108-600: Aksu ( Uyghur : ئاقسۇ , Aqsu ; Chinese : 阿克苏 ; pinyin : Ākèsū ) is a city in and the seat of Aksu Prefecture , Xinjiang , lying at the northern edge of the Tarim Basin . The name Aksu literally means "white water" (in Turkic) and is used for both the oasis town and the Aksu River . The economy of Aksu is mostly agricultural, with cotton, in particular long-staple cotton ( Gossypium hirsutum ), as
216-474: A Perso-Arabic-based alphabet , although a Cyrillic alphabet and two Latin alphabets also are in use to a much lesser extent. Unusually for an alphabet based on the Arabic script, full transcription of vowels is indicated. (Among the Arabic family of alphabets, only a few, such as Kurdish , distinguish all vowels without the use of optional diacritics .) The four alphabets in use today can be seen below. In
324-582: A century of sovereignty. This effectively ended the Tang presence in central Asia. In 756 Al-Mansur sent 3,000 mercenaries to assist Emperor Xuanzong of Tang in the An Lushan rebellion. A massacre of foreign Arab and Persian Muslim merchants by Tian Shengong happened during the An Lushan rebellion in the Yangzhou massacre (760) . The Tang dynasty recovered its power decades after the An Lushan rebellion and
432-1000: A few suffixes. However, the conditions in which they are actually pronounced as distinct from their short counterparts have not been fully researched. The high vowels undergo some tensing when they occur adjacent to alveolars ( s, z, r, l ), palatals ( j ), dentals ( t̪, d̪, n̪ ), and post-alveolar affricates ( t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ ), e.g. chiraq [t͡ʃʰˈiraq] 'lamp', jenubiy [d͡ʒɛnʊˈbiː] 'southern', yüz [jyz] 'face; hundred', suda [suːˈda] 'in/at (the) water'. Both [ i ] and [ ɯ ] undergo apicalisation after alveodental continuants in unstressed syllables, e.g. siler [sɪ̯læː(r)] 'you (plural)', ziyan [zɪ̯ˈjɑːn] 'harm'. They are medialised after / χ / or before / l / , e.g. til [tʰɨl] 'tongue', xizmet [χɨzˈmɛt] 'work; job; service'. After velars, uvulars and / f / they are realised as [ e ] , e.g. giram [ɡeˈrʌm] 'gram', xelqi [χɛlˈqʰe] 'his [etc.] nation', Finn [fen] 'Finn'. Between two syllables that contain
540-710: A major airport in China like Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and change to China registered aircraft which tail number starts with B. The name Aksu comes from the name of the Aksu River which is the Uyghur word for "white water". It is transliterated as Akesu in Chinese Pinyin . From the Former Han dynasty (125 BCE to 23 CE) at least until the early Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), Aksu was known as Gumo 姑墨 [Ku-mo]. The ancient capital town of Nan ("Southern Town")
648-532: A misnomer as applied to the modern language of Kashghar". Sven Hedin wrote, "In these cases it would be particularly inappropriate to normalize to the East Turkish literary language, because by so doing one would obliterate traces of national elements which have no immediate connection with the Kaschgar Turks, but on the contrary are possibly derived from the ancient Uigurs". Probably around 1077,
756-644: A period where the Tibetan army also conquered territory in the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains from Indian kingdoms and assisted the establishment of the eastern Indian Pala Empire in the latter half of the 8th century. It was only under the fifth Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid that a formal military alliance was established between the Tang, the Uighur Turks and the Abbasid engaged the Tibetan army on
864-563: A prized product for centuries. According to Al-Nadim, a writer in Baghdad during the 10th century, Chinese craftsmen made paper in Khorasan . It was only after the first paper mill was built in Baghdad in 794–795 that paper was manufactured throughout the Islamic world and paper started to replace papyrus . Among the earliest historians who proclaimed the importance of this battle was
972-922: A prolonged stay to sell goods." After the fall of the Qing dynasty, Aksu County ( 阿克蘇縣 ) was established by the Republic of China In 1913. The Battle of Aksu (1933) occurred here on 31 May 1933. Isma'il Beg , a Uighur, became the rebel Tao-yin of Aksu. After the outbreak of the Ili Rebellion , the Ili National Army forces led by Abdulkerim Abbas attempting to take Aksu were repelled by National Revolutionary Army defenders commanded by Zhao Hanqi after two bitter sieges in September 1945. On 19 August 1983, Aksu County became Aksu City ( 阿克苏市 ). The city government began operation on 7 May 1984. Aksu
1080-650: A role in vowel harmony and are separate phonemes. /e/ only occurs in words of non-Turkic origin and as the result of vowel raising. Uyghur has systematic vowel reduction (or vowel raising) as well as vowel harmony. Words usually agree in vowel backness, but compounds, loans, and some other exceptions often break vowel harmony. Suffixes surface with the rightmost [back] value in the stem, and /e, ɪ/ are transparent (as they do not contrast for backness). Uyghur also has rounding harmony. Uyghur voiceless stops are aspirated word-initially and intervocalically. The pairs /p, b/ , /t, d/ , /k, ɡ/ , and /q, ʁ/ alternate, with
1188-633: A rounded back vowel each, they are realised as back, e.g. qolimu [qʰɔˈlɯmʊ] 'also his [etc.] arm'. Any vowel undergoes laxing and backing when it occurs in uvular ( /q/, /ʁ/, /χ/ ) and laryngeal (glottal) ( /ɦ/, /ʔ/ ) environments, e.g. qiz [qʰɤz] 'girl', qëtiq [qʰɤˈtɯq] 'yogurt', qeghez [qʰæˈʁæz] 'paper', qum [qʰʊm] 'sand', qolay [qʰɔˈlʌɪ] 'convenient', qan [qʰɑn] 'blood', ëghiz [ʔeˈʁez] 'mouth', hisab [ɦɤˈsʌp] 'number', hës [ɦɤs] 'hunch', hemrah [ɦæmˈrʌh] 'partner', höl [ɦœɫ] 'wet', hujum [ɦuˈd͡ʒʊm] 'assault', halqa [ɦɑlˈqʰɑ] 'ring'. Lowering tends to apply to
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#17327871317261296-536: A scholar of the Turkic languages, Mahmud al-Kashgari from Kashgar in modern-day Xinjiang , published a Turkic language dictionary and description of the geographic distribution of many Turkic languages, Dīwān ul-Lughat al-Turk (English: Compendium of the Turkic Dialects ; Uyghur: تۈركى تىللار دىۋانى , Türki Tillar Diwani ). The book, described by scholars as an "extraordinary work," documents
1404-450: A suffix alternate as governed by vowel harmony , where /ɡ/ occurs with front vowels and /ʁ/ with back ones. Devoicing of a suffix-initial consonant can occur only in the cases of /d/ → [t] , /ɡ/ → [k] , and /ʁ/ → [q] , when the preceding consonant is voiceless. Lastly, the rule that /g/ must occur with front vowels and /ʁ/ with back vowels can be broken when either [k] or [q] in suffix-initial position becomes assimilated by
1512-455: A total strength of more than 500,000 on the eve of the An Lushan rebellion. According to Bartold, during the first three centuries of Islam, al-Tabari was the chief source—which has survived to the present in a compilation by Ibn al Athir —which was brought down to 915. Neither Tabari nor the early historical works of the Arabs make any mention of this; however, Athir's statement is confirmed by
1620-574: Is CV(C)(C). Uyghur syllable structure is usually CV or CVC, but CVCC can also occur in some words. When syllable-coda clusters occur, CC tends to become CVC in some speakers especially if the first consonant is not a sonorant . In Uyghur, any consonant phoneme can occur as the syllable onset or coda , except for /ʔ/ which only occurs in the onset and /ŋ/ , which never occurs word-initially. In general, Uyghur phonology tends to simplify phonemic consonant clusters by means of elision and epenthesis . The Karluk language started to be written with
1728-553: Is a Turkic language written in a Uyghur Perso-Arabic script with 8–13 million speakers, spoken primarily by the Uyghur people in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of Western China . Apart from Xinjiang, significant communities of Uyghur speakers are also located in Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , and Uzbekistan , and various other countries have Uyghur-speaking expatriate communities. Uyghur
1836-472: Is a left-branching language with subject–object–verb word order. More distinctly, Uyghur processes include vowel reduction and umlauting , especially in northern dialects. In addition to other Turkic languages, Uyghur has historically been strongly influenced by Arabic and Persian , and more recently by Russian and Mandarin Chinese . The modified Arabic-derived writing system is the most common and
1944-747: Is an official language of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region; it is widely used in both social and official spheres, as well as in print, television, and radio. Other ethnic minorities in Xinjiang also use Uyghur as a common language . Uyghur belongs to the Karluk branch of the Turkic language family , which includes languages such as Uzbek . Like many other Turkic languages, Uyghur displays vowel harmony and agglutination , lacks noun classes or grammatical gender , and
2052-607: Is common in spoken Uyghur, but stigmatized in formal contexts. Xinjiang Television and other mass media, for example, will use the rare Russian loanword aplisin ( апельсин , apel'sin ) for the word "orange", rather than the ubiquitous Mandarin loanword juze ( 橘子 ; júzi ). In a sentence, this mixing might look like: مېنىڭ Më-ning 1sg - GEN تەلەفونىم telfon-im cellphone- POSS . 1sg گۇئەنجى، guenji, Battle of Talas The Battle of Talas ( Chinese : 怛羅斯戰役 ; pinyin : Dáluósī Zhànyì ; Arabic : معركة نهر طلاس Maʿrakat nahr Ṭalās )
2160-534: Is considered by modern historians as one of the most important historical sources on the period. British Army officer Francis Younghusband visited Aksu in 1887 on his overland journey from Beijing to British India . He described it as being the largest town he had seen on his way from the Chinese capital, with a population of about 20,000, besides other inhabitants of the district and a garrison of about 2,000 soldiers. "There were large bazaars and several inns—some for travellers, others for merchants wishing to make
2268-738: Is more closely related to the Siberian Turkic languages in Siberia. Robert Dankoff wrote that the Turkic language spoken in Kashgar and used in Kara Khanid works was Karluk, not (Old) Uyghur. Robert Barkley Shaw wrote, "In the Turkish of Káshghar and Yarkand (which some European linguists have called Uïghur, a name unknown to the inhabitants of those towns, who know their tongue simply as Túrki), ... This would seem in many case to be
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#17327871317262376-643: The Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk . According to Gerard Clauson , Western Yugur is considered to be the true descendant of Old Uyghur and is also called "Neo-Uyghur". According to Frederik Coene, Modern Uyghur and Western Yugur belong to entirely different branches of the Turkic language family, respectively the Southeastern Turkic languages and the Northeastern Turkic languages . The Western Yugur language , although in geographic proximity,
2484-591: The Chagatai language , a literary language used all across Central Asia until the early 20th century. After Chaghatai fell into extinction , the standard versions of Uyghur and Uzbek were developed from dialects in the Chagatai-speaking region, showing abundant Chaghatai influence. Uyghur language today shows considerable Persian influence as a result from Chagatai, including numerous Persian loanwords . Modern Uyghur religious literature includes
2592-606: The Guangzhou massacre against foreign Arab and Persian Muslim, Zoroastrian, Jewish and Christian merchants in 878–879 at the seaport and trading entrepôt of Guangzhou , and captured both Tang dynasty capitals, Luoyang and Chang'an. A medieval Chinese source claimed that Huang Chao killed 8 million people. Even though Huang Chao was eventually defeated, the Tang Emperors lost all their power to regional jiedushi and Huang Chao's former lieutenant Zhu Wen who had defected to
2700-729: The Karkota dynasty of Kashmir that acknowledged the Tang as suzerain or their vassal lord, supported the Chinese against the Tibetans. According to art historians Denise Patry Leidy and Donna K. Strahan, Kashmir "helped defeat the Arabas at the Battle of Talas in 751". The numeric quantities of the combatants involved in the battle of Talas are not known with certainty. The Abbasid army consisted of 200,000 soldiers according to Chinese estimates, which included contingents from their Tibetan ally. On
2808-759: The Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz , have access to schools and government services in their native language. Smaller minorities, however, do not have a choice and must attend Uyghur-medium schools. These include the Xibe , Tajiks , Daurs and Russians . According to reports in 2018, Uyghur script was erased from street signs and wall murals, as the Chinese government has launched a campaign to force Uyghur people to learn Mandarin. Any interest in Uyghur culture or language could lead to detention. Recent news reports have also documented
2916-669: The Kutadgu Bilig . Ahmad bin Mahmud Yukenaki (Ahmed bin Mahmud Yükneki) (Ahmet ibn Mahmut Yükneki) (Yazan Edib Ahmed b. Mahmud Yükneki) ( w:tr:Edip Ahmet Yükneki ) wrote the Hibat al-ḥaqāyiq (هبة الحقايق) ( Hibet-ül hakayik ) (Hibet ül-hakayık) (Hibbetü'l-Hakaik) (Atebetüʼl-hakayik) ( w:tr:Atabetü'l-Hakayık ). Middle Turkic languages , through the influence of Perso - Arabic after the 13th century, developed into
3024-710: The Mongol Empire . The area had been part of the whole Mongol Empire before it was occupied by the independent-minded Chagatai Khanate under the House of Ögedei in 1286 from the hands of Kublai's Yuan dynasty . After the decline of the Yuan dynasty and the split of the Chagatai Khanate in the mid-14th century, Aksu became a territory of the khanate of Moghulistan . Later Aksu fell under the power of Turkic and Mongol warlords. Like most of Xinjiang , Aksu fell under
3132-564: The Pamir Mountains could be crossed on roads going through Kulob and Balkh in the Bactria region. From there present day India could be reached on a road through Bamyan that lead over the Hindu Kush . Muslim influence along these central Asian trade routes had started in the 8th century, one key event being the battle of Talas. Prior to Talas, Buddhists controlled much of the roads. Central Asian Buddhism went into decline after
3240-624: The Pamir Mountains was able to spread without opposition from Tang China, which redeployed all available military forces back into China's interior in order to suppress the rebellion. By 821, though the Arab Muslims had lost direct control over their Central Asian territories, and the Turkic Ghaznavids rose to power in the region in 977. The gains brought about by the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana were entirely lost in 1124, when
3348-716: The Tarim Basin from the Tibetan Empire in 692 as part of the Tang expansion in Inner Asia and the oasis towns became a major source of income for the Tang. In 705, Qutayba ibn Muslim started to lead the Umayyad army on campaigns to conquer towns across along the Silk Road, exploiting Türgesh infighting. The caliphate conquered the oasis towns Bukhara and Samarkand , expanding the border of their empire eastwards. At
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3456-508: The United States ( New York City ). The Uyghurs are one of the 56 recognized ethnic groups in China and Uyghur is an official language of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region , along with Standard Chinese . As a result, Uyghur can be heard in most social domains in Xinjiang and also in schools, government and courts. Of the other ethnic minorities in Xinjiang, those populous enough to have their own autonomous prefectures , such as
3564-542: The extinct language Chagatay (the East Karluk languages), and more distantly to Uzbek (which is West Karluk). It is widely accepted that Uyghur has three main dialects, all based on their geographical distribution. Each of these main dialects have a number of sub-dialects which all are mutually intelligible to some extent. The Central dialects are spoken by 90% of the Uyghur-speaking population, while
3672-593: The 10th century Aksu and Fergana had markets for arms traders. Talas is in modern-day Kyrgyzstan and had been part of the Silk Road. From Dunhuang in China, along the edge of the Takla Makan desert, passing through oasis towns such as Kucha , roads went through a region Arabs called Transoxiana . The Silk Roads in Transoxiana went through Talas, Tashkent , Samarkand , and Khwarazm . Turning south, roads went through Kunduz in present-day Afghanistan ,
3780-709: The 2000 census, a figure of 561,822 was recorded for the city's population. As of 1999, 57.89% of the population of Aksu City was Han Chinese and 40.75% of the population was Uyghur. The county is served by the Southern Xinjiang Railway . Historical English-language maps including Aksu: Uyghur language Uyghur or Uighur ( / ˈ w iː ɡ ʊər , - ɡ ər / ; ئۇيغۇر تىلى , Уйғур тили , Uyghur tili, Uyƣur tili , IPA: [ʊjˈʁʊɾ.tɪ.lɪ] or ئۇيغۇرچە , Уйғурчә , Uyghurche, Uyƣurqə , IPA: [ʊj.ʁʊɾˈtʃɛ] , CTA : Uyğurçä; formerly known as Turki or Eastern Turki )
3888-699: The Arabic-based Uyghur alphabets have 32 characters each; the Uyghur Cyrillic alphabet also uses two iotated vowel letters (Ю and Я). The Middle Turkic languages are the direct ancestor of the Karluk languages , including Uyghur and the Uzbek language . Modern Uyghur is not descended from Old Uyghur , rather, it is a descendant of the Karluk language spoken by the Kara-Khanid Khanate , as described by Mahmud al-Kashgari in
3996-487: The Battle of Talas, the Arabs coerced the Chinese army to evacuate the Gilgit region. The An Lushan rebellion ended the Tang presence in central Asia and forced them to withdraw from the northwestern frontier; because the Arabs did not advance any further after the battle, Talas was of no strategic importance. After the battle, a small number of Karluks converted to Islam. However, the majority would not convert until
4104-732: The Chinese History of the Tang Dynasty . Denis Sinor said that it was interference in the internal affairs of the Western Turkic Khaganate which ended Chinese supremacy in central Asia, since the destruction of the Western Khaganate rid the Muslims of their greatest opponent, and it was not the Battle of Talas which ended the Chinese presence. The Chinese historian Bai Shouyi wrote that, at
4212-503: The Chinese general had to move his reserves into a fray. A similar sequence of events happened on the second and third days, but on the fourth day, the Karluk mercenaries betrayed the Chinese and attacked their flanks from the left and right while the Arab infantry made a frontal assault. The Tang army was subjected to a devastating defeat, owing to the defection of the Karluk mercenaries and
4320-571: The Chinese system of Imperial government, since China was still held in respect and esteem in the region among even the Muslim population, and the Kara-Khitans used Chinese as an official language. The Kara-Khitan rulers were called "the Chinese" by the Muslims. According to the 11th-century Persian historian Al-Thaʽālibī , Chinese prisoners captured at the Battle of Talas in 751 introduced paper manufacturing to Samarkand . They engaged in
4428-830: The Imams will leave this world without faith and on Judgement Day their faces will be black ..." in the Tazkirah of the Four Sacrificed Imams . Shaw translated extracts from the Tazkiratu'l-Bughra on the Muslim Turki war against the "infidel" Khotan. The Turki-language Tadhkirah i Khwajagan was written by M. Sadiq Kashghari. Historical works like the Tārīkh-i amniyya and Tārīkh-i ḥamīdi were written by Musa Sayrami . The Qing dynasty commissioned dictionaries on
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4536-525: The Islamic conquest of Khotan, Yarkand and Kashgar by Yusuf Qadir Khan, the Qarakhanid leader. The shrines of Sufi Saints are revered in Altishahr as one of Islam's essential components and the tazkirah literature reinforced the sacredness of the shrines. Anyone who does not believe in the stories of the saints is guaranteed hellfire by the tazkirahs. It is written, "And those who doubt Their Holinesses
4644-413: The Perso-Arabic script (Kona Yëziq) in the 10th century upon the conversion of the Kara-Khanids to Islam. This Perso-Arabic script (Kona Yëziq) was reformed in the 20th century with modifications to represent all Modern Uyghur sounds including short vowels and eliminate Arabic letters representing sounds not found in Modern Uyghur. Unlike many other modern Turkic languages , Uyghur is primarily written using
4752-458: The Russian historian Vasily Bartold , according to whom: "The earlier Arab historians, occupied with the narrative of events then taking place in western Asia, do not mention this battle; but it is undoubtedly of great importance in the history of Western Turkestan as it determined the question which of the two civilizations, the Chinese or the Muslim, should predominate in the land [of Turkestan]." The Tang loss of 8,000 troops can be compared to
4860-406: The Tang bestowed a title to its ruler. Bai also maintains that the Chinese influence to the west of the Pamir Mountains certainly did not cease as the result of the battle. Central Asian states under Muslim control, such as Samarkand , continued to request aid from the Tang against the Arabs and in 754, all nine kingdoms of Western Turkestan again sent petitions to the Tang to attack the Arabs and
4968-412: The Tang continued to turn down such requests as it did for decades. Ferghana , which participated in the battle earlier, in fact joined among the central Asian auxiliaries with the Chinese army under a summons and entered Gansu during the An Lushan Rebellion in 756. Bai also noted that neither did the relations between the Chinese and Arabs worsen, as the Abbasids continued to send embassies to China after
5076-495: The Tang court turned the Tang emperors into his puppets and completed the destruction of Chang'an by dismantling Chang'an and transporting the materials east to Luoyang when he forced the court to move the capital. Zhu Wen deposed the last Tang Emperor in 907 and founded Later Liang (Five Dynasties) , plunging China into the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period as regional jiedushi warlords declared their own dynasties and kingdoms. The Tibetan Empire began attacking China, during
5184-412: The Tang professional heavy infantry were better armoured and could sustain more injuries than their Arab counterparts, and managed to push the Arab infantry backwards despite being outnumbered. The Muslim general attempted to alleviate the pressure on his infantry by sending his heavy cavalry to attack the lighter column cavalry on the Chinese flanks. However, this attack failed to outflank Gao's units, but
5292-478: The Tarim Basin in the late 720s, and the Tang dynasty again annexed the region in the 740s. The Battle of Talas led to the gradual withdrawal of Chinese forces, and the region was then contested between the Uyghurs and Tibetans. Aksu was positioned on a junction of trade routes: the northern Tarim route Silk Road , and the dangerous route north via the Tian Shan 's Muzart Pass to the fertile Ili Valley . In 1207–1208, Aksu submitted to Genghis Khan who founded
5400-482: The Taẕkirah, biographies of Islamic religious figures and saints. The Taẕkirah is a genre of literature written about Sufi Muslim saints in Altishahr . Written sometime in the period between 1700 and 1849, the Chagatai language (modern Uyghur) Taẕkirah of the Four Sacrificed Imams provides an account of the Muslim Karakhanid war against the Khotanese Buddhists, containing a story about Imams, from Mada'in city (possibly in modern-day Iraq) came 4 Imams who travelled to help
5508-413: The Tibetan Empire and the Tang dynasty. In 747, the Tang general Gao Xianzhi , who had successfully fought the Tibetan empire in the Pamir Mountains , established control over the Gilgit region. In early 748, the Persian Abbasid general Abu Muslim occupied Merv , the capital of Greater Khorasan , and went on to lead what has become known as the Abbasid Revolution . In 750, Abu al-'Abbas al-Saffah
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#17327871317265616-492: The Tibetan Empire, besieged Aksu City in the Tarim Basin, but were defeated by the Tang military in the Battle of Aksu . In 715, the Tang emperor declined the demand of the Türgesh tribe leader Suluk to be recognized as Khagan, instead offering him the rank of duke within the Tang military. In response, Suluk invaded the Tarim Basin along with the Tibetans, but they were driven out by the cavalry of Ashina Xian . Suluk and his soldiers regularly challenged Umayyad–Tang control of
5724-458: The Uyghur language is of Turkic stock, but due to different kinds of language contact throughout its history, it has adopted many loanwords . Kazakh , Uzbek and Chagatai are all Turkic languages which have had a strong influence on Uyghur. Many words of Arabic origin have come into the language through Persian and Tajik , which again have come through Uzbek and to a greater extent, Chagatai. Many words of Arabic origin have also entered
5832-442: The area was traded in neighbouring countries. In the 7th, 8th, and early 9th centuries, control of the entire region was often contested by Tang China , the Tibetan Empire , and the Uyghur Khaganate ; cities frequently changed hands. Tibet seized Aksu in 670, but Tang forces reconquered the region in 692. The Tang general Tang Jiahui led the Chinese to defeat an Arab-Tibetan attack in the Battle of Aksu (717) . The attack on Aksu
5940-504: The bases of height, backness and roundness. It has been argued, within a lexical phonology framework, that / e / has a back counterpart / ɤ / , and modern Uyghur lacks a clear differentiation between / i / and / ɯ / . Uyghur vowels are by default short , but long vowels also exist because of historical vowel assimilation (above) and through loanwords. Underlyingly long vowels would resist vowel reduction and devoicing , introduce non-final stress, and be analyzed as |Vj| or |Vr| before
6048-405: The battle of Talas, the domestic An Lushan rebellion and subsequent warlordism gave the Arabs the opportunity to further expand into central Asia as Tibetans took over the region between the Arabs and China and Tang influence in the region retreated. The An Lushan rebellion broke out in 755 and lasted until 763, forcing the Tang army to retreat from the northwestern frontier after enjoying around
6156-467: The battle of Talas. Following the An Lushan rebellion, the diplomatic exchange between Buddhist Indian kingdoms and the Tang dynasty all but ceased. Prior to the An Lushan rebellion, between 640 and 750 diplomatic envoys from Indian kingdoms, often accompanied by Buddhist monks , had regularly visited the Tang court. Chinese Buddhism developed into an independent religion with distinct spiritual elements, such as Pure Land Buddhism and Zen . China became
6264-420: The battle that has survived, Abbasid general Abu Muslim took 5,000 Chinese prisoners and confiscated possessions from the Tang military camp. According to Al-Maqdisi, Abu Muslim prepared his forces and equipment to invade more Tang controlled territory. However, he was first presented with a letter from the caliph As-Saffah , in which he was informed that his services were needed as governor of Khurasan . After
6372-403: The battle were similar to each other, with the Chinese attacking first from the front, with their archers and crossbowmen dealing substantial damage to the Arab archers with greater accuracy and ranged superiority in crossbows. The Arab archers had to retreat behind their spearmen and the Arab spearmen charged ahead, with the infantry lines colliding between the Tang and Abbasid spearmen. However,
6480-415: The battle without interruption. Such visits had overall resulted in 13 diplomatic gifts between 752 and 798. Xue Zongzheng came to the conclusion that other than the transfer of paper, there is no evidence to support a geopolitical or demographic change resulting from this battle. In fact, it seems that Tang influence over central Asia even strengthened after 751 and that by 755, Tang power in central Asia
6588-442: The border between present-day Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan . The Chinese name 怛羅斯 ; Dáluósī was first seen in the account of Xuanzang . Du Huan located the city near the western drain of the Chui River . The oasis towns on the Silk Road in central Asia had once been controlled by the Türgesh , but the Turkic tribal confederation plunged into chaos in the latter half of the 7th century. Empress Wu had retaken control of
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#17327871317266696-434: The center of East Asian Buddhism , creating a canon and spreading on to Japan and Korea. The Battle of Talas did not mark the end of Buddhism or Chinese influence in the region. The Buddhist Kara-Khitan Khanate defeated the Seljuk and Kara-Khanid Turks at the Battle of Qatwan in 1141, conquering a large part of central Asia from the Karluk Kara-Khanid Khanate during the 12th century. The Kara-Khitans also reintroduced
6804-456: The city include textiles, construction, chemicals and others. Agricultural products include rice, wheat, corn and cotton. The local speciality is thin-shelled walnuts. Although the Tarim Basin is largely dominated by the Uyghurs, there are many Han Chinese in Aksu due to the presence of bingtuan state farms here. The Chinese government had encouraged migration to Xinjiang from the late 1950s and early 1960s onwards, and by 1998, Han Chinese formed
6912-435: The control of the Khojas and the Dzungar Khanate . Along with Kashgar , Asku played an important role in east–west exchange. The Qing dynasty of China conquered the Dzungar Khanate during the final stage of the Dzungar–Qing Wars in the late 1750s. By 1760, the whole Xinjiang including Aksu became the territory of the Qing dynasty. The Aksu region was given immediate legitimacy by the Qing government, which also gave it
7020-459: The craft of papermaking while living on land occupied by the Abbasids following Talas. However, this account is unlikely to be factual. Paper was already in use throughout Central Asia by the 8th century; paper fragments dating to the 4th and 5th centuries have been found in the areas of Turpan and Gaochang , and letters written in the Sogdian language between the 4th and 6th centuries have been found in Dunhuang and Loulan . One such letter
7128-487: The existence of mandatory boarding schools where children are separated from their parents; children are punished for speaking Uyghur, making the language at a very high risk of extinction. The Chinese government have implemented bi-lingual education in most regions of Xinjiang. The bi-lingual education system teaches Xinjiang's students all STEM classes using only Mandarin Chinese, or a combination of Uighur and Chinese. However, research have shown that due to differences in
7236-484: The former set near front vowels and the latter near a back vowels. Some speakers of Uyghur distinguish /v/ from /w/ in Russian loans, but this is not represented in most orthographies. Other phonemes occur natively only in limited contexts, i.e. /h/ only in few interjections, /d/ , /ɡ/ , and /ʁ/ rarely initially, and /z/ only morpheme-final. Therefore, the pairs */t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/ , */ʃ, ʒ/ , and */s, z/ do not alternate. The primary syllable structure of Uyghur
7344-445: The history of the people. In one of his books the term Uyghur was deliberately not used by James A. Millward . The name Khāqāniyya was given to the Qarluks who inhabited Kāshghar and Bālāsāghūn, the inhabitants were not Uighur, but their language has been retroactively labelled as Uighur by scholars. The Qarakhanids called their own language the "Turk" or "Kashgar" language and did not use Uighur to describe their own language, Uighur
7452-447: The initial Tang army strength—defected to the Abbasids, and played a vital role in routing the Chinese. After the battle, the caliph quickly dispatched an envoy to Chang'an , who arrived on 7 December 752 to ask for the restoration of diplomatic relations. In response, the Tang emperor forgave the Abbasids' provocation, but continued to expand into Central Asia . With the An Lushan rebellion in 755, Arab influence and control west of
7560-521: The language directly through Islamic literature after the introduction of Islam around the 10th century. Chinese in Xinjiang and Russian elsewhere had the greatest influence on Uyghur. Loanwords from these languages are all quite recent, although older borrowings exist as well, such as borrowings from Dungan , a Mandarin language spoken by the Dungan people of Central Asia . A number of loanwords of German origin have also reached Uyghur through Russian. Code-switching with Standard Chinese
7668-559: The language to diaspora children online as well as publishing a magazine written by children for children in Uyghur. Uyghur has a seven-vowel inventory, with [i] and [e] not distinguished. The vowel letters of the Uyghur language are, in their alphabetical order (in the Latin script), ⟨a⟩ , ⟨e⟩ , ⟨ë⟩ , ⟨i⟩ , ⟨o⟩ , ⟨ö⟩ , ⟨u⟩ , ⟨ü⟩ . There are no diphthongs. Hiatus occurs in some loanwords. Uyghur vowels are distinguished on
7776-829: The main product. Also produced are grain, fruits, oils and beets. The industry mostly consists of weaving, cement and chemical industries. The land currently under the administration of the Aksu City is divided in two parts, separated by the Aral City . The northern part hosts the city center, while the southern part is occupied by the Taklamakan Desert . Aksu airport is considered a military airport in China (although also available for civil usage). Only aircraft registered in China can land in Aksu. This means if you are flying to Aksu from international origins you have to land in
7884-550: The major languages of China which included Chagatai Turki language, such as the Pentaglot Dictionary . The historical term "Uyghur" was appropriated for the language that had been known as Eastern Turki by government officials in the Soviet Union in 1922 and in Xinjiang in 1934. Sergey Malov was behind the idea of renaming Turki to Uyghurs. The use of the term Uyghur has led to anachronisms when describing
7992-418: The majority in the urban area of Aksu. The population in 2015, 44.67% of the population was Han Chinese. As of 2015, 278,210 (54.16%) of the 513,682 residents of the city were Uyghur , 226,781 (44.14%) were Han Chinese and 8,691 were from other ethnic groups. In the 2010 census figure, the population in the city of Aksu dropped slightly to 535,657. The difference may be partly due to boundary changes. In
8100-417: The mid-10th century, when Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan established the Kara-Khanid Khanate . This occurred well after Tang dynasty was gone from central Asia. Caliph Al-Saffah died in 754. Chinese sources record that his successor, the Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur , sent his diplomatic delegations regularly to China. Al-Mansur's delegations were known in China as Khayi Tashi ( Black Clothes ). Shortly after
8208-625: The name Wensu Independent Department (溫宿直隸州) and appointed an imperial agent to supervise its activity. Aksu was seized by Yaqub Beg during the Dungan Revolt of 1864–1877. Yakub Beg seized Aksu from Chinese Muslim forces. After the reconquest of Xinjiang , the Qing dynasty formed Aksu Prefecture as part of the new Xinjiang Province in 1884. After the fall of Yakub Beg, a learned cleric named Musa Sayrami (1836–1917), who had occupied positions of importance in Aksu under both rebel regimes, authored Tārīkh-i amniyya (History of Peace), which
8316-493: The non-Muslim Qara Khitai conquered the region. The Abbasids placed great value on controlling this area as it was a strategic point on the Silk Road . Chinese prisoners captured at Talas in 751 are said to have introduced papermaking to the peoples of West Asia , although this account is disputed by several findings. The exact location of the battle has not been confirmed but is believed to be near Taraz and Talas , on
8424-506: The non-high vowels when a syllable-final liquid assimilates to them, e.g. kör [cʰøː] 'look!', boldi [bɔlˈdɪ] 'he [etc.] became', ders [dæːs] 'lesson', tar [tʰɑː(r)] 'narrow'. Official Uyghur orthographies do not mark vowel length, and also do not distinguish between /ɪ/ (e.g., بىلىم /bɪlɪm/ 'knowledge') and back / ɯ / (e.g., تىلىم /tɯlɯm/ 'my language'); these two sounds are in complementary distribution , but phonological analyses claim that they play
8532-560: The oasis towns. Before Suluk's death, his soldiers were defeated by the Tang in 736 and by the Caliphate in 737. At the same time, Türgesh tribes established metal industries in Tang-controlled Fergana Valley , an area that was also home to important centres of iron production. The Karluks , a federation of three Türgesh tribes with settlements around Tian Shan , were producers and exporters of iron weapons to
8640-469: The only standard in China, although other writing systems are used for auxiliary and historical purposes. Unlike most Arabic-derived scripts, the Uyghur Arabic alphabet has mandatory marking of all vowels due to modifications to the original Perso-Arabic script made in the 20th century. Two Latin alphabets and one Cyrillic alphabet are also used, though to a much lesser extent. The two Latin-based and
8748-574: The opposite side, Arab records put the combined Chinese forces at 100,000. But Chinese sources record a combined army of 10,000 Tang infantry and 20,000 Karluk mercenaries. The Tongdian (801), the earliest narrative for battle itself by either side, suggests 30,000 deaths, and the Old Book of Tang (945) counted 20,000 deaths in this battle. The earliest Arabic account for the battle, itself from Al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh (1231) suggests 50,000 deaths and 20,000 prisoners. Gao Xianzhi's official position
8856-565: The order of words and grammar between the Uighur and the Chinese language, many students face obstacles in learning courses such as Mathematics under the bi-lingual education system. Uyghur language has been supported by Google Translate since February 2020. About 80 newspapers and magazines are available in Uyghur; five TV channels and ten publishers serve as the Uyghur media . Outside of China, Radio Free Asia provides news in Uyghur. Poet and activist Muyesser Abdul'ehed teaches
8964-486: The other due to the preceding consonant being such. Loan phonemes have influenced Uyghur to various degrees. /d͡ʒ/ and /χ/ were borrowed from Arabic and have been nativized, while /ʒ/ from Persian less so. /f/ only exists in very recent Russian and Chinese loans, since Perso-Arabic (and older Russian and Chinese) /f/ became Uyghur /p/ . Perso-Arabic loans have also made the contrast between /k, ɡ/ and /q, ʁ/ phonemic, as they occur as allophones in native words,
9072-462: The retreat of Ferghana allies who originally supported the Chinese. The Karluk mercenaries, two-thirds of the Tang army, defected to the Abbasids during the battle; Karluk troops attacked the Tang army from close quarters while the main Abbasid forces attacked from the front. The Tang troops were unable to hold their positions, and the commander of the Tang forces, Gao Xianzhi , recognized that defeat
9180-481: The rich literary tradition of Turkic languages; it contains folk tales (including descriptions of the functions of shamans ) and didactic poetry (propounding "moral standards and good behaviour"), besides poems and poetry cycles on topics such as hunting and love and numerous other language materials. Other Kara-Khanid writers wrote works in the Turki Karluk Khaqani language. Yusuf Khass Hajib wrote
9288-674: The same time that Talas took place, the Tang also sent an army from Shibao city in Qinghai to Suyab and consolidated Chinese control over the Turgesh . According to Bai, Chinese expansion in central Asia did not halt after the battle of Talas. The Chinese commander Feng Changqing , who took over the position from Gao Xianzhi through Wang Zhengjian, virtually swept across the Kashmir region and captured Gilgit shortly two years later. Even Tashkent re-established its vassal status in 753, when
9396-518: The same time, the Türgesh khagan Suluk began uniting the infighting Türgesh tribes. The Muslim, Tibetan and Tang armies would have two encounters. In 715, Alutar was established as king of Fergana with the help of Umayyad and Tibetan soldiers. The deposed Ikhshid fled to the Tang controlled Kuqa and requested the aid of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang ; 10,000 Tang soldiers reinstated Ikhshid as Fergana's king. In 717, Arab Umayyad soldiers, assisted by
9504-861: The south-west, and Kucha , Karasahr then Turpan to the east. Across the desert to the south was Khotan . Aksu has a cold desert climate ( Köppen climate classification BWk ) with extreme seasonal variation in temperature. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −7.2 °C (19.0 °F) in January to 24.1 °C (75.4 °F), and the annual mean is 10.8 °C (51.4 °F). Precipitation totals only 80.6 mm (3.17 in) annually, and mostly falls in summer, as compared to an annual evaporation rate of about 1,200 to 1,500 mm (47 to 59 in); there are about 2,800–3,000 hours of bright sunshine annually. The frost-free period averages 200–220 days. Aksu City included 7 subdistricts , 3 towns , 3 townships and five other areas: Industries in
9612-460: The spearmen behind them and heavy cavalry with his guard. Gao Xianzhi had assembled his army in a similar manner, with his professionally-trained heavy infantry of crossbowmen and spearmen in the front and in the second line respectively, and the lighter columns of Ferghana mercenaries behind, with the Karluk Turks on the extreme far right and left flanks. The sequence of the first three days of
9720-515: The support of their imperial overlords in a battle of dominance. Gao Xianzhi conquered the Abbasid-controlled Tashkent after a siege. The Abbasid general Ziyad ibn Salih [ ar ] escaped from Tashkent to Samarkand, where he gathered troops and marched eastwards to confront the Tang army. In Fergana, the Tang general Gao Xianzhi raised an army by recruiting Karluk Turks. During the reign of Lalitaditya Muktapida ,
9828-817: The table below the alphabets are shown side-by-side for comparison, together with a phonetic transcription in the International Phonetic Alphabet . Like other Turkic languages, Uyghur is a head-final agglutinative language with a subject–object–verb word order. Nouns are inflected for number and case , but not gender and definiteness like in many other languages. There are two numbers: singular and plural and six different cases: nominative , accusative , dative , locative , ablative and genitive . Verbs are conjugated for tense : present and past ; voice : causative and passive ; aspect : continuous and mood : e.g. ability. Verbs may be negated as well. The core lexicon of
9936-444: The transfer of paper exist. Du Huan , who was captured by the Abbasid army at the battle of Talas and upon his return to China published his travel writings, documented that Chinese crafts such as silk weaving were practiced by Chinese prisoners of war while living on territory controlled by the Abbasids. It may have been a convention to reference Chinese craftsmen, who had long been esteemed in Islamic lands, and Chinese paper remained
10044-983: The two other branches of dialects only are spoken by a relatively small minority. Vowel reduction is common in the northern parts of where Uyghur is spoken, but not in the south. Uyghur is spoken by an estimated 8–11 million people in total. In addition to being spoken primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of Western China , mainly by the Uyghur people , Uyghur was also spoken by some 300,000 people in Kazakhstan in 1993, some 90,000 in Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan in 1998, 3,000 in Afghanistan and 1,000 in Mongolia , both in 1982. Smaller communities also exist in Albania , Australia , Belgium , Canada , Germany , Indonesia , Pakistan , Saudi Arabia , Sweden , Tajikistan , Turkey , United Kingdom and
10152-469: The voiced member devoicing in syllable-final position, except in word-initial syllables. This devoicing process is usually reflected in the official orthography, but an exception has been recently made for certain Perso-Arabic loans. Voiceless phonemes do not become voiced in standard Uyghur. Suffixes display a slightly different type of consonant alternation. The phonemes /ɡ/ and /ʁ/ anywhere in
10260-651: The western Tibetan frontier with the Arabs. At the same time, the Uighurs fought the Tibetans along the Silk Road. The Karluks expanded their settlements around Tian Shan , and also settled westwards in Abbasid-controlled Fergana and Tukharistan . Iron weapons continued to be exported to Tibet and China on the Silk Roads between Kuqa and Aksu near the Tarim basin . Arab sources record that in
10368-484: Was a communication with Samarkand. According to Jonathan Bloom, paper was used in Samarkand, and probably produced there, several decades before the battle. Several paper documents have also been discovered near Panjakent at Mount Mugh, a mountain stronghold, that likely predate the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana . They were either local or came from Buddhist monks active in the region. By the 8th century, Chinese paper
10476-606: Was an armed confrontation between the Abbasid Caliphate and the Tibetan Empire against the Tang dynasty in 751. In July of that year, the Tang and Abbasid armies clashed at the Talas River over control of the regions surrounding the Syr Darya . According to Chinese sources, the engagement began with several days of military stalemate, before a mercenary column of 20,000 Karluk Turks —representing two-thirds of
10584-404: Was imminent and managed to escape with some of his Tang regulars with the help of Li Siye . Out of an estimated 10,000 Tang troops, only 2,000 managed to return from Talas to their territory in central Asia. Despite losing the battle, Li did inflict heavy losses on the pursuing Arab army after being reproached by Duan Xiushi . According to a text by Al-Maqdisi , one of the few Arabic sources on
10692-587: Was joined by Türgesh Khan Suluk . Both Uch Turfan and Aksu were attacked by the Turgesh, Arab, and Tibetan force on 15 August 717. Qarluqs serving under Chinese command, under Arsila Xian, a Western Turkic Qaghan serving under the Chinese Assistant Grand Protector General Tang Jiahui defeated the attack. Al-Yashkuri, the Arab commander and his army fled to Tashkent after they were defeated. Tibet regained
10800-461: Was known as Bharuka , Bohuan and Baluka , Bolujia (in pinyin ), Po-lu-chia (in Wade–Giles ). The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited this "kingdom" in 629 CE and referred to it as Baluka. He recorded that there were tens of Sarvastivadin vihāras in the kingdom and over 1000 Buddhist monks . He said the kingdom was 600 li from east to west, and 300 li from north to south. Its capital
10908-514: Was likely well south of the present town. During the Han dynasty, Gumo is described as a "kingdom" ( guo ) containing 3,500 households and 24,500 individuals, including 4,500 people able to bear arms. It is said to have produced copper, iron and orpiment . The territory of Gumo was roughly situated in the counties of Baicheng and Wensu and the city of Aksu of nowadays. During the Buddhist era, it
11016-461: Was mostly made of bast fibers while Islamic papers were mostly made of rag fibers. Bloom suggests that papermakers were already active in Central Asia for quite some time and had learned to use rag fibers rather than bast fibers as their primary papermaking material. No historic Chinese source records this transfer of technology through prisoners of war and no contemporary Arabic accounts of
11124-516: Was proclaimed the first Abbasid caliph in the great mosque of Kufa . The Umayyad Caliphate fell in 750 at the Battle of the Zab . Abu Muslim had raised an army that included Muslims and non-Muslims, which he dispatched westwards to take control over Umayyad territory. The Tang general and the Abbasid general would eventually meet in 750 when the kings of the Silk Road towns Tashkent and Ferghana sought
11232-504: Was said to be six li in circumference. Xuanzang reported that the "native products, climate, temperament of the people, customs, written language and law are the same as in the country of Kuci or modern Kucha ", some 300 km or 190 mi to the east, "but the spoken language is somewhat different" from the Kuchean language, which is also known as Tocharian B and West Tocharian . He also stated that fine cotton and hemp cloth made in
11340-590: Was still able to launch offensive conquests and campaigns like its destruction of the Uyghur Khaganate in Mongolia during 840–847. It was the Huang Chao rebellion (874–884) that permanently destroyed the power of the Tang dynasty since Huang not only devastated the north but marched into southern China which An Lushan failed to do due to the Battle of Suiyang. Huang's army in southern China committed
11448-520: Was that of the Anxi Jiedu envoy, The total number of Tang troops in the jurisdiction was 24,000 and was stationed in the four countries of Qiuzi, Yanqi, Khotan, and Shule. In July 751, the Muslim forces, including the Karluk mercenaries faced with the Tang forces on the banks of the Talas River. The Muslim General had assembled his troops in a standard formation, with his archers in the front,
11556-583: Was the site of a bombing in 2010 . On 23 January 2013, 802.733 km (309.937 sq mi) of territory was transferred from Aksu city to Aral city. Aksu City is divided into two non-contiguous areas. The northern area is inhabited and the southern area is in the Taklamakan Desert . The southern area ends at a strait line in the desert along the 39°28′57″N parallel that divides it from Lop County (Luopu) and Qira County (Cele) in Hotan Prefecture (Hetian). The kingdom bordered Kashgar to
11664-525: Was used to describe the language of non-Muslims but Chinese scholars have anachronistically called a Qarakhanid work written by Kashgari as "Uighur". The name " Altishahri-Jungharian Uyghur " was used by the Soviet educated Uyghur Qadir Haji in 1927. The Uyghur language belongs to the Karluk Turkic ( Qarluq ) branch of the Turkic language family . It is closely related to Äynu , Lop , Ili Turki ,
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