastern Slavic lands in general. Thus, in October 1653, the Russian Zemsky Sobor declared war on the Commonwealth, and in June 1654 the forces of Tsar Alexis of Russia invaded the eastern half of Poland-Lithuania, starting the Russo-Polish War of 1654–1667 . In

3650-458: The Battle of Ujście , Krzysztof Opaliński surrendered Greater Poland to Charles Gustav . On July 31, 1655, the army commanded by Arvid Wittenberg captured Poznań , and on August 20 near Konin , the armies of Wittenberg and Charles Gustav joined forces, and headed for Warsaw. On September 2, the Poles lost the Battle of Sobota , and on September 4, the Swedes captured Łowicz . Four days later,

3796-600: The Braniewo Library, works of Nicolaus Copernicus , including the 1543 Nuremberg edition of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium , and the oldest printed text of Bogurodzica . Krzywiński states that as an act of goodwill, the Swedish side should cover the cost of reconstruction of the Rawa Mazowiecka castle, which was destroyed by them in the 1650s. The population in cities like Warsaw had been reduced to only 10% of its pre-war population of 20,000, and

3942-631: The Duchy of Prussia . In early October 1656, an army of 11,000 under Wincenty Korwin Gosiewski entered Prussia, supported by 2,000 Crimean Tatars . On October 8, Gosiewski's army won the Battle of Prostken (October 8), but after the Tatars decided to return to the Crimea, the Polish–Lithuanian army was defeated in the Battle of Filipów (October 22). In November 1656, Greater Poland's troops invaded

4088-753: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and, as a social class , dominated those states by exercising political rights and power . Szlachta as a class differed significantly from the feudal nobility of Western Europe . The estate was officially abolished in 1921 by the March Constitution . The origins of the szlachta are obscure and the subject of several theories. Traditionally, its members owned land (allods) , often folwarks . The szlachta secured substantial and increasing political power and rights throughout its history, beginning with

4234-622: The Głogówek castle near Prudnik in Upper Silesia . Kraków was left in the hands of Stefan Czarniecki ; on October 3 Swedish forces once again defeated the Poles in the Battle of Wojnicz , which opened the road to Kraków. The ancient capital of Poland was captured after a siege , on October 13, 1655. With the three most populated and best developed Polish provinces in his hands (Greater Poland, Lesser Poland and Mazovia ), Charles Gustav decided to head back northwards to Royal Prussia , which

4380-576: The House of Habsburg . On December 1, 1656, the first Treaty of Vienna was signed, which was followed by a second Treaty of Vienna , in which Emperor Leopold I promised to aid John Casimir with 12,000 troops against the Swedish-Brandenburgian alliance. By late 1656, Swedish troops had been pushed out of most of the Commonwealth. They only held the right-bank half of Royal Prussia, northern Mazovia, Łowicz, Kraków, and Tykocin . In 1653,

4526-520: The House of Vasa . An earlier conflict, the Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629) had ended with the Treaty of Stuhmsdorf . The Polish–Lithuanian King John II Casimir (reigned 1648–68) lacked support among the Commonwealth nobility ( szlachta ) due to his sympathies with absolutist Austria and his open contempt for the " Sarmatist " culture of the nobility. Earlier, in 1643, John Casimir had become

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4672-745: The King of Lithuania . Because of Lithuanian expansion into the lands of Ruthenia in the middle of the 14th century, a new term for nobility appeared — bajorai , from Ruthenian бояре . This word is used to this day in Lithuania to refer to nobility in general, including those from abroad. After the Union of Horodło , the Lithuanian nobility acquired equal status with its Polish counterparts. Over time they became increasingly Polonized , although they did preserve their national consciousness, and in most cases recognition of their Lithuanian family roots. In

4818-566: The King of Poland , Sigismund III Vasa , confirmed the act. The Academy was modeled on the Academy of Strassburg . Initially the Academy comprised three departments: liberal arts , law , and medicine , and had seven faculty positions for professors. From 1637 the school had the power to award doctor of philosophy diplomas. In 1648, a department of theology was added. The Academy was the third institution of higher education to be founded in

4964-713: The Middle East . The second theory involved a presumed szlachta descent from Japheth , one of Noah 's sons. By contrast, the peasantry were said to be the offspring of another son of Noah, Ham — and hence subject to bondage under the Curse of Ham . The Jews were considered the offspring of Shem . Other fanciful theories included its foundation by Julius Caesar , Alexander the Great , or regional leaders who had not mixed their bloodlines with those of 'slaves, prisoners, or aliens'. Another theory describes its derivation from

5110-465: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (and the first private one), after the Kraków Academy (1364) and Vilnius University (1578) Zamoyski's immense wealth allowed him to be the first magnate in the Commonwealth to personally sponsor such an institution ( Poznań 's Lubrański Academy (1519) was a high school with a high level of education, hence it was called customary "academy"). The Academy

5256-699: The Proto-Germanic * slagiz , "blow", "strike", and shares the Anglo-Saxon root for "slaughter", or the verb "to slug" – means "breeding" or "gender". Like many other Polish words pertaining to nobility, it derives from Germanic words: the Polish word for "knight" is rycerz , from the German Ritter , meaning "rider". The Polish word for "coat of arms" is herb from the German Erbe ("heritage"). 17th-century Poles assumed szlachta came from

5402-537: The Province of Pomerania , entered Greater Poland , one of the richest and most developed provinces of the Commonwealth, which had for centuries been unaffected by any military conflicts, and whose levée en masse had not been used to fighting. Greater Poland's noble camp, located in the valley of the Noteć river, near the town of Ujście , looked more like a large party, as the szlachta , gathered there to face

5548-498: The San river. Charles Gustav sent some of his forces to capture Przemyśl , but on March 16 they returned to Jarosław without success. On March 22, the Swedish army set off northwards, along the San and Vistula rivers, back to Warsaw. They were followed by units of Stefan Czarniecki and Aleksander Koniecpolski, and during the retreat, Polish troops supporting the invaders changed sides, joining

5694-513: The Sejm ordered the expulsion of the Polish Brethren , who were accused of collaborating with the Swedish invaders. In 1659, the Swedish army still remaining in Poland under Lorens von der Linde was withdrawn to major Royal Prussian fortresses – Malbork, Głowa Gdańska, Grudziądz , Elbląg , and Brodnica . In August 1659, the Polish army captured Głowa and Grudziądz, and soon afterwards,

5840-415: The Sejm (parliament) , submitting palatines , or Voivodes of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , receive the title of prince . Sons of a prince were to receive titles of counts and barons . Castellans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were to receive the title of count. This attempt to introduce the hierarchy of noble titles common for European feudal systems for szlachta was rejected. The fact

5986-743: The Swedish Army Museum , and Livrustkammaren . Almost all cities, towns, castles and churches in locations where Swedish troops were stationed were destroyed, and in guides to many Polish towns and cities one can find notes that read "object destroyed during Swedish invasion". From the Royal Castle in Warsaw the Swedes plundered approximately 200 paintings, a number of carpets and Turkish tents, musical instruments, furniture, Chinese porcelain, weapons, books, manuscripts, marbles, even dresses of maids and door frames pulled from walls. Meanwhile,

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6132-743: The Thirty Years' War , the Swedish Empire emerged as one of the strongest kingdoms on the continent. It had a large army but little money to pay its soldiers. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, weakened by wars with the Cossacks and Tsardom of Russia , seemed like easy prey, also because its best soldiers had been either killed in the 1652 Battle of Batih or massacred after it. Furthermore, Swedes remembered claims to their throne by Polish kings Sigismund III Vasa and his sons Władysław IV Vasa and John II Casimir , who themselves belonged to

6278-639: The Truce of Andrusovo (January 30, 1667). The Deluge was the climax of a series of wars that took place in Poland–Lithuania in the mid-17th century. The Commonwealth was first affected by the Khmelnytsky Uprising , which began in 1648, and affected southeastern provinces of the country. In the final stages of the uprising, the Russians invaded Poland–Lithuania in 1654, reaching as far west as

6424-510: The Truce of Vilna (November 3), in which Poland and the Tsardom of Russia formed an anti-Swedish alliance. With Russian forces attacking Sweden in Livonia (see Russo-Swedish War (1656–1658) ), Poland finally had time to recoup and gather fresh forces. On October 12, 1655, with permission from King John Casimir, Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg signed the Treaty of Rinsk , in which

6570-558: The Tyszowce Confederation was formed in support of the Polish king. John Casimir himself met with hetmans Stanisław Rewera Potocki , Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski , Stanisław Lanckoroński and Stefan Czarniecki in Krosno, on December 31, 1655. The meeting was also attended by Primate Andrzej Leszczyński , and eight voivodes . While in Krosno, the Polish king found out about the end of the siege of Jasna Góra, and about

6716-615: The Vistula river near Puławy . The Commonwealth also fought forces from Transylvania and Brandenburg-Prussia , but the Duchy of Prussia gained formal Polish recognition of its independence outside of the Polish state ( Treaty of Wehlau , 1657). The Tatars of the Crimean Khanate and the Nogai Horde conducted almost annual slave raids in the territories controlled by the Commonwealth. In all these other invasions, only

6862-1050: The Vistula to the Baltic Sea and then to Sweden. In November 2011, archaeologists of the University of Warsaw found approximately 70 items (total weight five tons), which probably come from the Warsaw Royal Castle. They sank in the Vistula while being transported to Sweden. Even though Article 9 of the Treaty of Oliva stated that Sweden should return all stolen goods, all items are still kept in Stockholm and other Swedish locations. Several Polish kings (John II Casimir, John III Sobieski and Stanisław II Augustus ) sent official missions to Sweden, but without success. In most situations, Swedish authorities claimed that they did not know where stolen goods were. In 1911, Kraków's Academy of Science sent its own mission, which

7008-657: The szlachta grew to encompass around 8% to 15% of Polish-Lithuanian society, which made the membership an electorate that was several times larger than most noble classes in other countries; by contrast, nobles in Italy and France encompassed 1% during the early modern period . Despite often enormous differences in wealth and political influence, few distinctions in law existed between the great magnates and lesser szlachta . The juridic principle of szlachta equality existed because szlachta land titles were allodial , not feudal , involving no requirement of feudal service to

7154-477: The szlachta in Poland. Members of the szlachta had the personal obligation to defend the country ( pospolite ruszenie ), thereby becoming within the kingdom a military caste and aristocracy with political power and extensive rights secured. Inclusion in the warrior caste was almost exclusively based on inheritance. Concerning the early Polish tribes, geography contributed to long-standing traditions. The Polish tribes were internalized and organized around

7300-415: The 15th and 16th centuries made the Academy one of the leading educational institutions in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , from the mid-17th century the Academy went into decline. The number of students rose from 70 in 1595 to 1635 to around 120 in the years 1635 to 1646. Its lost its lay character ten years after Zamoyski's death, when in 1615 it was taken over by the bishop of Chełm; the struggle over

7446-511: The 16th century, some of the Lithuanian nobility claimed that they were descended from the Romans, and that the Lithuanian language was derived from Latin. This led to a conundrum: Polish nobility claimed its own ancestry from Sarmatian tribes, but Sarmatians were considered enemies of the Romans. Thus, a new Roman-Sarmatian theory was created. Strong cultural ties with Polish nobility led to

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7592-464: The 17th century, was a cognomen ) The Deluge (history) The Deluge was a series of mid-17th-century military campaigns in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . In a wider sense, it applies to the period between the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648 and the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667, comprising the Polish theatres of the Russo-Polish and Second Northern Wars . In a stricter sense,

7738-483: The 18th century. As a result of the Deluge, the Commonwealth began a subsequent period of decline. The Deluge had a major effect on Poland, and there are several books describing the war. In 1886 Henryk Sienkiewicz described the Swedish invasion in his novel Роtор . Based on the novel, Jerzy Hoffman directed the film The Deluge ( Роtор ) in 1974, a classic historical work. It starred Daniel Olbrychski as

7884-455: The Academy and is housed in the original building complex. It is one of several secondary schools in the city. 50°43′07″N 23°15′06″E  /  50.718503°N 23.251654°E  / 50.718503; 23.251654 Szlachta The szlachta ( Polish: [ˈʂlaxta] ; Lithuanian : šlėkta ) were the noble estate of the realm in the Kingdom of Poland ,

8030-536: The Academy's lecturers). Its founding was approved in Rome by Pope Clement VIII (bull of October 29, 1594), and in Poland by the Bishop of Chełm , Stanisław Gomoliński . The official opening ceremony took place on 15 March 1595. On July 5, 1600, Zamoyski would write, in the Academy's foundation act: "such are countries, as is the education of their youth" ( "takie są rzeczypospolite, jakie ich młodzieży chowanie" ). In 1601

8176-617: The Brandenburger province of Neumark , which resulted in withdrawal of Brandenburger forces from most of Greater Poland. Charles Gustav, knowing that he needed the support of the Elector, agreed to sign the Treaty of Labiau (November 20), which granted full sovereignty to the Prussian ruler, in exchange for his complete military support of Sweden in the ongoing war. The Commonwealth, on the other hand, had already been negotiating with

8322-593: The Commonwealth and began negotiations with the Swedish king Charles X Gustav of Sweden aimed at breaking up the Commonwealth and the Polish–Lithuanian union . They signed the Treaty of Kėdainiai (1655), which envisaged the Radziwiłł princes ruling over two duchies carved out from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Swedish protection . In July 1655 two Swedish armies, operating from Swedish Pomerania and

8468-589: The Commonwealth, but were later defeated in the Battle of Konotop and the Battle of Polonka . On May 3, 1660, the Treaty of Oliva was signed, which ended the Polish–Swedish War. After the conclusion of the conflict, Poland–Lithuania initiated a large offensive against the Russians, who were beaten in the Battle of Chudnov . In 1661, Vilnius was recaptured (December 2), and in 1663–64, Polish forces invaded Left-bank Ukraine . The war with Russia ended with

8614-454: The Commonwealth. Meanwhile, Rákóczi had already been negotiating with Bohdan Khmelnytsky, and on September 7, 1656, Transylvania and the Zaporizhian Sich signed a peace treaty, which obliged both sides to help each other in war. On December 8, 1656, the Treaty of Radnot was signed, which divided Poland-Lithuania among Charles X Gustav, Bogusław Radziwiłł, Elector Frederick William, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, and George II Rákóczi. In late January 1657,

8760-476: The Commonwealth. The Swedish king decided to find allies, who would help him to divide Poland-Lithuania. On June 29, 1656, he signed the Treaty of Marienburg , in which he offered Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg a reward for fighting on his side. Brandenburg-Prussia was promised sovereignty in four voivodeships – Poznań, Kalisz, Łęczyca, and Sieradz. On July 28, a reinforced Swedish–Brandenburgian army, under Charles Gustav, set out for Warsaw. Even though

8906-406: The Cossacks, Russia refused to recognize Hadiach, and maintained its claims to Ukraine . The Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) ended with the Treaty of Andrusovo of January 13, 1667. (Poland-Lithuania profited from Turkish participation in the Russo-Turkish War (1676–1681) due to Ottoman links with the Crimea .) The peace settlement gave Russia control over the so-called Left-bank Ukraine (left of

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9052-523: The Cossacks, while Lubomirski's and Potocki's divisions together with Crimean Tatars. The Ottomans were offended that George II Rakoczi, who was officially their vassal, did not ask their approval to attack Poland and did not want to open another war (in that time they tried to attack Venice through Dalmatia) but when he ignored them they ordered the Crimean Tatars to help the Polish troops and punish Rakoczi. They already replaced Rakoczi's vassal voivodes from Moldavia and Wallachia. On June 20, 1657, Stenbock

9198-411: The Deluge "did not end in a Swedish defeat" and "did not end in a Polish victory". Some claim that Sweden won the war. However, other historians claim that Sweden lost the war. Other historians also claim that the war ended favourably for Sweden. With other historians claiming the war to have ended favourably for the Commonwealth or unfavourably for Sweden. The Swedish invasion affected

9344-448: The Deluge in the region of Kaszuby ), Znak Jastrzębca ( The sign of the Jastrzębiec ) by Stanisław Maria Jankowski, and Pamiętnik oblężenia Częstochowy ( The memoir of the siege of Częstochowa ), by Father Augustyn Kordecki . Furthermore, James Michener describes the Deluge in his novel Poland (1983). The Deluge has also found its way into video games. The video game Mount & Blade: With Fire & Sword (named after

9490-401: The English lawyer William Bruce, the Italian theologian Dominic Convalis and the Belgian mathematician Adriaan van Roomen . The Academy's chancellor was the incumbent Bishop of Chełm . The students were recruited mainly from the southeastern lands of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and from adjacent countries. Following an initial period of successful development, which at the turn of

9636-445: The German schlachten , "to slaughter" or "to butcher", and was therefore related to the German word for battle, Schlacht . Some early Polish historians thought the term might have derived from the name of the legendary proto-Polish chief, Lech , mentioned in Polish and Czech writings. The szlachta traced their descent from Lech, who allegedly founded the Polish kingdom in about the fifth century. The Polish term szlachta designated

9782-402: The Grand Duchy, Ruthenia 's nobility gradually rendered loyalty to the multilingual and cultural melting pot that was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Many noble Ruthenian families intermarried with Lithuanians. The rights of Orthodox nobles were nominally equal to those enjoyed by the Polish and Lithuanian nobility, but they were put under cultural pressure to convert to Catholicism. It was

9928-415: The Middle Ages and in the early modern period. The Polish clan name and cry ritualized the ius militare, i.e., the power to command an army; and they had been used sometime before 1244 to define knightly status. ( Górecki 1992 , pp. 183–185). "In Poland, the Radwanice were noted relatively early (1274) as the descendants of Radwan , a knight [more properly a "rycerz" from the German " ritter "] active

10074-424: The Piasts attempted to deprive them of their independence. These możni (Magnates) constantly sought to undermine princely authority . In Gall Anonym's chronicle, there is noted the nobility's alarm when the Palatine Sieciech "elevated those of a lower class over those who were noble born" entrusting them with state offices. ( Manteuffel 1982 , p. 149) In Lithuania Propria and in Samogitia , prior to

10220-460: The Poles from taking control of the northern districts of the country, and departed Warsaw with an army of 10,000 (April 17). On April 21, the Lithuanians under Sapieha freed Lublin, and on April 23, the Lithuanian army reached Praga , which today is a right-bank district of Warsaw. The forces of Czarniecki and Lubomirski joined other troops near Piła , but on May 7 they were defeated in the Battle of Kłecko , despite their numerical superiority. After

10366-423: The Polish Crown army under Stanisław Potocki, and the Lithuanian army under Paweł Sapieha, to force a decisive battle. On April 29, the Polish and Lithuanian armies joined forces at Łosice , and in early May 1657, the Poles decided to organize a revenge raid on Transylvania, under hetman Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski. On May 13, Rákóczi and Charles X Gustav seized the fortress of Brześć Litewski , and on May 17, after

10512-603: The Polish Crown'. After the Battle of Warka, Czarniecki and Lubomirski decided to head towards Greater Poland and Kujawy , to support guerrilla forces active there. By April 9, Polish troops reached Royal Prussia, capturing Bydgoszcz and Nakło (April 19). The Polish attempt to capture Toruń , on April 17, was a failure. After a short rest, Stefan Czarniecki considered a raid of Swedish Pomerania , but other Polish leaders opposed this idea. Charles Gustav decided to prevent

10658-765: The Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Culture; he also visited the Embassy of Sweden in Warsaw. A businessman from Warsaw, Sławian Krzywiński, joined Poznański, creating the Foundation of Reconstruction of Destruction Caused by the Swedish Invasion (Fundacja Odbudowy Zniszczeń Dokonanych w Czasie Potopu Szwedzkiego). According to Krzywiński, looted goods are still kept in Swedish museums and private collections. Among others, Poland lost

10804-653: The Polish–Lithuanian throne. Many members of the Polish nobility regarded John Casimir as a weak king or a "Jesuit-King"; Grand Treasurer Bogusław Leszczyński , a Protestant, and Deputy Chancellor of the Crown Hieronim Radziejowski , an old enemy of the Polish King who had been exiled to Sweden, encouraged Charles Gustav to claim the Polish crown . Two Lithuanian noble princes, Janusz Radziwiłł and Bogusław Radziwiłł , introduced dissension into

10950-568: The Protestant Polish Brethren from Poland in 1658 exemplified the increasing intolerance. During the Deluge, many thousands of Polish Jews also fell victim to violence carried out by the Zaporozhian Cossacks and Polish-Lithuanian forces. The Treaty of Oliva signed in 1660 meant that: Poland gave up most of Livonia with Riga, retaining only part of it (Latgale – the south-eastern part of Livonia) which

11096-528: The Radziwiłłs was the result of the 1654 Russian invasion, as Janusz Radziwiłł accused the Poles of not helping the Lithuanians with the defence of the Grand Duchy. The Russian capture of Vilnius (August 9, 1655) and the subsequent slaughter of its residents convinced the Lithuanian nobility that Swedish protection was the best solution. The situation of the Commonwealth was desperate, but hope appeared with

11242-494: The Royal Prussian nobility agreed to allow Brandenburgian garrisons in their province to defend it against the Swedish invasion (the treaty did not include the cities of Gdańsk , Elbląg and Toruń ). In November and December 1655 the Swedish army under Gustaf Otto Stenbock captured all the towns of Royal Prussia except for Gdańsk, Puck and Malbork . To prevent John Casimir's return to Poland, Swedish units protected

11388-600: The Russian invaders caused the most similar damages to the Swedes, due to Russian raids, destructions and rapid incursion which crippled Polish industries. With the Treaty of Hadiach on September 16, 1658, the Polish Crown sought to elevate the Cossacks and Ruthenians to a position equal to that of Poland and Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Union, and in fact transform the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth into

11534-494: The Russian invaders in the east had also destroyed and damaged much of the eastern part's infrastructure, partly due to heavy agricultural fertile developments there. Hubert Kowalski of the University of Warsaw Institute of Archeology says that Swedes stole anything they could lay their hands on – windows, stairs, chimneys, sculptures, floors, doors and gates. Most goods were loaded on boats and transported along

11680-610: The Ruthenian and Lithuanian nobility from before the old Commonwealth. In the past, a misconception sometimes led to the mistranslation of " szlachta " as "gentry" rather than "nobility". This mistaken practice began due to the inferior economic status of many szlachta members compared to that of the nobility in other European countries (see also Estates of the Realm regarding wealth and nobility ). The szlachta included those rich and powerful enough to be great magnates down to

11826-572: The Swedish Army, was more interested in drinking. To make matters worse, two powerful magnates, the Voivode of Poznań Krzysztof Opaliński , and the Voivode of Kalisz , Andrzej Karol Grudziński, argued with each other whether to fight or to give up. Polish troops lacked gunpowder, cannons, and even food, which was stolen at local villages by hungry soldiers. After an easy Swedish victory at

11972-516: The Swedish and Transylvanian armies from meeting. After joining the Cossacks, Rákóczi decided not to attack Lwów, but set off towards Kraków, where the situation of the Swedish garrison under Wirtz was desperate. On March 21, Rákóczi captured Tarnów , and on March 28, he reached Kraków. Along the way to the ancient Polish capital, the Transylvanian-Cossack army burned and looted towns and villages, murdering thousands. Since his army

12118-470: The Swedish army entered the Polish capital, becoming the first foreign army in history to capture Warsaw. King Charles Gustav left a garrison in Warsaw, under Bengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna , and headed southwards, in pursuit of John Casimir. On September 16, the Swedes defeated Polish troops in the Battle of Żarnów , and the Polish forces gave up resistance and surrendered to the invaders. The Polish king headed towards Kraków on September 25, and then fled to

12264-640: The Tatars. After six months of fighting in Poland, Rákóczi's army of 25,000 ceased to exist, with all survivors taken prisoner by the Tatars. On August 30, the Swedish garrison left Kraków, and throughout August and September 1657, all Swedish troops in Poland moved northwards, to Royal Prussia . Altogether, by autumn of that year, only some 8,000 Swedish soldiers remained in Poland–Lithuania. The Swedes still kept some Prussian cities, as Malbork, Elbląg, Sztum , Brodnica , Grudziądz , and Toruń . On September 11, an Austrian army of 11,000, allied with Poland, concentrated near Kraków and set off to Płock , where it spent

12410-605: The Transylvanian Hungarian ruler George II Rákóczi signed an alliance with Poland, and the relations between the Commonwealth and Transylvania were friendly. George had even been offered the Polish crown, on condition that he convert to Catholicism. Stunning Swedish successes, however, made Rákóczi change his mind. On May 18, 1656, Charles X Gustav, in a letter sent from Malbork, offered the Hungarian prince Red Ruthenia, in exchange for military support against

12556-519: The Transylvanian army of 25,000 crossed the Carpathians , heading towards Medyka , where 10,000 Cossack allies awaited them. To face the new invader, the army of hetman Stanisław Rewera Potocki rushed southwards. At the same time (January 2), in the Battle of Chojnice , the Swedes defeated the Poles. On February 26, Stefan Czarniecki and King John Casimir met in Kalisz , where they decided to prevent

12702-496: The allied army was smaller, it still managed to defeat the Poles and Lithuanians in the Battle of Warsaw (July 28–30), and to recapture Warsaw. This victory, however, achieved little, as the Poles retreated behind the Wieprz , where they regrouped, and were soon ready to continue fighting. Finally, Charles Gustav decided to abandon Warsaw, and retreat to Royal Prussia. To punish Brandenburg-Prussia, Commonwealth forces decided to invade

12848-443: The battle, the surviving Polish units regrouped near Gniezno , and in late May, they headed for Warsaw, to help the Lithuanians in the siege of the Polish capital (April 24 – July 1). Warsaw was being defended by Arvid Wittenberg with 2,000 soldiers, as the main Swedish army was busy besieging Gdańsk. Wittenberg capitulated on July 1, 1656. Already in late 1655, Charles Gustav realized that it would be impossible for him to control

12994-445: The belief only rycerstwo (those combining military prowess with high/aristocratic birth) could serve as officials in state administration. Select rycerstwo were distinguished above the other rycerstwo, because they descended from past tribal dynasties, or because early Piasts' endowments made them select beneficiaries. These rycerstwo of great wealth were called możni (Magnates) . They had the same political status and status in law as

13140-604: The border with Silesia. On November 18, 1655, the Swedes besieged the monastery at Jasna Góra , located in Lesser Poland, near the border. Led by the Grand Prior Augustyn Kordecki , the garrison of this symbolic sanctuary-fortress of Poland held off its enemies in the Siege of Jasna Góra . The defense of Jasna Góra galvanized Polish resistance against the Swedes. The news of the siege spread across

13286-700: The character Andrzej Kmicic , a patriot who valiantly fought against the Swedish invasion. The film received a nomination for an Oscar in 1974, but lost to the Italian film Amarcord . In 2000, Renata Ocieczek wrote the book Czasy potopu szwedzkiego w literaturze polskiej ( The time of the Swedish deluge in Polish literature ), and in 2006 Jacek Płosiński wrote Potop szwedzki na Podlasiu ( Swedish deluge in Podlasie ). Other books about this topic include: Warszawa 1656 by Mirosław Nagielski, Krwawy sztorm ("Bloody storm") by Augustyn Necel (describing

13432-476: The control of the school between the bishops and lay officials of the Zamoyski family would continue for many years. It became increasingly difficult for the school to attract renown faculty. The academy was damaged in a fire of 1627, and from the Swedish invasion and wars of late 1640s/early 1650s. Several attempts at reform were undertaken in the following decades, none met with much success. Gradual improvement

13578-459: The country in World War II . Rottermund claims that Swedish invaders robbed the Commonwealth of its most important riches, and most of the stolen items never returned to Poland. Warsaw, the capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, was destroyed by the Swedes, and out of a pre-war population of 20,000, only 2,000 remained in the city after the war. According to the 2012 Polish estimates,

13724-478: The creation of the Kingdom of Lithuania by Mindaugas , nobles were called die beste leuten in German sources. In Lithuanian, nobles were named ponai . The higher nobility were named kunigai or kunigaikščiai (dukes) — a loanword from Scandinavian konung . They were the established local leaders and warlords. During the development of the state, they gradually became subordinated to higher dukes, and later to

13870-459: The cry [ vocitatio ], [that is], the godło, [by the name of] Nagody, and I established them in the said land of mine, Masovia , [on the military tenure described elsewhere in the charter]." The documentation regarding Raciborz and Albert's tenure is the earliest surviving of the use of the clan name and cry defining the honorable status of Polish knights. The names of knightly genealogiae only came to be associated with heraldic devices later in

14016-592: The death of Janusz Radziwiłł. On January 12, 1656, John Casimir left Krosno, and after three days, arrived at Łańcut Castle , which belonged to the Lubomirski family . On February 10, the king came to Lwów , which, together with Gdańsk, was one of only two major cities of the Commonwealth not seized by any of Poland's enemies. Soon Polish Army units began to concentrate in the area of Lwów, including militias from Red Ruthenia , Volhynia and Lublin , as well as forces under Potocki and Prince Lubomirski, together with

14162-538: The devastating Deluge was the subsequent weakening of Poland's international standing. While Sweden destroyed more, Russia also took part and was second only to Sweden in the level of destruction. With the entire Polish nation crippled by the Swedes and Russians, Russia was able to rise, found the Russian Empire in the early 18th century and play a major role in the Partitions of Poland in the latter half of

14308-595: The distinguishing name Żądło of the knights' clan Radwan coat of arms ), or "Jakub Żądło, herbu Radwan". The Polish state paralleled the Roman Empire in that full rights of citizenship were limited to the szlachta. The szlachta in Poland , where Latin was written and spoken far and wide, used the Roman naming convention of the tria nomina (praenomen, nomen, and cognomen) to distinguish Polish citizens/szlachta from

14454-460: The entire city was razed to the ground, akin to the centuries-after Nazi occupation of the city during World War II . Kraków and Vilnius were also devastated, with their populations being reduced by over half. Additionally, the Polish Gross national product ( GNP or GNI) was reduced to 55% of its pre-war levels as a consequence of the Swedish invasion. One of the most notable effects of

14600-551: The estimates of Polish scholars I. Ihnatowicz, Z. Landau, A. Mączak and B. Zientara, the invasion by the Swedish army and its allies (Brandenburg-Prussia and Transilvania), resulted in the loss of 25% of the population in four core Polish provinces. Lesser Poland lost 23% of population, Mazovia 40% in villages and 70% in towns, Greater Poland 50% in villages and 60% in towns. Royal Prussia lost some 60% of its population. The Commonwealth's population losses are estimated at between 30% and 50% in 1648–1660. In January 2013 Marek Poznański,

14746-551: The family name of counts Litwiccy (Litwicki ) was formed with the patronymic suffix -ic from the ethnic name Litwa, i.e. Lithuania, 'nation of Lithuanians'. It refers to the early modern empire of Central Europe, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648). In Polish "z Dąbrówki" and "Dąbrowski" mean the same thing: "of, from Dąbrówka." More precisely, "z Dąbrówki" means owning the patrimony or estate Dąbrówka, not necessarily originating from. Almost all

14892-436: The fifth century. Lechia was the name of Poland in antiquity, and the szlachta's own name for themselves was Lechici /Lekhi. Richard Holt Hutton argued an exact counterpart of szlachta society was the system of tenure of southern India—an aristocracy of equality—settled as conquerors among a separate race. Some elements of the Polish state paralleled the Roman Empire in that full rights of citizenship were limited to

15038-437: The forces of John Casimir. On March 30, the starving, cold and tired Swedish army of 5,000 stopped near Sandomierz , which was already in Polish hands. The Swedes camped among the forests of Sandomierz Forest near Gorzyce , where they were quickly surrounded by approximately 23,000 Poles and Lithuanians. To help the besieged army, on March 27 Frederick VI left Warsaw with 2,500 reiters and dragoons , so John Casimir ordered

15184-483: The formalized, hereditary aristocracy of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which constituted the nation itself, and ruled without competition. In official Latin documents of the old Commonwealth , the hereditary szlachta were referred to as " nobilitas " from the Latin term, and could be compared in legal status to English or British peers of the realm , or to the ancient Roman idea of cives , "citizen". Until

15330-459: The garrison of Kamieniec Podolski fortress. Charles Gustav, after finding out about the return of the Polish king, ordered his armies to concentrate in Łowicz. On February 8, 1656, the Swedes defeated Czarniecki in the Battle of Gołąb , and continued their march towards Lwów, reaching the Zamość Fortress on February 25. On March 1, realizing that without heavy guns it was impossible to capture

15476-527: The government of the Commonwealth via the lower legislative chamber of the Sejm (bicameral national parliament) , composed of representatives elected at local sejmiks (local szlachta assemblies). Sejmiks performed various governmental functions at local levels, such as appointing officials and overseeing judicial and financial governance, including tax-raising. The szlachta assumed various governing positions, including voivode , marshal of voivodeship , castellan , and starosta . In 1413, following

15622-545: The government, and they are as a Seminarie from whence Councellors and Kinges are taken." The szlachta were a caste , a military caste, as in Hindu society. In the year 1244, Bolesław, Duke of Masovia , identified members of the knights ' clan as members of a genealogia: "I received my good servitors [Raciborz and Albert] from the land of [Great] Poland , and from the clan [ genealogia ] called Jelito , with my well-disposed knowledge [i.e., consent and encouragement] and

15768-462: The impoverished with an aristocratic lineage, but with no land, no castle, no money, no village, and no subject peasants. Historian M.Ross wrote in 1835: "At least 60,000 families belong to this class, of which, however, only about 100 are wealthy; all the rest are poor." A few exceptionally wealthy and powerful szlachta members constituted the magnateria and were known as magnates ( magnates of Poland and Lithuania ). Adam Zamoyski argues that

15914-457: The land and plow," that even an educated peasant would always remain a peasant, because "it is impossible to transform a dog into a lynx ." The szlachta were noble in the Aryan (see Alans ) sense -- "noble" in contrast to the people over whom they ruled after coming into contact with them. The szlachta traced their descent from Lech/Lekh , who allegedly founded the Polish kingdom in about

16060-635: The lesser Lithuanian nobility occurred after various sanctions were imposed by the Russian Empire , such as removing Lithuania from the names of the Gubernyas shortly after the November Uprising . After the January Uprising the sanctions went further, and Russian officials began to intensify Russification , and banned the printing of books in Lithuanian . After the principalities of Halych and Volhynia became integrated with

16206-460: The main attack took place in the night of November 16–17, and on December 30 Toruń capitulated. Meanwhile, Stefan Czarniecki's division headed to Denmark–Norway , to help the Danes in the Dano-Swedish War . In October 1658, the Polish army of 4500 reached Hamburg , and in December 1658, with the help of Polish troops, the fortress of Kolding was captured (see Battle of Kolding ). On July 1, 1658,

16352-439: The material damage caused by the Swedish army amounted to 4 billion złotys . 188 cities and towns, 186 villages, 136 churches, 89 palaces, and 81 castles were completely destroyed in Poland. In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a popular uprising of Zaporozhian Cossacks and Ukrainian peasants discontented with the rule of Polish and Lithuanian magnates . Although the initial phase of the rebellion ended (after much destruction) at

16498-577: The mighty stronghold, the Swedish army gave up the siege, and headed towards Bełżec . On March 3, Charles Gustav, whose units were harassed by Polish guerilla forces, decided to retreat. At the same time, guerilla warfare also broke out in Mazovia and Greater Poland, and Lithuanian units under the Grand Hetman of Lithuania Paweł Jan Sapieha began moving towards Red Ruthenia. On March 11, the Swedish army arrived at Jarosław , fighting its way across

16644-592: The mounted units of Czarnecki and Lubomirski to face the margrave. Frederick's army was defeated on April 7 in the Battle of Warka . At Gorzyce, however, second-quality Polish forces remained, and the Swedish king managed to break out (April 5), and on April 13, Charles Gustav reached Warsaw. Meanwhile, the Polish king made the Lwów Oath (April 1), in which he entrusted the Commonwealth to the Blessed Virgin Mary's protection, and declared her 'The Queen of

16790-422: The nation, and in several areas guerrilla units were created, outraged at the Swedes' attempt to seize the monastery. On December 7, 1655, the unit of Colonel Gabriel Wojniłłowicz defeated the Swedes and their Polish collaborators near Krosno . On December 13, Polish troops under Wojniłłowicz recaptured Nowy Sącz , and soon afterwards Sweden lost Biała , Dukla , Biecz , Wieliczka , and Oświęcim . By late 1655,

16936-588: The peasantry and foreigners, hence why multiple surnames are associated with many Polish coat of arms. Example – Jakub: Radwan Żądło-Dąbrowski (sometimes Jakub: Radwan Dąbrowski-Żądło) Praenomen Jakub Nomen (nomen gentile—name of the gens / ród or knights' clan): Radwan Cognomen (name of the family branch/ sept within the Radwan gens): For example—Braniecki, Dąbrowski, Czcikowski, Dostojewski, Górski, Nicki, Zebrzydowski , etc. Agnomen (nickname, Polish przydomek ): Żądło (prior to

17082-508: The reign of King Casimir III the Great between 1333 and 1370 in the Kingdom of Poland until the decline and end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 18th century. Apart from providing officers for the army, its chief civic obligations included electing the monarch and filling honorary and advisory roles at court that would later evolve into the upper legislative chamber, the Senate . The szlachta electorate also took part in

17228-715: The richest provinces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ( Greater Poland , Lesser Poland , Mazovia , Pomerelia , Kujawy , Podlasie ), which for the most part had not been affected by major wars for 200 years. According to Professor Andrzej Rottermund, manager of the Royal Castle in Warsaw , the Swedish army robbed Poland of her most precious goods – thousands of works of art, books and valuables. Most of these items have never been returned to Poland, and are kept both in private Swedish hands and in Stockholm museums, such as

17374-658: The river Dnieper ), with the Commonwealth retaining Right-bank Ukraine (right of the Dnieper). While initially the agreement stipulated that Russia would return Left-bank Ukraine to the Commonwealth in twenty years, the division became permanent with the Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686 . The Deluge brought to an end the era of religious tolerance in the Commonwealth: mostly non-Catholic invaders antagonized Catholic (including Uniate) population. The expulsion of

17520-459: The rycerstwo from which they all originated and to which they would return were their wealth lost. ( Manteuffel 1982 , pp. 148–149) The Period of Division from, A.D., 1138 – A.D., 1314 , which included nearly 200 years of fragmentation and which stemmed from Bolesław III 's division of Poland among his sons, was the genesis of the political structure where the great landowning szlachta ( możni/Magnates, both ecclesiastical and lay ), whose land

17666-634: The second half of the 19th century, the Polish term obywatel (which now means "citizen") could be used as a synonym for szlachta landlords. Today the word szlachta simply translates as "nobility". In its broadest sense, it can also denote some non-hereditary honorary knighthoods and baronial titles granted by other European monarchs, including the Holy See . Occasionally, 19th-century landowners of commoner descent were referred to as szlachta by courtesy or error, when they owned manorial estates, but were not in fact noble by birth. Szlachta also denotes

17812-540: The situation in southern Lesser Poland had deteriorated to such an extent for the invaders that on December 27 they decided to lift the siege of Jasna Góra. On December 16, 1655, in Sokal , Polish Crown hetmans urged the nation to fight the Swedish armies. Two days later, King John Casimir left the Głogówek in Silesia, and via Racibórz and Cieszyn , returned to Poland, arriving at Lubowla on December 27. Two days later,

17958-529: The starving Swedish garrison at Brodnica surrendered. The siege of Malbork was continued, and Polish – Brandenburgian troops blocked Elbląg. In December 1659, the siege of Elbląg began. Meanwhile, in late 1658, the Polish–Russian truce ended when Russian forces under Ivan Andreyevich Khovansky (Tararui) and Jurij Aleksiejewicz Dołgorukow again attacked the Polish – Lithuanian units (see Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) ). The Russians managed to capture large parts of

18104-461: The summer of 1654, the Russians managed to capture most important cities and strongholds of today's Belarus . Smolensk was captured after a siege on October 3, 1654. The Swedish Empire , which technically already was at war with the Commonwealth (a ceasefire agreement existed from 1629 and was prolonged from 1635 to 1661), invaded in July 1655 and occupied the remaining half of the country. Following

18250-443: The surnames of genuine Polish szlachta can be traced back to a patrimony or locality, despite time scattering most families far from their original home. John of Zamość called himself John Zamoyski , Stephen of Potok called himself Potocki . At least since the 17th century the surnames/ cognomens of szlachta families became fixed and were inherited by following generations, remaining in that form until today. Prior to that time,

18396-554: The szlachta were equal before the king and deliberately opposed becoming a feudal nobility became a matter of law embedded as a constitutional principle of equality. The republicanism of ancient Rome was the szlachta's ideal. Poland was known as the Most Serene Republic of Poland, Serenissima Res Publica Poloniae. The szlachta, not as a feudal nobility or gentry, but as an electorate, and an aristocracy and warrior caste , with no feudal dependence on

18542-475: The szlachta were not exactly the same as the European nobility nor a gentry , as the szlachta fundamentally differed in law, rights, political power, origin, and composition from the feudal nobility of Western Europe. The szlachta did not rank below the king, as the szlachta's relationship to the Polish king was not feudal. The szlachta stood as equals before the king. The king was not an autocrat , nor

18688-409: The szlachta's overlord, as szlachta land was in allodium , not feudal tenure . Feudal dependence upon a Polish king did not exist for the szlachta and earlier in history some high-ranking szlachta ( magnates ) descending from past tribal dynasties regarded themselves as co-proprietors of Piast realms and constantly sought to undermine Piast authority. In 1459 Ostroróg presented a memorandum to

18834-497: The szlachta, while ancient, have always been considered obscure. As a result, its members often referred to it as odwieczna (perennial). Two popular historical theories about its origins have been put forward by its members and early historians and chroniclers. The first theory involved a presumed descent from the ancient Iranian tribe known as Sarmatians , who in the 2nd century AD, occupied lands in Eastern Europe , and

18980-507: The szlachta. According to British historian Alexander Bruce Boswell  [ pl ] , the 16th-century szlachta ideal was a Greek polis —a body of citizens, a small merchant class, and a multitude of laborers. The laborers consisted of peasants in serfdom . The szlachta had the exclusive right to enter the clergy until the time of the three partitions of Poland–Lithuania , and the szlachta and clergy believed they were genetically superior to peasants. The szlachta regarded peasants as

19126-715: The term refers to the Swedish invasion and occupation of the Commonwealth as a theatre of the Second Northern War (1655–1660) only; in Poland and Lithuania this period is called the Swedish Deluge ( Polish : potop szwedzki , Lithuanian : š vedų tvanas , Swedish : Svenska syndafloden ), or less commonly the Russo–Swedish Deluge ( Polish : Potop szwedzko-rosyjski ) due to the simultaneous Russo-Polish War. The term "deluge" ( potop in Polish)

19272-516: The three successive Partitions of Poland between 1772 and 1795, most of the szlachta began to lose legal privileges and social status, while szlachta elites became part of the nobilities of the three partitioning powers. In Polish, a nobleman is called a " szlachcic " and a noblewoman a " szlachcianka ". The Polish term szlachta derived from the Old High German word slahta . In modern German Geschlecht – which originally came from

19418-412: The time period was the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. However, unlike other European chivalry , coats of arms were associated with Polish knights' clans' ( genealogiae ) names and war cries ( godło ), where heraldic devices came to be held in common by entire clans, fighting in regiments. ( Górecki 1992 , pp. 183–185). Around the 14th century, there was little difference between knights and

19564-502: The winter. Polish army commanders and King John Casimir, gathered in Poznań on November 26, decided to delay the attack on Swedish forces in Royal Prussia until spring 1658. On November 6, 1657, Poland and Brandenburg–Prussia signed the Treaty of Bromberg . Ducal Prussia , which had previously allied itself with Sweden and attacked Poland, changed sides and guaranteed military support of the Commonwealth, in return for sovereignty (it had been

19710-598: Was almost strictly hereditary; the group of all such warriors was known as the "rycerstwo". Representing the wealthier families of Poland and itinerant knights from abroad seeking their fortunes, this other group of rycerstwo, which became the szlachta ("szlachta" becomes the proper term for Polish aristocracy beginning about the 15th century), gradually formed apart from Mieszko I's and his successors' elite retinues. This rycerstwo/ aristocracy secured more rights granting them favored status. They were absolved from particular burdens and obligations under ducal law, resulting in

19856-510: Was an institution midway between a secondary school and an institution of higher learning . It bestowed doctorates of philosophy and law. It was known for the high quality of education that it provided, which however did not extend beyond the ideals of "nobles' liberty." The faculty included a number of outstanding Poles such as Szymon Szymonowic , Adam Burski (Bursius), Tomasz Drezner , Jan Niedźwiecki-Ursinus , Szymon (Simon) Birkowsk and Stanisław Staszic , as well as foreigners such as

20002-536: Was defended by 2400 soldiers under Barthod Hartwig von Bülow. The Polish troops included the divisions of Krzysztof Grodzicki , Jan Sapieha and Stefan Czarniecki. Furthermore, they were provided support by the Brandenburgian-Prussian army of Bogusław Radziwiłł , which after the Treaty of Bromberg changed sides. Altogether, almost 25,000 soldiers besieged Toruń. After a prolonged artillery bombardment,

20148-541: Was defended by the Voivode of Malbork , Jakub Wejher . The Swedes, who were generally superior in training, discipline, and equipment, advanced rapidly. Meanwhile, in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , whose eastern part had been occupied by another Swedish army under Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie since August 1655, Janusz Radziwiłł and his cousin Bogusław Radziwiłł signed the Union of Kėdainiai (October 20, 1655), which ended Lithuania's union with Poland. The decision of

20294-470: Was in allodium , not feudal tenure , were economically elevated above the rycerstwo they originated from. The prior political structure was one of Polish tribes united into the historic Polish nation under a state ruled by the Piast dynasty , this dynasty appearing circa 850 A.D. Some możni (Magnates) descending from past tribal dynasties regarded themselves as co-proprietors of Piast realms, even though

20440-556: Was in Russian hands at the time, until the Armistice of Andrusov in 1667. King John II Casimir Vasa renounced his right to claim the Swedish throne for himself and those who succeeded him. He did, however, retain the title of King of Sweden for the rest of his life. Sweden had pledged to uphold freedom of trade in the Baltic. The evaluation of the outcome of the Deluge is disputed. Historians like Michael Fredholm von Essen state that

20586-642: Was interrupted in 1784, after the academy was shut down by the Austrian government (which had taken over that part of Poland in the late-18th-century partitions of Poland ); it was closed and converted into a secondary school ( Liceum Królewskie —Royal Lyceum). In 1811–66 the Lyceum's old Academy buildings were used as barracks for troops of the Zamość Fortress . The present-day I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Hetmana Jana Zamoyskiego w Zamościu (Heman Jan Zamoyski General Lyceum in Zamość ) traces its history to

20732-410: Was made up of renowned professors Eugeniusz Barwiński, Ludwik Birkenmajer and Jan Łoś. In Stockholm and Uppsala they found 205 manuscripts and 168 rare Polish books, describing their foundings in a report. In 2002, the Warsaw Royal Castle organized an exhibition, "Eagle and Three Crowns", which presented many items stolen from Poland, and kept in Swedish museums. After the Deluge, the Commonwealth became

20878-560: Was of a different origin than the Slavonic peasants ( kmiecie ; Latin: cmethones ) over which they ruled. In old Poland, there were two nations – szlachta and peasants. The szlachta were differentiated from the rural population. In harshly stratified and elitist Polish society, the szlachta's sense of distinction led to practices that in later periods would be characterized as racism. Wacław Potocki , herbu Śreniawa (1621–1696), proclaimed peasants "by nature" are "chained to

21024-526: Was ordered by Charles X Gustav to abandon Rákóczi and head with his army to Stettin . To save his skin, the ruler of Transylvania began a quick retreat southwards, towards the Carpathians. On July 11, Stefan Czarniecki's division defeated Rákóczi at Magierów near Lwów, and on July 20, the Transylvanian-Cossack army was destroyed in the Battle of Czarny Ostrów in Podolia . Three days later, Rákóczi signed

21170-407: Was popularized by Henryk Sienkiewicz in his novel The Deluge (1886). During the wars the Commonwealth lost approximately one third of its population as well as its status as a great power due to invasions by Sweden and Russia. According to Professor Andrzej Rottermund, manager of the Royal Castle in Warsaw , the destruction of Poland in the Deluge was more extensive than the destruction of

21316-407: Was too busy looting Lesser Poland , only 5,000 soldiers reached Kraków, which by the Treaty of Radnot, was to be ruled by Transylvania. After leaving 2,500 soldiers to help the Swedish garrison of Kraków, Rákóczi's army headed northwards, along the Vistula . On April 12, 1657, the Transylvanian-Cossack army met with Swedish forces under Charles X Gustav, at Ćmielów . The joined forces began to follow

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