The Akananuru ( Tamil : அகநானூறு , Akanāṉūṟu , literally "four hundred [poems] in the akam genre"), sometimes called Nedunthokai ( lit. "anthology of long poems"), is a classical Tamil poetic work and one of the Eight Anthologies ( Ettuthokai ) in the Sangam literature . It is a collection of 400 love poems with invocatory poem dedicated to Perumal . The collected poems were composed by 144 poets, except 3 poems which are by anonymous author(s). The poems range between 13 and 31 lines, and are long enough to include more details of the subject, episode and its context. According to Kamil Zvelebil – a Tamil literature and history scholar, they are "one of the most valuable collections" from ancient Tamil history perspective.
41-623: The Akananuru anthology is notable for its mathematical arrangement: the odd number poems are dedicated to palai (arid landscape); poem number ten and its multiples (10, 20, 30, etc., up to 400) are neytal (coastal landscape); poems bearing number 2 and then in increments of 6 followed by 4 (that is number 8, 12, 18, 22, 28, etc.) belong to the kuṟiñci (mountainous landscape); poems bearing number 4 and then in increments of 10 (14, 24, 34, 44, etc.) are mullai (pastoral forests); poems with number 6 and then in increments of 10 (16, 26, 36, etc.) are marutam (riverine farmlands). The anthology
82-403: A few days once every ten or twelve years, blanketing the slopes in radiant whiteness under the sun. This event of jubilation and purity symbolizes the frenzy of a sudden love shared, in concert with the unleashed forces of nature: the amorous dance of peacocks, their echoing cries, the splash of waterfalls, the roar of savage beasts. The lovers hold each other tighter still and forget the dangers of
123-696: A number of poems echo the Hindu puranic legends about Parasurama, Rama, Krishna and others. According to Kamil Zvelebil – a scholar of Tamil literature and history, a few poems in the Akananuru were probably composed sometime between 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE, the middle layer between 2nd and 4th century CE, while the last layers were completed sometime between 3rd and 5th century CE. Other names for Akananuru include Ahappattu , Ahananuru , and Agananuru . As many as 145 poets are said to have contributed to Akananuru collection. Perunthevanaar, who translated
164-417: A socio-economic order, occupations and behaviour patterns, which, in turn, are symbolized, by specific flora and fauna. Details of secondary aspects are just as rigidly codified—the seasons, the hour a god, musical instruments and, above all, the sentimental connotations of each landscape: lovers' meetings, patient waiting, lovers' quarrels, separation, and the anxiously awaited return. Under this codification,
205-451: A source of honey. Love in this setting is exemplified by Murugan , and one of his wives, Valli , the daughter of a mountain dweller. He wears the sparkling red kantal flower and rides a peacock , the bird of the mountains. The name of the region, Kurinchi, is also the name of the famous Kurinji flower ( Strobilanthes kunthiana ) from the lofty hills of Tamil country. The Strobilanthes, a shrub whose brilliant white flowers blossom for only
246-455: A source of honey. Mullai or Jasmine ( Jasminum auriculatum ) is the flower of the forests. The inhabitants are descendents of God Krishna and were known as Ayar(Male) and Aatchiyar (female), *kōnar , kovalar ,Vaduga iyer/Vaduga a yar, Ayar, Sambar idayar, Valathu Kai marappu idaiyar and idaiyar, whose occupation included Ruling land's, livestock , shifting cultivation , husbandry and dairy farming . The kovalars were cowherder and
287-512: Is customary to use the name of the landscape rather than that of the flower, largely because the flowers lack the cultural association with a specific language in English that they have in Tamil. The mountain is the scene of the lovers' union at midnight. It is the cold, dewy season. The forest is rich with lakes, waterfalls, teak, bamboo and sandalwood. In this region millet grows and wild bees are
328-427: Is now free From all agonies of the summer heat And the forest looks exceedingly sweet; Behold there O friend of choicest bangles! Our hero of the hilly track will be coming eftsoon, Driving fast his ornate chariot drawn by the steeds With waving plumes and trimmed manes When the stiffly tugged reins Will sound like the strumming of Yal. As he drives, he has the chariot bells tied up So as not to disturb
369-443: Is passed in search of honey don't speak to me of desire but tell me what you really saw: Could even the flowers that you know be as full of fragrance as the hair of the woman with the even set of teeth and the peacock nature, to whom long affection binds me? —Irayanār Mullai is the land of the forest. The forest is rich with lakes, waterfalls, teak, bamboo and sandalwood. In this region millet grows and wild bees are
410-479: Is the name given to a poetic device that was characteristic of love poetry in classical Tamil Sangam literature . The core of the device was the categorisation of poems into different tiṇai s or modes, depending on the nature, location, mood and type of relationship represented by the poem. Each tiṇai was closely associated with a particular landscape, and imagery associated with that landscape—its flowers, trees, wildlife, people, climate and geography—was woven into
451-700: Is the second translator of the Kural into Japanese . Takanobu Takahashi was born in 1951 at Mito , Ibaraki Prefecture , Japan. He graduated in Indology from the University of Tokyo in 1979. His specialization included Sanskrit , Pali , and Tamil. He travelled to Tamil Nadu , India between 1979 and 1982 to learn Tamil at the Madurai Kamaraj University under the guidance of scholars such as Tamilannal. He continued his post graduation in
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#1732764859811492-536: The Tolkappiyam as not being a naturally existing landscape. From these basic associations of landscape and subject, a wide range of specific themes suitable for each landscape were derived. Thus, for example, the commentary on the Iraiyanar Akapporul states that as a result of the association of the kuṟiñci landscape with union, it was also associated with the fear of separation, reassurance,
533-630: The Akanaṉūṟu after the Narrinai and Kuṟuntokai anthologies. According to Kamil Zvelebil, except for a few Akananuru poems such as 10, 35, 140 which were probably completed between 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE, while few poems are believed to be composed around the late 2nd century BCE based on the mentions of the Maurya and the Nanda empire. Most of the Akananuru was likely composed sometime between
574-553: The Akanaṉūṟu has the earliest known mentions of some stories such as "Krishna stealing sarees of Gopis" which is found later in north Indian literature, making it probable that some of the ideas from Tamil Hindu scholars inspired the Sanskrit scholars in the north and the Bhagavata Purana , or vice versa. However the text Harivamsa which is complex, containing layers that go back to the 1st or 2nd centuries BCE, Consists
615-573: The Mahabharatham into Tamil, is one of the authors. Rudrasarman compiled this anthology at the behest of the Pandya king Ukkiraperuvazhuthi. The Akanāṉūṟu has a reference to the Ramayana in poem 70. The poem places a triumphant Rama at Dhanushkodi , sitting under a Banyan tree , involved in some secret discussions, when the birds are chirping away. This seems to indicate that the story of
656-412: The ayar were pastoralists involved in cattle herding . Their settlements were known as pādi/cheri and seven nrega the suffixes patti , vati , katu and ental attached to their place-names. Their headmen bore the titles Ayar/ kon , Annal , Tonral , Kuramporai , and headwomen as Aatchiyar and Manaivi. The theme of the forest and of shepherds at play, the image of confident waiting for
697-628: The ploughers , the velanmadar and toluvar the tillers and the kadaiyars were the farmworkers . Their headmen were known as Mahinan , Uran and Manaiyol . Their settlements were known as perur and their place-names often had the suffixes eri , kulam , mankalam and kudi. The Marutam ( Lagerstroemia speciosa ) tree was the characteristic tree of this region. மருதம்—தலைவி கூற்று மள்ளர் குழீஇய விழவி னானும் மகளிர் தழீஇய துணங்கை யானும் யாண்டுங் காணேன் மாண்தக் கோனை யானுமோர் ஆடுகள மகளே என்கைக் கோடீ ரிலங்குவளை நெகிழ்த்த பீடுகெழு குரிசிலுமோர் ஆடுகள மகனே —ஆதிமந்தியார். Nowhere, not among
738-503: The 2nd and 5th century CE. Aganaṉūṟu book comes under the Agam category in its subject matter. The poems of this anthology are of the Akaval meter . Akananuru contains 401 stanzas and is divided into three sections Bharathidasan University has published a full translation of all the 400 songs by A. Dakshinamurthy in 3 volumes in 1999: (The heroine's companion consoles her friend at
779-520: The Ramayana was familiar in the Tamil lands before the Kamba Ramayanam of the 12th century. ( Sri Rama's Victory) Now, the dinsome village is wrapped up in silence Like unto the banyan tree of many a stilt root From the branches of which birds chirped ceaselessly And which the triumphant Rama stilled With a show of his hand, That he might discuss in peace secret matters. At
820-893: The Tokyo University. His thesis included Literary Conventions of Sangam Literature , with special focus on the Kurunthogai (in Japanese). In 1989, he obtained his PhD in Indian literature from the University of Utrecht , for which he researched on the Akam genre of the Sangam Literature's love poetry and poetics from 1985 to 1988. He is currently associate professor at International Buddhist University , Osaka , Japan. He has published on Tamil literature , as well as Dravidian literatures . In 1999, Takahashi translated
861-462: The advent of the rainy season) The rumbling clouds winged with lightning Poured amain big drops of rain and augured the rainy season; Buds with pointed tips have sprouted in the jasmine vines; The buds of Illam and the green trunk Kondrai have unfolded soft; The stags, their black and big horns like twisted iron Rushed up toward the pebbled pits filled with water And leap out jubilantly having slaked their thirst; The wide expansive Earth
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#1732764859811902-515: The courtesan oblige the heroine to counter with a mixed show of coquetry and moodiness, tactics whose limits are described in the Thirukkural ("Sulking is like flavouring with salt; a little suffices, but it is easy to go too far."). Senon , the god of thunderstorm, is the god of Marutham land. The inhabitants were known as ulavar , velanmadar, toluvar and kadaiyar or kadasiyan whose occupations were involved in agriculture . The ulavar were
943-480: The earth and enter it, They will not climb into the sky, They will not walk across the dark sea. If we search every country, every city, every village, can our respective lovers escape us? —Pālai (Kuṟuntokai-130) Takanobu Takahashi Takanobu Takahashi ( 高橋 孝信 , Takahashi Takanobu , born 1951) is a Japanese Indologist , who is currently associate professor of Indian literature at International Buddhist University at Osaka , Japan. He
984-798: The hero's or heroine's discussions with their friends, their being teased or taunted by their friends, their replies to their friends, the friends' role as intermediary, the meeting of the lovers, grief and doubt, and other similar themes. According to the Tamilneri vilakkam , a 9th-century text on poetry, the love themes described by the five thinais constitute "the Tamil way of life" or "the Tamil way of love" ( tamiḻneṟi ). The two non-geographical modes— kaikkilai and peruntiṇai —were seen as dealing with emotions that were non-conforming, and therefore were not associated with any specific landscape. Kaikkilai , dealt with unreciprocated or one-sided love, while peruntiṇai , dealt with 'improper' love or love against
1025-672: The hoary Tanushkoti upon the shore — The town of the great Pandyas, The wielders of victorious spears –, A town where women would collect blooms of neytal With rounded stems Which would blossom amidst green foliage In the watery fields, hard by the shore, Where the fresh and golden blossoms of Nalal And punnai trees shed their pollen And make picturesque the sand —-, To adorn themselves on festival days. — Akananuru: Palai 70 , Translated by A. Dakshinamurthy The Akananuru mentions Various Vishnu avatharams such as Parasurama , Rama , Krishna and others. According to Alf Hiltebeitel – an Indian Religions and Sanskrit Epics scholar,
1066-716: The inner universe associated with love is divided into seven modes, or thinai , five of which are geographical and associated with specific landscapes, and two of which are non-geographical and not associated with any specific landscape. Four of the geographical landscapes are described as being landscapes that occur naturally in the Tamil lands . These are: kuṟiñci (குறிஞ்சி)—mountainous regions, associated with union, mullai (முல்லை)—forests, associated with waiting, marutam (மருதம்)—cropland, associated with quarreling, and neital (நெய்தல்)—seashore, associated with pining. The fifth—pālai (பாலை), or desert, associated with separation—is described in
1107-487: The lagoons where cranes part the water lilies looking for fish then fly away to stay in fragrant seaside groves, near my lover's village washed by the sea. His love for me is greater than the sea. —Neithal (Ainkurunuru-184) In classical Tamil prosody, the pālai or wasteland is not seen as being a naturally occurring ecology. Ilampuranar, in his commentary on the Tolkappiyam, explains that instead,
1148-421: The landscape of the wasteland with which the paalai is associated emerges when other landscapes whither under the heat of the burning sun. The palai flower is identified as Wrightia ( Wrightia tinctoria ). The people inhabiting this region are known as eyiner , maravar and kalvar who were involved in waylaying, highway robbery and soldiering . The Eyiner (from ey – bow) were hunters who hunted with bow,
1189-547: The loved one, produced an original offshoot; for this is the region of Maayon/kopalan, (Ancient Tamil god), and the love theme it represents symbolizes the devotee waiting in the hope that Maayon will eventually come and fill his soul, thus experiencing the joys of expectation. முல்லை—தலைவி கூற்று சுடர்செல் வானஞ் சேப்பப் படர்கூர்ந் தெல்லறு பொழுதின் முல்லை மலரும் மாலை என்மனார் மயங்கி யோரே குடுமிக் கோழி நெடுநக ரியம்பும் பெரும்புலர் விடியலு மாலை பகலும் மாலை துணையி லோர்க்கே. —மிளைப்பெருங் கந்தனார். The sun goes down and
1230-696: The maravar (from maram – valour) were soldiers and the kalvar (from kal – robbery) were robbers. Their chiefs were known as mili , vitalai and kalai. Their settlements were known as kurumpu. Kotravai , the Mother goddess and goddess of war, is worshipped here. The theme of wasteland and separation occupies half of one of the most famous anthologies, the theme of the mountain being only secondary. பாலை—கூற்று தோழி நிலந்தொட்டுப் புகாஅர் வானம் ஏறார் விலங்கிரு முந்நீர் காலிற் செல்லார் நாட்டின் நாட்டின் ஊரின் ஊரின் குடிமுறை குடிமுறை தேரிற் கெடுநரும் உளரோநம் காதலோரே. —வெள்ளி வீதியார். They will not dig up
1271-550: The mountain path. The people of this region were known by the names kanavar , vedar and kuravar whose prime occupation was hunting , honey harvesting and millet cultivation. The Vedars or Vettuvars (derived from vettai - hunting) were the main hunters, kanavars (derived from kanam - forest) hunted elephants and pigs, the kuravars or kunravar (derived from kunru - hill) were forest cultivators . Their headmen were known as Verpan , Poruppan and Silamban. Their totems included Murugan (god of war and hunting, under
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1312-546: The name Seyyon ), the Vel ( spear of Murugan), the tiger and the tree Venkai . Their settlements were known as sirukuti and their place-names attached the suffixes kuricci (hilly village) and malai (hill). ' குறிஞ்சி—தலைவன் கூற்று' கொங்குதேர் வாழ்க்கை அஞ்சிறைத் தும்பி காமம் செப்பாது கண்டது மொழிமோ பயிலியது கெழீஇய நட்பின் மயிலியல் செறியெயிற் றரிவை கூந்தலின் நறியவும் உளவோ நீயறியும் பூவே. —இறையனார். Kuṟiñci (Kuṟuntokai-2) Beautiful-winged bee whose life
1353-689: The nets and boats drawn up on the beach, scuttling crabs and cart wheels bogged down in the sand, the odour of drying fish, cut into thick slices, which attracts the birds, beautiful village girls peering through the Pandanus hedges, and the wind blowing through the cracks in the roughly constructed straw huts at night. Kadalon , the water god, is worshiped in Neithal. The inhabitants were known as parathavar , nulaiyar and umanar whose occupations included fishing, coastal trade, pearl diving and salt manufacturing. The parathavars were sailors and fishermen,
1394-479: The nulaiyar were the divers and umanars the salt manufacturers and merchants . Their settlements were known as pakkam or pattinam , which were maritime trading ports . The headmen were known as Thuraivan , Pulampan and Serppan . The neithal, or water lily is the characteristic flower of the region. நெய்தல் இருங்கழி நெய்தல் நீக்கி மீனுநுண் குருகுஇளங் கானல் அல்கும் கடல்அணிந் தன்றுஅவர் ஊரே கடலினும் பெரிது எமக்கு அவருடை நட்பே. Water lilies bloom in
1435-548: The parts of Krishna Playing with Gopis and stealing sarees. The Akananuru poems were likely composed later in the Sangam period than other akam poetry based on the linguistic evidence, the introduction of mathematical arrangement, and given the mention of overseas trade and north Indian dynasties. According to Takanobu Takahashi , the Akananuru poems were composed over several centuries, likely from 1st to 3rd century CE. Other scholars such as Vaiyapuri Pillai chronologically place
1476-454: The poem in such a way as to convey a mood, associated with one aspect of a romantic relationship. Classical Tamil love poetry assigns the human experiences it describes, and in particular the subjective topics that those experiences relate to, to specific habitats. Every situation in the poems is described using themes in which the time, the place and the floral symbols of each episode are codified. These codifications are used as symbols to imply
1517-615: The rules of custom. The following table is adapted from table 7.3 in The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination (Singh, 2008). (husband accused of visiting a courtesan) Milk Curd || Mango || Punnai || Cactus In Tamil, each of the five geographical thinais are named for a flower that is characteristic of that landscape. In English translation, however, it
1558-403: The sky reddens, pain grows sharp, light dwindles. Then is evening when jasmine flowers open, the deluded say. But evening is the great brightening dawn when crested cocks crow all through the tall city and evening is the whole day for those without their lovers. —( Kuruntokai -234) tr. George L. Hart The plains were the scene of triangular love plots in which the hero's visits to
1599-462: The union of bees That live on the pollen of the blossoms in the bushes. He rushes onward thinking all along of your great beauty. O friend whose fragrance is like unto the blossoming Kantal On the mountain, tall and huge, east of Urantai of dinsome festivity! — Akananuru: Mullai 4 , Translated by A. Dakshinamurthy Sangam landscape#Poetic attributes of the landscapes The Sangam landscape ( Tamil : அகத்திணை "inner classification")
1640-404: The warriors at their festival, nor with the girls dancing close in pairs, nowhere did I see him. I am a dancer; he's a dancer too. —Marutham (Kuruntokai-31) The seashore affords many examples of the compelling charm of Sangam poetry and the extraordinary freshness of its realism. From behind the conventional symbolization of waiting there emerges a picture of the life of the fisherfolk;
1681-652: Was compiled by Uruttiracanman, the son of Maturai Uppurikuti Kilan under the patronage of the Pandyan king Ukkiraperuvaluti. The Akananuru poems offer many valuable cultural insights as well as historically significant evidence and allusions. For example, poem 69, 281 and 375 mention the Maurya Empire , poems 251 and 265 allude to the Nandas , the poem 148 mentions Greek-Romans (Yavanas) as trading gold for pepper through Muziris – an ancient Kerala port near Kochi , and