Misplaced Pages

#437562

57-599: The Akhvakhs (also known as Akhwakh , Akhvakhtsy or G'akhevalal ; ГІахьвалал in Avar ) are one of the Andi–Dido peoples of Dagestan and have their own language . They call themselves Atluatii or Ashvado. Prior to 1930 Soviet ethnologists considered them to be a distinct ethnic group. Since that time they have often been classified as Avars . The Akvakh live in the Akhvakhsky District of Dagestan between

114-525: A stance on its validity or concede that Armenian clerics, if not Mashtots himself, must have played a role in the creation of the Georgian script. Another controversy regards the main influences at play in the Georgian alphabet, as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more by the Greek alphabet , or by Semitic alphabets such as Aramaic . Recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with

171-487: A two-segment affricate–fricative sequence [ t͡ɬɬ ] ( /t𐞛ɬ/ = /t ɬ/ ). Avar has five phonemic vowels: /a e i o u/. In Avar, accent is contrastive, free and mobile, independent of the number of syllables in the word. Changes in lexical accent placement indicate different semantic meaning and grammatical meanings of a word: Avar is an agglutinative language, of SOV order. Adverbs do not inflect, outside of inflection for noun class in some adverbs of place: e.g.

228-533: Is Rasul Gamzatov (died November 3, 2003), the People's Poet of Dagestan. Translations of his works into Russian have gained him a wide audience all over the former Soviet Union . Georgian alphabet The Georgian scripts are the three writing systems used to write the Georgian language : Asomtavruli , Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli . Although the systems differ in appearance, their letters share

285-634: Is Ⴟ ( jani ). There have been various attempts to explain this exception. Georgian linguist and art historian Helen Machavariani believes jani derives from a monogram of Christ , composed of Ⴈ ( ini ) and Ⴕ ( kani ). According to Georgian scholar Ramaz Pataridze, the cross-like shape of letter jani indicates the end of the alphabet, and has the same function as the similarly shaped Phoenician letter taw ( [REDACTED] ), Greek chi (Χ), and Latin X , though these letters do not have that function in Phoenician, Greek, or Latin. From

342-474: Is also known as Mrgvlovani ( Georgian : მრგვლოვანი ) "rounded", from mrgvali ( მრგვალი ) "round", so named because of its round letter shapes. Despite its name, this "capital" script is unicameral . The oldest Asomtavruli inscriptions found so far date from the 5th century and are Bir el Qutt and the Bolnisi inscriptions . From the 9th century, Nuskhuri script started becoming dominant, and

399-536: Is based on the болмацӏ ( bolmacʼ ) — bo = "army" or "country", and macʼ = "language"—the common language used between speakers of different dialects and languages. The bolmacʼ in turn was mainly derived from the dialect of Khunzakh , the capital and cultural centre of the Avar region, with some influence from the southern dialects. Nowadays the literary language is influencing the dialects, levelling out their differences. The most famous figure of modern Avar literature

456-591: Is found in Ateni Sioni Church dating back to 982 AD. The second oldest Mkhedruli-written text is found in the 11th-century royal charters of King Bagrat IV of Georgia . Mkhedruli was mostly used then in the Kingdom of Georgia for the royal charters , historical documents, manuscripts and inscriptions. Mkhedruli was used for non-religious purposes only and represented the "civil", "royal" and "secular" script. Mkhedruli became more and more dominant over

513-452: Is individual and stylistic variation in many of the letters. For example, the top circle of ზ ( zeni ) and the top stroke of რ ( rae ) may go in the other direction than shown in the chart (that is, counter-clockwise starting at 3 o'clock, and upwards – see the external-link section for videos of people writing). Other common variants: Several letters are similar and may be confused at first, especially in handwriting. Asomtavruli

570-401: Is no longer an "impure abjad " unlike its parent systems ( Arabic , Persian , and Ottoman ), it now resembles a proper " alphabet ". While this was not the case for most of the several centuries during which Arabic alphabet has been used for Avar, this has become the case in the latest and most common conventions. This was indeed not the case at the time of writing of a linguistic article for

627-440: Is often highly stylized and writers readily formed ligatures , intertwined letters, and placed letters within letters or other such monograms . Nuskhuri, like Asomtavruli, is also often highly stylized. Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina sacra , including diacritics called karagma , which resemble titla . Because writing materials such as vellum were scarce and therefore precious, abbreviating

SECTION 10

#1732771796438

684-473: Is one of six literary languages of Dagestan, where it is spoken not only by the Avar, but also serves as the language of communication between different ethnic and linguistic groups. Glottolog lists 14 dialects of Avar, some of which correspond to the villages where they are spoken. The dialects are listed in alphabetical order based on their name in Glottolog: There are competing analyses of

741-470: Is only used in all-caps text in titles or to emphasize a word, though in the late 19th and early 20th centuries it was occasionally used, as in Latin and Cyrillic scripts, to capitalize proper nouns or the first word of a sentence. Contemporary Georgian script does not recognize capital letters and their usage has become decorative. Mkhedruli first appears in the 10th century. The oldest Mkhedruli inscription

798-428: Is the third and current Georgian script. Mkhedruli, literally meaning " cavalry " or " military ", derives from mkhedari ( მხედარი ) meaning " horseman ", " knight ", " warrior " and " cavalier ". Mkhedruli is bicameral , with capital letters that are called Mkhedruli Mtavruli ( მხედრული მთავრული ) or simply Mtavruli ( მთავრული ; Georgian pronunciation: [mtʰavɾuli] ). Nowadays, Mkhedruli Mtavruli

855-620: Is used. Second diacritic in use in Avar Arabic script is ḍammah (ـُـ). In Arabic, Persian, and historically in Ottoman Turkish, this diacritic is used to represent [o] or [u]. But in Avar, this diacritic is used for labialization [◌ʷ] and not for any sort of vowel. So, it is the case that this diacritic is used in conjunction with a follow-up vowel. For example, the sound "зва" [zʷa] is written as "زُا". This diacritic can optionally be used in conjunction with shadda. For example,

912-605: Is usually written in the Cyrillic script . The letters of the alphabet are (with their pronunciation given below in IPA transcription): Compiled according to: One feature of Avar Arabic script is that similar to alphabets such as Uyghur and Kurdish , the script does not omit vowels and does not rely on diacritics to represent vowels when need be. Instead, modified letters with dot placement and accents have been standardized to represent vowels. Thus, Avar Arabic script

969-401: The /b/ in /ʒani-b/ "inside" and /t͡se-b-e/ "in front". Adverbs of place also distinguish locative , allative , and ablative forms suffixally, such as /ʒani-b/ "inside", /ʒani-b-e/ "to the inside", and /ʒani-sa/ "from the inside". /-go/ is an emphatic suffix taken by underived adjectives. There were some attempts to write the Avar language in the Georgian alphabet as early as

1026-591: The Avar and Andi Rivers . In 1926 they numbered 3,683. The Akhvakhs are mainly Sunni Muslims . They adopted the religion by the 16th century due to the influence of Sufi missionaries. They face continued assimilation by the Avars. By the early 1990s it was estimated that about 8,000 people were Akhvakh, although this number includes those who have been fully assimilated as Avars but still recognize that they have Akhvakh ancestry. They also live in Zagatala, Azerbaijan,

1083-641: The Balaken , Zaqatala regions of north-western Azerbaijan . Some Avars live in other regions of Russia. There are also small communities of speakers living in the Russian republics of Chechnya and Kalmykia ; in Georgia , Kazakhstan , Ukraine , Jordan , and the Marmara Sea region of Turkey . It is spoken by about 1,200,000 people worldwide. UNESCO classifies Avar as vulnerable to extinction. It

1140-613: The Bir el Qutt inscriptions of 430. It was first used for translation of the Bible and other Christian literature into Georgian , by monks in Georgia and Palestine . Professor Levan Chilashvili 's dating of fragmented Asomtavruli inscriptions, discovered by him at the ruined town of Nekresi , in Georgia's easternmost province of Kakheti , in the 1980s, to the 1st or 2nd century has not been accepted. A Georgian tradition first attested in

1197-490: The Greek alphabet , with the exception of letters denoting uniquely Georgian sounds, which are grouped at the end. Originally consisting of 38 letters , Georgian is presently written in a 33-letter alphabet, as five letters are obsolete. The number of Georgian letters used in other Kartvelian languages varies. Mingrelian uses 36: thirty-three that are current Georgian letters, one obsolete Georgian letter, and two additional letters specific to Mingrelian and Svan . Laz uses

SECTION 20

#1732771796438

1254-711: The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1881. As an example, in Avar Arabic Script, four varieties of the letter yāʼ ("ی") have been developed, each with a distinct function. Nevertheless, Avar Arabic script does retain two diacritics. First is " shadda " (ـّـ), used for gemination . While in Cyrillic, two back to back letters, including digraphs are written, in Arabic script, shadda

1311-548: The baseline , with a wider central oval, and with the top slightly higher than the ascender height. Before this addition, font creators included Mtavruli in various ways. Some fonts came in pairs, of which one had lowercase letters and the other uppercase; some Unicode fonts placed Mtavruli letterforms in the Asomtavruli range (U+10A0-U+10CF) or in the Private Use Area , and some ASCII-based ones mapped them to

1368-641: The 10th century, the letters were illuminated. The style of Asomtavruli capitals can be used to identify the era of a text. For example, in the Georgian manuscripts of the Byzantine era, when the styles of the Byzantine Empire influenced Kingdom of Georgia , capitals were illuminated with images of birds and other animals. From the 11th-century "limb-flowery", "limb-arrowy" and "limb-spotty" decorative forms of Asomtavruli are developed. The first two are found in 11th- and 12th-century monuments, whereas

1425-508: The 10th century. Nuskhuri letters vary in height, with ascenders and descenders, and are slanted to the right. Letters have an angular shape, with a noticeable tendency to simplify the shapes they had in Asomtavruli. This enabled faster writing of manuscripts. The following table shows the stroke direction of each Nuskhuri letter: Asomtavruli is used intensively in iconography , murals, and exterior design, especially in stone engravings. Georgian linguist Akaki Shanidze made an attempt in

1482-438: The 11th century. In early Asomtavruli, the letters are of equal height. Georgian historian and philologist Pavle Ingorokva believes that the direction of Asomtavruli, like that of Greek, was initially boustrophedon , though the direction of the earliest surviving texts is from left to the right. In most Asomtavruli letters, straight lines are horizontal or vertical and meet at right angles. The only letter with acute angles

1539-705: The 14th century. The use of Arabic script for representing Avar in marginal glosses began in the 15th century. The use of Arabic, which is known as ajam , is still known today. Peter von Uslar developed a Cyrillic-based alphabet, published in 1889, that also used some Georgian-based letters. Many of its letters have not been encoded in Unicode. The alphabet takes the following form: а б в г ӷ д е ж һ [REDACTED] [REDACTED] і ј к қ [REDACTED] л м н о п ԛ [REDACTED] р с ҫ т ҭ у х х̓ хّ ц [REDACTED] ц̓ ꚑ ч ч̍ чّ [REDACTED] /ч̓ ш ƞ ƞ̓ ɳّ ດ As part of Soviet language re-education policies in 1928

1596-562: The 1950s to introduce Asomtavruli into the Mkhedruli script as capital letters to begin sentences, as in the Latin script, but it did not catch on. Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are officially used by the Georgian Orthodox Church alongside Mkhedruli. Patriarch Ilia II of Georgia called on people to use all three Georgian scripts. Mkhedruli ( Georgian : მხედრული ; Georgian pronunciation: [mχedɾuli] )

1653-535: The 7th century, the forms of some letters began to change. The equal height of the letters was abandoned, with letters acquiring ascenders and descenders. In Nuskhuri manuscripts, Asomtavruli are used for titles and illuminated capitals . The latter were used at the beginnings of paragraphs which started new sections of text. In the early stages of the development of Nuskhuri texts, Asomtavruli letters were not elaborate and were distinguished principally by size and sometimes by being written in cinnabar ink. Later, from

1710-468: The Ajam was replaced by a Latin alphabet, which in 1938 was in turn replaced by the current Cyrillic script . Essentially, it is the Russian alphabet plus one additional letter called palochka ( stick , Ӏ). As that letter cannot be typed with common keyboard layouts , it is often replaced with a capital Latin letter i ( I ), small Latin letter L ( l ), or the numerical digit 1 . The Avar language

1767-752: The Georgian Unicode for the Macintosh systems. Significant contributions were also made by Anton Dumbadze and Irakli Garibashvili (not to be mistaken with the Prime Minister of Georgia Irakli Garibashvili ). Georgian Mkhedruli script received an official status for being Georgia's internationalized domain name script for ( .გე ). Mtavruli letters were added in Unicode version 11.0 in June 2018. They are capital letters with similar letterforms to Mkhedruli, but with descenders shifted above

Akhvakh people - Misplaced Pages Continue

1824-624: The Georgian alphabet" was granted the national status of intangible cultural heritage in Georgia in 2015 and inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2016. The origin of the Georgian script is poorly known, and no full agreement exists among Georgian and foreign scholars as to its date of creation, who designed the script, and the main influences on that process. The first attested version of

1881-453: The Georgian and Caucasian Albanian alphabets . This tradition originates in the works of Koryun , a fifth-century historian and biographer of Mashtots, and has been quoted by Donald Rayfield and James R. Russell , but has been rejected by Georgian scholarship and some Western scholars who judge the passage in Koryun unreliable or even a later interpolation. In his study on the history of

1938-604: The Greek alphabet than in the other Caucasian writing systems, most notably the order and numeric value of letters. Some scholars have also suggested certain pre-Christian Georgian cultural symbols or clan markers as a possible inspiration for particular letters. Asomtavruli ( Georgian : ასომთავრული , ႠႱႭႫႧႠႥႰႳႪႨ ; Georgian pronunciation: [asomtʰavɾuli] ) is the oldest Georgian script. The name Asomtavruli means "capital letters", from aso ( ასო ) "letter" and mtavari ( მთავარი ) "principal/head". It

1995-792: The Spreading of Literacy among Georgians , founded by Prince Ilia Chavchavadze in 1879, discarded five letters from the Georgian alphabet that had become redundant: All but ჵ ( hoe ) continue to be used in the Svan alphabet ; ჲ ( hie ) is used in the Mingrelian and Laz alphabets as well, for the y-sound / j / . Several others were used for Abkhaz and Ossetian in the short time they were written in Mkhedruli script. Mkhedruli has been adapted to languages besides Georgian. Some of these alphabets retained letters obsolete in Georgian, while others acquired additional letters: The following table shows

2052-463: The distinction transcribed in the table with the length sign ⟨ ː ⟩. Length is part of the distinction, but so is articulatory strength, so they have been analyzed as fortis and lenis . The fortis affricates are long in the fricative part of the contour, e.g. [ tsː ] (tss), not in the stop part as in geminate affricates in languages such as Japanese and Italian [ tːs ] (tts). Laver (1994) analyzes e.g. [ t͡ɬː ] as

2109-462: The four-linear system, similar to Nuskhuri. Mkhedruli becomes more round and free in writing. It breaks the strict frame of the previous two alphabets, Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri. Mkhedruli letters begin to get coupled and more free calligraphy develops. Example of one of the oldest Mkhedruli-written texts found in the royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia , 11th century. The modern Georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters: The Society for

2166-461: The headlines of the manuscripts or the books, although there are complete inscriptions which were written in the Asomtavruli "Curly" form only. The following table shows the stroke direction of each Asomtavruli letter: Nuskhuri ( Georgian : ნუსხური , ⴌⴓⴑⴞⴓⴐⴈ ; Georgian pronunciation: [nusχuɾi] ) is the second Georgian script. The name nuskhuri comes from nuskha ( ნუსხა ), meaning "inventory" or "schedule". Nuskhuri

2223-490: The invention of the Armenian alphabet and the life of Mashtots, the Armenian linguist Hrachia Acharian strongly defended Koryun as a reliable source and rejected criticisms of his accounts on the invention of the Georgian script by Mashtots. Acharian dated the invention to 408, four years after Mashtots created the Armenian alphabet (he dated the latter event to 404). Some Western scholars quote Koryun's claims without taking

2280-482: The medieval chronicle Lives of the Kings of Kartli ( c.  800 ), assigns a much earlier, pre-Christian origin to the Georgian alphabet, and names King Pharnavaz I (3rd century BC) as its inventor. This account is now considered legendary, and is rejected by scholarly consensus, as no archaeological confirmation has been found. Rapp Georgian linguist Tamaz Gamkrelidze offers an alternative interpretation of

2337-550: The north-western part of Azerbaijan which is bordered on Russia and Georgia. The Akhakhdere ("Axəxdərə" in Azeri language) village is the only village that Akhvakh people live. They are a distinct people from the Avar, though their ID cards contain information about their nationality being "Avar". Avar language It is spoken mainly in the western and southern parts of the Russian Caucasus republic of Dagestan , and

Akhvakh people - Misplaced Pages Continue

2394-450: The punctuation as in international usage of the Latin script . This table lists the three scripts in parallel columns, including the letters that are now obsolete in all alphabets (shown with a blue background), obsolete in Georgian but still used in other alphabets (green background), or additional letters in languages other than Georgian (pink background). The "national" transliteration is

2451-496: The role of Asomtavruli was reduced. However, epigraphic monuments of the 10th to 18th centuries continued to be written in Asomtavruli script. Asomtavruli in this later period became more decorative. In the majority of 9th-century Georgian manuscripts which were written in Nuskhuri script, Asomtavruli was used for titles and the first letters of chapters. However, some manuscripts written completely in Asomtavruli can be found until

2508-487: The same 33 current Georgian letters as Mingrelian plus that same obsolete letter and a letter borrowed from Greek for a total of 35. The fourth Kartvelian language, Svan, is not commonly written, but when it is , it uses Georgian letters as utilized in Mingrelian, with an additional obsolete Georgian letter and sometimes supplemented by diacritics for its many vowels. The "living culture of three writing systems of

2565-631: The same names and alphabetical order and are written horizontally from left to right . Of the three scripts, Mkhedruli, once the civilian royal script of the Kingdom of Georgia and mostly used for the royal charters , is now the standard script for modern Georgian and its related Kartvelian languages , whereas Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are used only by the Georgian Orthodox Church , in ceremonial religious texts and iconography . Georgian scripts are unique in their appearance and their exact origin has never been established; however, in strictly structural terms, their alphabetical order largely corresponds to

2622-504: The script is Asomtavruli , which dates back to the 5th century; the other scripts were formed in the following centuries. Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian script to the process of Christianization of Iberia (not to be confused with the Iberian Peninsula ), a core Georgian kingdom of Kartli . The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under King Mirian III (326 or 337) and

2679-1260: The sound "ссвa" [sːʷa] is written as "سُّا". If a word starts with a vowel, if it's an [a] sound, it is written with alif "ا". Otherwise, the vowel needs to be preceded by a "vowel carrier", which is hamza-ya' (ئـ). No need for such a carrier in the middle of words. Below table demonstrates vowels in Avar Arabic Script. نۈڸ ماڨێڸ وێڮانا، ڨالدا ڸۇق - ڸۇقۇن، ڨۇردا كُېر ڃُان ئۇنېو، بێدا وېضّۇن دۇن؛ ڨۇرۇڬێ باطاڸۇن صېوې ئۇناڬۈ، صۈ ڸارال راعالدا عۈدۈو كّۈلېو دۇن. ڸار چُاخّۇلېب بۇڬۈ چابخێل گّالاڅان، ڸێن گانضۇلېب بۇڬۈ ڬانڃازدا طاسان؛ طاراماغادێسېب قُال بالېب بۇڬۈ، قۈ ڸێگێلان دێصا سۈعاب راڨالدا ‎ Нолъ макьилъ вихьана, кьалда лъукъ-лъукъун, Кьурда квер чIван унев, бида вецIцIун дун; Кьуруги батIалъун цеве унаго, Цо лъарал рагIалда гIодов кколев дун. Лъар чваххулеб буго чабхил кIкIалахъан, Лъин кIанцIулеб буго ганчIазда тIасан; ТIарамагъадисеб къвал балеб буго, Къо лъикIилан дица согIаб ракьалда. Noļ maꝗiļ viҳana, ꝗalda ļuq-ļuqun, Ꝗurda кvеr çvan unеv, bida vеⱬⱬun dun; Ꝗuruⱨ baţaļun s̶еvе unago, Co ļaral raⱨalda ⱨodov ккolеv dun. Łar cvaxxulеb bugo cabxil ⱪⱪalax̶an, Łin ⱪanⱬulеb bugo gançazda ţaсan; Ţaramaƣadiсеb qval balеb bugo, Qo ļiⱪilan dis̶a сoⱨab raꝗalda. The literary language

2736-412: The stroke order and direction of each Mkhedruli letter: ზ , ო , and ხ ( zeni, oni, khani ) are almost always written without the small tick at the end, while the handwritten form of ჯ ( jani ) often uses a vertical line, [REDACTED] (sometimes with a taller ascender, or with a diagonal cross bar); even when it is written at a diagonal, the cross-bar is generally shorter than in print. There

2793-722: The system used by the Georgian government, whereas "Laz" is the Latin Laz alphabet used in Turkey. The table also shows the traditional numeric values of the letters. The first Georgian script was included in Unicode Standard in October 1991 with the release of version 1.0. In creating the Georgian Unicode block, important roles were played by German Jost Gippert , a linguist of Kartvelian studies , and American-Irish linguist and script-encoder Michael Everson , who created

2850-486: The text. One dot indicated a "minor stop" (presumably a simple word break), two dots marked or separated "special words", three dots for a "bigger stop" (such as the appositive name and title "the sovereign Alexander", below, or the title of the Gospel of Matthew , above), and six dots were to indicate the end of the sentence. Starting in the 11th century, marks resembling the apostrophe and comma came into use. An apostrophe

2907-410: The third one is used until the 18th century. Importance was attached also to the colour of the ink itself. Asomtavruli letter Ⴃ ( doni ) is often written with decoration effects of fish and birds . The "Curly" decorative form of Asomtavruli is also used where the letters are wattled or intermingled on each other, or the smaller letters are written inside other letters. It was mostly used for

SECTION 50

#1732771796438

2964-511: The tradition, in the pre-Christian use of foreign scripts ( alloglottography in the Aramaic alphabet ) to write down Georgian texts. Another point of contention among scholars is the role played by Armenian clerics in that process. According to medieval Armenian sources and a number of scholars, Mesrop Mashtots , generally acknowledged as the creator of the Armenian alphabet , also created

3021-529: The two other scripts, though Khutsuri (Nuskhuri with Asomtavruli) was used until the 19th century. Mkhedruli became the universal writing Georgian system outside of the Church in the 19th century with the establishment and development of printed Georgian fonts. Mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of Nuskhuri letters and making the complete outlines in all of its letters. Mkhedruli letters are written in

3078-429: Was a practical measure widespread in manuscripts and hagiography by the 11th century. Mkhedruli, in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory, requiring adherence to a complex system. Georgian scripts come in only a single typeface , though word processors can apply automatic ("fake") oblique and bold formatting to Georgian text. Traditionally, Asomtavruli

3135-534: Was soon augmented with Asomtavruli illuminated capitals in religious manuscripts. The combination is called Khutsuri ( Georgian : ხუცური , Ⴞⴓⴚⴓⴐⴈ ; "clerical", from khutsesi ( ხუცესი " cleric "), and it was principally used in hagiography . Nuskhuri first appeared in the 9th century as a graphic variant of Asomtavruli. The oldest inscription is found in the Ateni Sioni Church and dates to 835 AD. The oldest surviving Nuskhuri manuscripts date to 864 AD. Nuskhuri becomes dominant over Asomtavruli from

3192-538: Was used for chapter or section titles, where Latin script might use bold or italic type. In Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri punctuation, various combinations of dots were used as word dividers and to separate phrases, clauses, and paragraphs. In monumental inscriptions and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries, these were written as dashes, like −, = and =−. In the 10th century, clusters of one (·), two (:), three ( ჻ ) and six (჻჻) dots (later sometimes small circles) were introduced by Ephrem Mtsire to indicate increasing breaks in

3249-432: Was used to mark an interrogative word, and a comma appeared at the end of an interrogative sentence. From the 12th century on, these were replaced with the semicolon (the Greek question mark ). In the 18th century, Patriarch Anton I of Georgia reformed the system again, with commas, single dots, and double dots used to mark "complete", "incomplete", and "final" sentences, respectively. For the most part, Georgian today uses

#437562