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124-575: The mosque is located in Islamic Cairo , on the east side of al-Muʿizz Street , just south of Bab al-Futuh (the northern city gate). In the centuries since its construction, the mosque was often neglected and re-purposed for other functions, eventually falling into ruin. In 1980, a major restoration and reconstruction of the mosque was completed by the Dawoodi Bohras , resulting in its reopening for religious use. The mosque's construction

248-498: A coating for the outside of a building and " plaster " to a coating for interiors. As described below, however, the materials themselves often have little or no difference. Other European languages, notably Italian, do not have the same distinction: stucco means plaster in Italian and serves for both. The basic composition of stucco is lime , water, and sand. The difference in nomenclature between stucco, plaster , and mortar

372-430: A complex defensive layout including a bent entrance and a bridge over a moat or ditch . Initially identified as Bab al-Barqiyya , it is possible that it was actually known as Bab al-Jadid ("New Gate"), one of the three eastern gates mentioned by al-Maqrizi . If so, then the name Bab al-Barqiyya most likely corresponded to another gate a short distance to the northeast. The latter gate, originally discovered in

496-539: A few more decades until 905 when the Abbasids sent an army to reestablish direct control and burned al-Qata'i to the ground, sparing only the mosque. After this, Egypt was ruled for a while by another dynasty, the Ikhshidids , who ruled as Abbasid governors between 935 and 969. Some of their constructions, particularly under Abu al-Misk Kafur , a black eunuch (originally from Ethiopia ) who ruled as regent during

620-574: A final end to the Crusader states in the Levant . Under the reign of the Mamluk sultan al-Nasir Muhammad (1293–1341, including interregnums), Cairo reached its apogee in terms of population and wealth. A commonly-cited estimate of the population towards the end of his reign, although difficult to evaluate, gives a figure of about 500,000, making Cairo the largest city in the world outside China at

744-399: A finish layer, which is thinner and faster to apply, compared to the traditional application of three-coat stucco. Imitation stone stucco can also be produced using the traditional application, but with marble dust being added to the mixture. As with any cement-based material, stucco must be reinforced to resist movement cracking. Plastic or wire mesh lath , attached with nails or screws to

868-452: A fortress by Napoleon , as an Islamic arts Museum in 1890, and as a boys' school in the 20th century during Nasser 's presidency. In the early 19th century, the mosque underwent a restoration sponsored by ' Umar Makram . The restoration also added a small mihrab to the interior that is still preserved today, dated to 1808. In 1980, the mosque was extensively reconstructed and refurbished in white marble and gold trim by Mohammed Burhanuddin ,

992-547: A greater prominence of Muslims in the area but rather to the city's rich history and heritage since its foundation in the early period of Islam , while distinguishing it from with the nearby Ancient Egyptian sites of Giza and Memphis . This area holds one of the largest and densest concentrations of historic architecture in the Islamic world . It is characterized by hundreds of mosques , tombs, madrasas , mansions, caravanserais , and fortifications dating from throughout

1116-570: A mosque, madrasa, khanqah (for Sufis ), water distribution centers (sabils), and mausoleum for themselves and their families. Among the best-known examples of Mamluk monuments in Cairo are the huge Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan , the Mosque of Amir al-Maridani , the Mosque of Sultan al-Mu'ayyad (whose twin minarets were built above the gate of Bab Zuwayla ), the Sultan Al-Ghuri complex ,

1240-786: A political crisis during the Seventh Crusade . Between 1250 and 1517, the throne passed from one mamluk to another in a system of succession that was generally non-hereditary, but also frequently violent and chaotic. Nonetheless, the Mamluk Empire continued many aspects of the Ayyubid Empire before it, and was responsible for repelling the advance of the Mongols in 1260 (most famously at the Battle of Ain Jalut ) and for putting

1364-548: A project to radically expand the city's fortifications. This project included the construction of the Citadel of Cairo and of a 20 kilometer-long wall to connect and protect both Cairo (referring to the former royal city of the Fatimid caliphs) and Fustat (the main city and earlier capital of Egypt a short distance to the southwest). The entirety of the envisioned course of the wall was never quite completed, but long stretches of

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1488-691: A provincial city. In 661 the Islamic world came under the control of the Umayyads , based in their capital at Damascus , until their overthrow by the Abbasids in 750. The last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II , made his last stand in Egypt but was killed on August 1, 750. Thereafter Egypt, and Fustat, passed under Abbasid control. The Abbasids marked their new rule in Egypt by founding a new administrative capital called al-'Askar , slightly northeast of Fustat, under

1612-433: A sand finish or sprayed. Originally, the lath material was strips of wood installed horizontally on the wall, with spaces between, that would support the wet plaster until it cured. This lath and plaster technique became widely used. In exterior wall applications, the lath is installed over a weather-resistant asphalt - impregnated felt or paper sheet that protects the framing from the moisture that can pass through

1736-402: A solid masonry , brick , or stone surface. The finish coat usually contained an integral color and was typically textured for appearance. Then with the introduction and development of heavy timber and light wood-framed construction methods, stucco was adapted for this new use by adding a reinforcement lattice, or lath , attached to and spanning between the structural supports and by increasing

1860-413: A universal ruler and purveyor of justice, and his will to symbolize this in his architectural program. The upper parts of the minarets, which extend above the thick square towers that encase their lower sections and are visible today, have octagonal bodies culminating in a " mabkhara "-style head with carved muqarnas decoration. They are similar in design but not identical. These tops were rebuilt by

1984-422: A warmer climate (like California , Nevada , Arizona , New Mexico and Florida ), stucco is the predominant exterior for both residential and commercial construction. Stucco exterior (with wood frame interior) became a popular alternative in the southwestern United States during the 1970s, as the masonry labor costs for adobe rose. Stucco has also been used as a sculptural and artistic material. Stucco relief

2108-693: Is also the location of several important religious shrines such as the al-Hussein Mosque (whose shrine is believed to hold the head of Husayn ibn Ali ), the Mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi'i (founder of the Shafi'i madhhab , one of the primary schools of thought in Sunni Islamic jurisprudence ), the Tomb of Sayyida Ruqayya , the Mosque of Sayyida Nafisa , and others. Some of these shrines are located within

2232-419: Is based more on use than composition. Until the latter part of the nineteenth century, it was common that mortar as well as plaster , which was used inside a building, and stucco, which was used outside, would consist of the same primary materials: lime and sand . Animal or plant fibers were often added for additional strength. Sometimes additives such as acrylics and glass fibers are added to improve

2356-474: Is hollow, as they were built around the original towers, whose original lower levels have been preserved inside. The inner towers are braced against the outer towers by supporting arches between them. The outer wall of the southern encasing bastion also features an Arabic inscription in foliated Kufic carved in marble, from the Fatimid period. The top edge of this bastion's lower section also has ornate crenellations designed in an interlacing motif that resembles

2480-512: Is located on a promontory of the nearby Muqattam Hills overlooking the city. The Citadel remained the residence of the rulers of Egypt until the late 19th century, and was repeatedly transformed under subsequent rulers. Notably, Muhammad Ali Pasha built the 19th-century Mosque of Muhammad Ali which still dominates the city's skyline from its elevated vantage point. The Mamluks, and the later Ottomans, also built wikala s ( caravanserais ; also known as khan s) to house merchants and goods due to

2604-421: Is made of brick. The mosque's rectangular layout consists of an open courtyard surrounded by arcades ( riwaq s) on four sides. Behind these arcades are roofed areas divided into aisles by more arcades that run parallel to the sides of the courtyard. The space on the northwest side of the courtyard (the entrance side) is two aisles deep, the spaces along its southwest and northeast sides are three aisles deep, and

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2728-546: Is ongoing. Stucco Stucco or render is a construction material made of aggregates , a binder , and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid. It is used as a decorative coating for walls and ceilings, exterior walls, and as a sculptural and artistic material in architecture. Stucco can be applied on construction materials such as metal , expanded metal lath , concrete , cinder block , or clay brick and adobe for decorative and structural purposes. In English, "stucco" sometimes refers to

2852-436: Is very hard and brittle and can easily crack and separate from the surcface if the base on which it is applied is not stable. Typically its color was gray, from the innate color of most Portland cement, but white Portland cement is also available. Today's stucco manufacturers offer a very wide range of colors that can be mixed integrally in the finish coat. Other materials such as stone and glass chips are sometimes "dashed" onto

2976-549: Is visually extended into a heavenly architecture with a depiction of Christ , the Virgin Mary or the Last Judgment at the center. Stucco is used to form a semi-plastic extension of the real architecture that merges into the painted architecture. Because of its " aristocratic " appearance, Baroque-looking stucco decoration was used frequently in upper-class apartments of the 19th and early 20th century. Beginning in

3100-445: The 2011 uprising theft increased among historic monuments and a lack of zoning enforcement allowed traditional houses to be replaced with high-rise buildings. Thefts and illegal constructions have since decreased, but environmental problems remain. Various efforts to restore historic Cairo have been ongoing in recent decades, with the involvement of both Egyptian government authorities and non-governmental organisations such as

3224-683: The Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC). In 1998 the government launched the Historic Cairo Restoration Project (HCRP) which aimed to restore 149 historic monuments. In the following years numerous restorations were completed under the supervision of the HCRP in the area between Bab Zuweila and Bab Futuh, especially around al-Mu'izz street. A restoration of Bay al-Suhaymi and the Darb al-Asfar street in front of it

3348-572: The Arab conquests , with other examples such as Qayrawan in Tunisia or Kufa in Iraq . ) The foundation of Fustat was also accompanied by the foundation of Egypt's (and Africa 's) first mosque, the Mosque of 'Amr ibn al-'As , which has been much rebuilt over the centuries but still exists today. Fustat quickly grew to become Egypt's main city, port, and economic center, with Alexandria becoming more of

3472-529: The Ayyubid sultan al-Salih Najm al-Din (r. 1240–1249) and the Mamluk sultan Aybak (r. 1250–1257). In 1303, during the Mamluk period, the mosque was severely damaged by an earthquake and was subsequently restored by Sultan Baybars II al-Jashankir . By that time, the mosque was also being used to teach Islamic law from the four Sunni maddhabs . In 1360, the mosque was restored again by Sultan Hasan . In

3596-592: The Church of the Holy Sepulchre , which happened around the same time in 1009 or 1010. She also notes the austerity of the encasing bastions in contrast with the richly-decorated original towers, as well as their resemblance to other Sunni (i.e. non-Fatimid) minarets of the era. Accordingly, she suggests that al-Hakim's decision to obscure the original minarets was part of his complex shift away from traditional Fatimid Isma'ili doctrines, his re-imagining of himself as

3720-407: The Islamic era of Egypt . In 1979, UNESCO proclaimed Historic Cairo a World Cultural Heritage site , as "one of the world's oldest Islamic cities, with its famous mosques, madrasas, hammams and fountains" and "the new centre of the Islamic world, reaching its golden age in the 14th century." The history of Cairo begins, in essence, with the conquest of Egypt by Muslim Arabs in 640, under

3844-614: The Nile (now located in Old Cairo ), southwest of the later site of Cairo proper (see below). The choice of this location may have been due to several factors, including its slightly closer proximity to Arabia and Mecca , the fear of strong remaining Christian and Hellenistic influence in Alexandria, and Alexandria's vulnerability to Byzantine counteroffensives arriving by sea (which did indeed occur). Perhaps even more importantly,

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3968-440: The arabesque reached its full maturity, carved stucco remained a very common medium for decoration and calligraphic inscriptions. Indian architecture used stucco as a material for sculpture in an architectural context. It is rare in the countryside. In Roman art of the late Republic and early Empire, stucco was used extensively for the decoration of vaults. Though marble was the preferred sculptural medium in most regards, stucco

4092-578: The classical period of Islamic civilization . It was built in 876–879 AD in a style inspired by the Abbasid capital of Samarra in Iraq . It is one of the largest mosques in Cairo and is often cited as one of the most beautiful. One of the most important and lasting institutions founded in the Fatimid period was the Mosque of al-Azhar , founded in 970 AD, which competes with the Qarawiyyin in Fes for

4216-622: The funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay in the Northern Cemetery , and the trio of monuments in the Bayn al-Qasrayn area comprising the complex of Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun , the Madrasa of al-Nasir Muhammad , and the Madrasa of Sultan Barquq . Some mosques include spolia (often columns or capitals ) from earlier buildings built by the Romans , Byzantines , or Copts . Islamic Cairo

4340-643: The plague , starting with the Black Death in the mid-14th century. Cairo's population declined and took centuries to recover, but it remained the major metropolis of the Middle East. Under the Ayyubids and the later Mamluks, the Qasaba avenue became a privileged site for the construction of religious complexes, royal mausoleums, and commercial establishments, usually sponsored by the sultan or members of

4464-562: The ruler of Mecca had rejected Fatimid authority in support of a rebellion in the Palestine region, thus undermining Fatimid claims over those sites. Accordingly, al-Hakim may have ordered the new minarets in Cairo to be hidden in order to obscure this embarrassing political setback. In another analysis, art historian Jennifer Pruitt suggested that the modification to the minarets was due to al-Hakim's shifting ideologies and policies in his later reign. Both Pruitt and Jonathan Bloom note that

4588-478: The 15th century, a merchant sponsored the construction of a third minaret for the mosque, though this minaret has not been preserved. The interior of the mosque fell into ruin over many centuries until its modern renovation, and the building was only intermittently used as a mosque. At various times, it was used as a prison for captured Franks (i.e. Latin crusaders) during the Crusades , as a stable by Saladin , as

4712-480: The 18th century. Other extant monuments from the Fatimid era include the large Mosque of al-Hakim , the al-Aqmar mosque , Juyushi Mosque , Lulua Mosque , and the Mosque of Salih Tala'i . The most prominent architectural heritage of medieval Cairo, however, dates from the Mamluk period , from 1250 to 1517 AD. The Mamluk sultans and elites were eager patrons of religious and scholarly life, commonly building religious or funerary complexes whose functions could include

4836-573: The 18th-century Sabil-kuttab of Ruqayya Dudu in the Suq al-Silah area. In 2021 the Egyptian government began a new push to renovate the old city, including the areas around the historic city gates, partly with the aim to boost tourism. The effort would also involve restoring buildings that are not officially listed as monuments and pedestrianizing some zones. In some cases the owners or tenants of certain buildings have been relocated elsewhere while restoration

4960-444: The 1920s, stucco, especially in its Neo-Renaissance and Neo-Baroque materialization, became increasingly unpopular with modern architects in some countries, resulting not only in new buildings without stucco but also in a widespread Movement  [ de ] to remove the stucco from existing tenements. Stucco was still employed in the 1950s in molded forms for decorating the joints between walls and ceilings inside houses. It

5084-486: The 1950s, dates from Badr al-Gamali's time and, according to an inscription, was also called Bab al-Tawfiq ("Gate of Success"). It would have replaced the earlier 10th-century Fatimid gate in this area. Archeologists discovered a number of ancient stones with Pharaonic inscriptions that were re-used in the gate's construction. It was likely replaced by an Ayyubid-era gate built in front of it, but as of 2008 this had not yet been excavated. Another gate further north, near

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5208-517: The Ayyubid dynasty faltered and power transitioned to a regime controlled by the Mamluks . The mamluks were soldiers who were purchased as young slaves (often from various regions of Central Eurasia ) and raised to serve in the army of the sultan. They became a mainstay of the Ayyubid military under Sultan al-Salih and eventually became powerful enough to assume control of the state for themselves in

5332-473: The Baroque concept that integrates the three classic arts , architecture , sculpture , and painting . The Greco-Buddhist art of modern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan made extensive use in monasteries and temples of stucco for three-dimensional monumental sculpture as well as reliefs. These were usually carved from a rough modelling over a framework and then painted. Similar techniques are used for

5456-560: The Fatimid Caliphate in 1171. Cairo thus returned to Sunni rule, and a new chapter in the history of Egypt, and of Cairo's urban history, opened. Salah ad-Din's reign marked the beginning of the Ayyubid dynasty , which ruled over Egypt and Syria and carried forward the fight against the Crusaders. He also embarked on the construction of an ambitious new fortified Citadel (the current Citadel of Cairo ) further south, outside

5580-506: The Fatimid period there were many gardens along the walls. A chain of gardens ran past Bab al-Nasr and the garden of al-Mukhtar al-Saqlabi existed outside Bab al-Futuh. Bab al-Nasr and Bab al-Futuh are both are on the northern section of the wall, about two hundred yards from each other. Bab al-Nasr, which translates to "the Gate of Victory," was originally called Bab al-Izz, meaning "the Gate of Glory," when constructed by Gawhar al-Siqilli. It

5704-458: The Kufic styles have differed from time to time. The mosque is said to have had twelve thousand feet of Kufic adornment. Kufic inscriptions feature on all four sides of each of the five bays of the prayer hall. The square bases of the three domes and the qibla wall (southeast wall) underneath the windows also carry the Kufic gypsum band of Quranic inscriptions. At the top, colonnades of the arches of

5828-576: The Mamluk caste which continued to exist as part of the country's elites despite the demise of the Mamluk sultanate. Cairo continued to be a major economic center and one of the empire's most important cities. It remained the principal staging point for the pilgrimage ( Hajj ) route to Mecca . While the Ottoman governors were not major patrons of architecture like the Mamluks, Cairo nonetheless continued to develop and new neighbourhoods did grow outside

5952-585: The Mamluk sultan Baybars II al-Jashankir after an earthquake in 1303 and reflect an early Mamluk style instead of an original Fatimid style. An Arabic inscription band in Naskhi script on the outer eastern flank of the northern minaret likely dates from the time of Baybars II. One of the artistic elements of the mosque are Quranic inscriptions done in floriated Kufic script – many of the inscriptions are preserved while many are lost. Of those lost, many have been replaced or restored. Due to various restorations made,

6076-413: The Ottoman period, as do a number of sabil - kuttabs (a combination of water distribution kiosk and Qur'anic reading school). Napoleon 's French army briefly occupied Egypt from 1798 to 1801, after which an Albanian officer in the Ottoman army named Muhammad Ali Pasha made Cairo the capital of an independent empire that lasted from 1805 to 1882. The city then came under British control until Egypt

6200-611: The Two Palaces"). The city's main mosque, the Mosque of al-Azhar , was founded in 972 as both a Friday mosque and as a center of learning and teaching, and is today considered one of the oldest universities in the world. The city's main street, known today as Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah Street (or al-Mu'zz street ) but historically referred to as the Qasabah or Qasaba, ran from one of the northern city gates ( Bab al-Futuh ) to

6324-589: The advance of the Fatimids and of Shi'a factions in the Middle East. In 1099 the First Crusade captured Jerusalem , and the new Crusader states became a sudden and serious threat to Egypt. New Muslim rulers such as Nur al-Din of the Turkish Zengid dynasty took charge of the overall offensive against the Crusaders. In the 12th century the weakness of the Fatimids became so severe that under

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6448-457: The al-Khayamiyya area whose name comes from the decorative textiles ( khayamiyya ) still being sold here. Much of this historic area suffers from neglect and decay, in this, one of the poorest and most overcrowded areas of the Egyptian capital. In addition, thefts of Islamic monuments and artifacts in the Al-Darb al-Ahmar district threaten their long-term preservation. In the aftermath of

6572-572: The areas of Cairo , Egypt, that were built from the Muslim conquest in 641 CE until the city's modern expansion in the 19th century during Khedive Ismail's rule, namely: the central parts within the old walled city, the historic cemeteries , the area around the Citadel of Cairo , parts of Bulaq , and Old Cairo (Arabic: مصر القديمة , lit.   'Misr al-Qadima') which dates back to Roman times and includes major Coptic Christian monuments. The name "Islamic" Cairo refers not to

6696-420: The building as well as in the wall by its excellent permeability- It is more elastic and workable than cement render. Lime itself is usually white; color comes from the aggregate or any added pigments . Lime stucco has the property of being self-healing to a limited degree because of the slight water solubility of lime (which in solution can be deposited in cracks, where it solidifies). Portland cement stucco

6820-645: The building from a ruin to a functioning mosque that can be visited by anyone, even if some of the details of the restoration remain problematic. In 2017, a new restoration project began, undertaken through a partnership between the Dawoodi Bohra community and the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities . The project encompassed various tasks such as addressing water damage, strengthening wooden structures, refurbishing chandeliers, installing security cameras, and updating electrical wiring. Efforts were made to restore

6944-412: The city ablaze. While historians debate the extent of the destruction (as Fustat appears to have continued to exist after this), the burning of Fustat nonetheless marks a pivotal moment in the decline of that city, which was later eclipsed by Cairo itself. Eventually, Salah ad-Din (Saladin), a Zengid commander who was given the position of al-'Adid's vizier in Cairo, declared the end and dismantlement of

7068-516: The commander 'Amr ibn al-'As . Although Alexandria was the capital of Egypt at that time (and had been throughout the Ptolemaic , Roman , and Byzantine periods), the Arab conquerors decided to establish a new city called Fustat to serve as the administrative capital and military garrison center of Egypt. The new city was located near a Roman-Byzantine fortress known as Babylon on the shores of

7192-528: The construction of the modern Suez Canal . Along with this enterprise, he also undertook the construction of a vast new city in European style to the north and west of the historic center of Cairo. The new city emulated Haussman 's 19th-century reforms of Paris , with grand boulevards and squares being part of the planning and layout. Although never fully completed to the extent of Isma'il's vision, this new city composes much of Downtown Cairo today. This left

7316-436: The crenellations found at the older Ibn Tulun Mosque. The northern minaret was later incorporated into the city wall by Badr al-Jamali in 1087, at which point the Kufic inscription on its encasing bastion was either moved to or recarved on the outside of the city wall. The inner (original) minaret towers have a multi-tier design with different forms: the northern minaret has a square base and a cylindrical shaft above it, whereas

7440-788: The current portal was reconstructed during the mosque's modern restoration according to earlier descriptions provided by K. A. C. Creswell . The most spectacular feature of the mosque is the minarets on either side of the facade. The northern minaret is 33.7 meters high while the southern minaret is 24.7 meters high. The minarets were originally built in 1003, but the massive bastion towers or salients (referred to as arkān in Arabic sources) that define their lower parts today were added in 1010, after their initial construction, for reasons that remain unclear. The two bastions, built of brick, are shaped like two superimposed cubic sections with an austere appearance and little decoration. The center of these bastions

7564-574: The development of Cairo's urban character was the growing number of waqf establishments, especially during the Mamluk period . Waqfs were charitable trusts under Islamic law which set out the function, operations, and funding sources of the many religious/civic establishments built by the ruling elite. They were typically drawn up to define complex religious or civic buildings which combined various functions (e.g. mosque, madrasa , mausoleum, sebil ) and which were often funded with revenues from urban commercial buildings or rural agricultural estates. By

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7688-460: The east, on the wall salient around the northern minaret of the al-Hakim Mosque. Inside Bab al-Futuh, through its eastern flanking doorway, is the tomb of an unidentified figure, and through its western flanking doorway is a long vaulted chamber. The third surviving gate, Bab Zuwayla, sits in the southern section of the wall. Badr al-Gamali rebuilt the original Bab Zuwayla further south than Gawhar al-Siqilli's original gate. A neighboring mosque,

7812-448: The eastern wall was built out of mudbrick, while the gates were built in stone. Since 1999, the preserved northern section of Fatimid walls has been cleared of debris and part of a local urban regeneration. The founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, Salah ad-Din, restored and/or reconstructed the Fatimid walls and gates in 1170 or 1171. He reconstructed parts of the Fatimid walls, including the eastern wall. In 1176, he then began embarked on

7936-458: The finish coat before drying, with the finished product commonly known as "rock dash", "pebble dash", or also as roughcast if the stones are incorporated directly into the stucco, used mainly from the early 20th through the early 21st centuries. As a building material, stucco is a durable, attractive, and weather-resistant wall covering. It was traditionally used as both an interior and exterior finish applied in one or two thin layers directly over

8060-474: The first time since Roman rule was established in 30 BC. Ibn Tulun founded his own new administrative capital in 870, called al-Qata'i , just northwest of al-Askar. It included a new grand palace (still called Dar al-'Imara ), a hippodrome or military parade ground, amenities such as a hospital ( bimaristan ), and a great mosque which survives to this day, known as the Mosque of Ibn Tulun , built between 876 and 879. Ibn Tulun died in 884 and his sons ruled for

8184-552: The head of the Dawoodi Bohra , an international Shia sect based in India . The restoration took 27 months and the mosque was officially re-opened on 24 November 1980, in a ceremony attended by Egyptian president Anwar Sadat , Mohammed Burhanuddin, and other high-ranking Egyptian officials. Remnants of the original decorations, including stucco carvings, timber tie-beams, and Quranic inscriptions were preserved, but most of

8308-521: The helicoidal vaults being the first of their kind in this architectural context. The façade of Bab al-Nasr has a frieze containing Kufic inscriptions in white marble, including a foundation inscription and the Shi'a version of the Shahada which was representative of the Fatimid caliphate's religious beliefs. Bab al-Futuh features no inscriptions on the gate itself, but an inscription can be seen nearby to

8432-599: The important role of trade and commerce in Cairo's economy. The most famous and best-preserved example is the Wikala al-Ghuri , which nowadays also hosts regular performances by the Al- Tannoura Egyptian Heritage Dance Troupe. The famous Khan al-Khalili is a famous souq and commercial hub which also integrated caravanserais. Another example of historic commercial architecture is the 17th-century Qasaba of Radwan Bay , now part of

8556-456: The initiative of their governor Abu 'Aun. The city was completed with the foundation of a grand mosque (called Jami' al-'Askar ) in 786, and included a palace for the governor's residence, known as the Dar al-'Imara. Nothing of this city remains today, but the foundation of new administrative capitals just outside the main city became a recurring pattern in the history of the area. Ahmad Ibn Tulun

8680-586: The inscriptions on the original minaret towers (from 1003), which include Qur'anic verses that feature prominently in the Ismai'ili ta'wīl of the Qur'an, differ strongly from the inscriptions on the outer towers (from 1010), which include Qur'anic verses that are focused on universal justice and on criticizing unbelievers . According to Pruitt, these latter inscriptions are relevant to al-Hakim's puritanical policies in his later years as well as his unusual order to destroy

8804-538: The last Fatmid Caliph, al-'Adid , they requested help from the Zengids to protect themselves from the King of Jerusalem , Amalric , while at the same time attempting to collude with the latter to keep the Zengids in check. In 1168, as the Crusaders marched on Cairo, the Fatimid vizier Shawar , worried that the unfortified city of Fustat would be used as a base from which to besiege Cairo, ordered its evacuation and then set

8928-461: The late 11th century, the Fatimid vizier Badr al-Gamali ordered a reconstruction of the walls primarily out of stone and further outward than before to expand the space within Cairo's walls. Construction began in 1087. The architectural elements of the walls were informed by Badr al-Gamali's Armenian background, and were innovative in the context of Islamic military architecture in Egypt. The walls are composed of three vertical levels. The lower level

9052-618: The late 15th century Cairo also had high-rise mixed-use buildings (known as a rab' , a khan or a wikala , depending on exact function) where the two lower floors were typically for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to tenants . Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, under Selim I , and remained under Ottoman rule for centuries. During this period, local elites fought ceaselessly among themselves for political power and influence; some of them of Ottoman origin, others from

9176-555: The later part of this period, may have influenced the future Fatimids' choice of location for their capital, since one of Kafur's great gardens along the Khalij canal was incorporated into the later Fatimid palaces. The Fatimids , an Isma'ili Shi'a caliphate which was based in Ifriqiya (Tunisia), conquered Egypt in 969 CE during the reign of Caliph al-Mu'izz . Their army, composed mostly of North African Kutama Berbers ,

9300-472: The life-size statues decorating the gopurams of Hindu temples in modern South Asia . Since stucco can be used for decoration as well as for figurative representation, it provides an ideal transitive link from architectural details to wall paintings such as the typically Baroque trompe-l'œil ceilings, as in the work of the Wessobrunner School . Here, the real architecture of the church

9424-649: The location of Fustat at the intersection of Lower Egypt (the Nile Delta ) and Upper Egypt (the Nile Valley further south) made it a strategic place from which to control a country that was centered on the Nile river, much as the Ancient Egyptian city of Memphis (located just south of Cairo today) had done. (The pattern of founding new garrison cities inland was also one that was repeated throughout

9548-436: The main prayer hall on the southeast side is five aisles deep. This layout is similar to the layout of the older Ibn Tulun Mosque and the al-Azhar Mosque. A special aisle, running perpendicular to the others, cuts across the five aisles of the prayer hall and leads towards the mihrab (niche indicating the qibla or direction of prayer). This central aisle is further emphasized by its greater width and height, as well as by

9672-471: The minarets were modified by the construction of large square bastions around them, which hid much of the original towers. The chronology of construction in the mosque's interior and the determination of exactly which part was built by which patron, is uncertain. Finally, its inauguration took place in Ramadan of the year 1013. It measured 120 meters by 113 meters when it was finished and was more than double

9796-460: The mosque are embellished with a gypsum band of floriated Kufic inscriptions of the Quran which averages approximately 52 cms in width. Islamic Cairo Islamic Cairo ( Arabic : قاهرة المعز , romanized :  Qāhira al-Muʿizz , lit.   ' Al-Mu'izz's Cairo'), or Medieval Cairo , officially Historic Cairo (القاهرة التاريخية al-Qāhira tārīkhiyya ), refers mostly to

9920-459: The mosque of al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh, has two minarets that sit on top of the two towers that flank the Bab Zuwayla. Similar to Bab al-Nasr and Bab al-Futuh, Bab Zuwayla was also adjacent to gardens, namely the gardens of Qanṭara al-Kharq. One of the eastern gates of the city, part of the Ayyubid reconstruction of the walls, was also uncovered in 1998 and subsequently studied and restored. It has

10044-524: The mosque's facades, marble floors, and interior inscriptions. The mosque was reopened after restorations in February 2023. On June 25, 2023, Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi visited the mosque along with Prime Minister of Egypt, Mostafa Madbouly and son of Mufaddal Saifuddin , Husain Burhanuddin . The facades and minarets of the mosque are made from stone, while the rest of the structure

10168-574: The mosque's present interior dates from this reconstruction. Among other things, the restoration introduced a new marble mihrab whose motifs imitated the appearance of the Fatimid-era stucco mihrab in the al-Azhar Mosque. It also involved the demolition of the Mamluk-era tomb of Qurqumas, which stood right in front of the mosque and which was subsequently relocated to the Northern Cemetery . The use of "unauthentic" materials and additions during

10292-401: The northeast corner of the walls, was known as Bab al-Jadid up to the present day and thus possibly contributed to confusion over the identification of the Ayyubid gate uncovered in 1998, with which it shares a similar layout. Salah ad-Din (Saladin) began the construction of an extensive Citadel in 1176 to serve as Egypt's seat of power, with construction finishing under his successors. It

10416-508: The old city walls. Ottoman architecture in Cairo continued to be heavily influenced and derived from the local Mamluk-era traditions rather than presenting a clear break with the past. Some individuals, such as Abd ar-Rahman Katkhuda al-Qazdaghli, a mamluk official among the Janissaries in the 18th century, were prolific architectural patrons. Many old bourgeois or aristocratic mansions that have been preserved in Cairo today date from

10540-564: The old historic districts of Cairo, including the walled city, relatively neglected. Even the Citadel lost its status as the royal residence when Isma'il moved to the new Abdin Palace in 1874. While the first mosque in Egypt was the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in Fustat , the Mosque of Ibn Tulun is the oldest mosque to retain its original form and is a rare example of Abbasid architecture, from

10664-476: The older Fatimid-built Great Mosque of Mahdia in present-day Tunisia and most likely similar to the original entrance (no longer extant) of al-Azhar Mosque. The decoration and high-quality stonework of the portal, however, was quite different from that of other Fatimid mosques of this period. Scholar Doris Behrens-Abouseif suggests that this may be due to the employ of foreign craftsmen, perhaps from Syria. The mosque's original Fatimid portal has not been preserved;

10788-429: The plaster something to attach to and to add strength. Types include expanded-metal lath, woven-wire lath, and welded-wire lath. If applied during very dry weather, the layers of stucco are sprayed with water for one or more days to keep a level of moisture within the stucco while it cures, a process known as "moist curing". If the stucco dries too soon, the chemical hardening ("hydration") will be incomplete, resulting in

10912-472: The porous stucco. Following World War II , the introduction of metal wire mesh , or netting, replaced the use of wood lath. Galvanizing the wire made it corrosion resistant and suitable for exterior wall applications. At the beginning of the 21st century, this "traditional" method of wire mesh lath and three coats of exterior plaster was still widely used. In some parts of the United States with

11036-421: The presence of a dome, carried on squinches , that covers the space directly in front of the mihrab. In addition to the main mihrab (which dates entirely from the 1980 restoration), another smaller mihrab to the right, covered in polychrome marble, was added by 'Umar Makram in 1808. An unusual feature of the mosque is the monumental main entrance (on the western side) with its projecting stone portal, similar to

11160-742: The rehabilitation of the 14th-century Mosque of Amir al-Maridani in Al-Darb al-Ahmar, which began in 2018 and whose first phase was completed in 2021, led in part by the AKTC with additional funding from the European Union . Between 2009 and 2015 the World Monuments Fund and the AKTC completed a restoration of the 14th-century Mosque of Amir Aqsunqur (also known as the Blue Mosque). Another project completed in 2021 has restored

11284-455: The remaining course of the wall. More sections of the wall were completed by 1218, but by 1238 work was apparently still ongoing. Many gates existed along the walls of Fatimid Cairo, but only three remain today: Bab al-Nasr, Bab al-Futuh, and Bab Zuwayla (with "Bab" translating to "gate"). A restoration project from 2001 to 2003 successfully restored the three gates and parts of the northern wall between Bab al-Nasr and Bab al-Futuh. During

11408-522: The remains of which still stand today and were expanded under later Ayyubid rule. The late 11th century was also a time of major events and developments in the region. It was at this time that the Great Seljuk (Turkish) Empire took over much of the eastern Islamic world. The arrival of the Turks , who were mainly Sunni Muslims , was a long-term factor in the so-called " Sunni Revival " which reversed

11532-480: The restoration has been criticized by scholars and conservationists, particularly when judged by the standards of the Venice Charter . The issue has elicited scholarly debate about the relative merits of different philosophies on the restoration and reconstruction of historic sites. Some scholars, like James Roy King and Bernard O'Kane , have noted that the restoration has at least had the benefit of converting

11656-496: The rival Sunni Abbasid Caliphate. During the reign of Caliph al-Mustansir (1036–1094), the longest of any Muslim ruler, the Fatimid Empire reached its peak but also began its decline. A few strong viziers , acting on behalf of the caliphs, managed to revive the empire's power on occasion. The Armenian vizier Badr al-Jamali (in office from 1073–1094) notably rebuilt the walls of Cairo in stone, with monumental gates,

11780-479: The ruling class. This is also where the major souqs of Cairo developed, forming its main economic zone of international trade and commercial activity. As the main street became saturated with shops and space for further development there ran out, new commercial structures were built further east, close to al-Azhar Mosque and to the shrine of al-Hussein , where the souq area of Khan al-Khalili , still present today, progressively developed. One important factor in

11904-423: The same period, another initiative launched by the AKTC focused on revitalizing the Al-Darb al-Ahmar neighbourhood following the construction of the nearby al-Azhar Park. This project aimed for a more bottom-up approach to improve the community's urban fabric and the socioeconomic situation of residents, as well as involving more public and private participation. Examples of more recent restoration projects include

12028-556: The size of the al-Azhar Mosque . Al-Hakim allocated 40,000 dinars to the construction and then another 5,000 dinars to its furnishings. The al-Hakim Mosque was also known by an epithet, al-Anwar ('the Illuminated'), similar in style to the name of the earlier al-Azhar Mosque founded by the Fatimids. At the time of inauguration, al-Hakim permitted a celebratory procession which made its way from al-Azhar to al-Anwar and from al-Anwar back to al-Azhar. The mosque originally stood outside

12152-455: The southern gate ( Bab Zuweila ) and passed between the palaces via Bayn al-Qasrayn. Under the Fatimids, however, Cairo was a royal city which was closed to the common people and inhabited only by the Caliph's family, state officials, army regiments, and other people necessary to the operations of the regime and its city. Fustat remained for some time the main economic and urban center of Egypt. It

12276-432: The southern minaret is composed of a taller square base with an octagonal shaft above it. These sections, now hidden, have extensive carved decoration: the northern tower with horizontal bands with lozenge motifs, whereas the southern tower has decoration similar to the mosque's main entrance, including a carved inscription in floriated Kufic that mentions al-Hakim's name and the date of construction. The design of these towers

12400-486: The structural framing, is embedded into the base coat to provide stiffening for the stucco. Where stucco is to be applied to a structure of wood-framing or light-gauge steel framing, the framing is protected from moisture damage by applying a cement based primer, or a vapor-permeable, water-resistant weather barrier; typically an asphalt -saturated paper or one of a variety of manufactured plastic-based sheets, known as " building wraps " or "stucco wraps". The properties of

12524-487: The structural properties of the stucco. This is usually done with what is considered a one-coat stucco system, as opposed to the traditional three-coat method. In the latter nineteenth century, Portland cement was added with increasing frequency to cover surfaces in contact with soil or water. At the same time, traditional lime plasters were often being replaced by gypsum plaster. Lime is almost as good in balancing humidity as clay. It prevents moisture accumulation inside

12648-493: The thickness and number of layers of the total system. The lath added support for the wet plaster and tensile strength to the brittle, cured stucco; while the increased thickness and number of layers helped control cracking. The traditional application of stucco and lath occurs in three coats—the scratch coat, the brown coat and the finish coat. The two base coats of plaster are either hand-applied or machine sprayed. The finish coat can be troweled smooth, hand-textured, floated to

12772-690: The time of construction, the only other mosques that had multiple minarets and had minarets with multi-level designs were the Haram Mosque in Mecca and the Prophet's Mosque in Medina , both located in the Hijaz under Fatimid control at the time. O'Kane suggests that the minarets of al-Hakim's Mosque were designed to reflect and symbolize Fatimid sovereignty over those holy sites at the time. However, by 1010,

12896-570: The time. Despite being a largely military caste, the Mamluks were prolific builders and sponsors of religious and civic buildings. An extensive number of Cairo's historical monuments date from their era, including many of the most impressive. The city also prospered from the control of trade routes between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean . After the reign of al-Nasir, however, Egypt and Cairo were struck by repeated epidemics of

13020-408: The title of oldest university in the world. Today, al-Azhar University is the foremost center of Islamic learning in the world and one of Egypt's largest universities with campuses across the country. The mosque itself retains significant Fatimid elements but has been added to and expanded in subsequent centuries, notably by the Mamluk sultans Qaitbay and al-Ghuri and by Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda in

13144-558: The vast cemetery areas known as the City of the Dead or al-Qarafa in Arabic, which adjoin the historic city. The cemeteries date back to the foundation of Fustat, but many of the most prominent and famous mausoleum structures are from the Mamluk era. When Cairo was founded as a palace-city in 969 by the Fatimid Caliphate, Gawhar al-Siqilli, a Fatimid general, led the construction of the city's original walls out of mudbrick . Later, during

13268-531: The wall were built, including the section to the north of the Citadel and a section near Fustat in south. Al-Maqrizi , a writer from the later Mamluk period, reports several details about the construction. In 1185–6, the wall around Fustat was being built. In 1192, a trench was being built for the eastern fortifications, by which time some of the eastern wall and its towers were probably in place. Work continued after Salah ad-Din's death under his successors, al-'Adil and al-Kamil . In 1200, orders went out to dig

13392-415: The walled city, which would house Egypt's rulers and state administration for many centuries thereafter. This ended Cairo's status as an exclusive palace-city and started a process by which the city became an economic center inhabited by common Egyptians and open to foreign travelers. Over the subsequent centuries, Cairo developed into a full-scale urban center. The decline of Fustat over the same period paved

13516-435: The walls of Cairo, but when the Fatimid vizier Badr al-Jamali rebuilt and extended the city walls in 1087, the northern side of the mosque, including its minaret, was incorporated into the northern city wall (between the newly-built gates of Bab al-Futuh and Bab al-Nasr ). A ziyada , or a walled outer enclosure, was also added around the mosque later, begun by Caliph al-Zahir (r. 1021 – 1036) but completed much later under

13640-590: The way for its ascendance. The Ayyubid sultans and their Mamluk successors, who were Sunni Muslims eager to erase the influence of the Shi'a Fatimids, progressively demolished and replaced the great Fatimid palaces with their own buildings. The Al-Azhar Mosque was converted to a Sunni institution, and today it is the foremost center for the study of the Qur'an and Islamic law in the Sunni Islamic world. In 1250

13764-404: The weather barrier must not only protect the framing from rain and moisture, but at the same time allow the free passage of any water vapor generated inside the building to escape through the wall. A wide variety of stucco accessories, such as weep screeds , control and expansion joints, corner-aids and architectural reveals are sometimes also incorporated into the lath. Wire lath is used to give

13888-536: Was a Turkish military commander who had served the Abbasid caliphs in Samarra during a long crisis of Abbasid power. He became governor of Egypt in 868 but quickly became its de facto independent ruler, while still acknowledging the Abbasid caliph's symbolic authority. He grew so influential that the caliph later allowed him to also take control of Syria in 878. During this period of Tulunid rule (under Ibn Tulun and his sons), Egypt became an independent state for

14012-472: Was also completed in 1999 by independent Egyptian conservators with funding from the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development , a Kuwaiti organisation. By 2010, about 100 of the 149 monuments designated by the HCRP had been restored. The HCRP has also been criticized, however, for creating an open-air museum geared towards tourists while imparting few benefits on the surrounding community. Around

14136-422: Was better for use in vaults because it was lighter and better suited to adapt to the curvature of the ceiling. Baroque and Rococo architecture makes heavy use of stucco. Examples can be found in churches and palaces, where stucco is mostly used to provide a smooth, decorative transition from walls to ceiling, decorating and giving measure to ceiling surfaces. Stucco is an integral part of the art of belcomposto ,

14260-504: Was elevated above the street and contained the vestibules of the gates, which were accessible by ramps. The second level contained halls that connected different galleries and rooms. The third level was the terrace level, protected by parapets, where, near gates, belvederes were built for the caliph and his court to use. Although it was previously thought that the entirety of Badr al-Gamali's walls were built in stone, more recent archeological findings have confirmed that at least part of

14384-453: Was generally painted the same colour as the ceiling and used in designs where a picture rail or rat rail was in use. Modern stucco is used as an exterior cement plaster wall covering. It is usually a mix of sand , Portland cement , lime and water, but may also consist of a proprietary mix of additives including fibers and synthetic acrylics that add strength and flexibility. Modern synthetic stucco can be applied as one base layer and

14508-470: Was granted its independence in 1922. Under Muhammad Ali's rule the Citadel of Cairo was completely refurbished. Many of its disused Mamluk monuments were demolished to make way for his new mosque (the Mosque of Muhammad Ali ) and other palaces. Muhammad Ali's dynasty also introduced a more purely Ottoman style of architecture , mainly in the late Ottoman Baroque style of the time. One of his grandsons, Isma'il , as Khedive between 1864 and 1879, oversaw

14632-464: Was highly original and would have made them distinctive from other minarets that existed in this part of the Islamic world at the time. The reasons behind al-Hakim's decision to encase the original minarets in thick outer walls, while still preserving the original towers inside, have been debated by scholars. Bernard O'Kane has proposed that the reason for the unusual decision to encase the minarets in these bastions may have been political and symbolic. At

14756-446: Was initiated by the 5th Fatimid caliph al-ʿAziz Billah in the year 990 CE and the first Friday prayers took place in it a year later, though the building was incomplete. This suggests that the prayer hall or sanctuary, the area where prayers were led, was probably built first. His successor, al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh , and his overseer Abu Muhammad al-Hafiz 'Abd al-Ghani ibn Sa'id al-Misri, resumed construction work in 1002–1003. In 1010,

14880-475: Was led by the general Jawhar al-Siqilli . In 970, under instructions from al-Mu'izz, Jawhar planned, founded, and constructed a new city to serve as the residence and center of power for the Fatimid Caliphs. The city was named al-Mu'izziyya al-Qaahirah ( Arabic : المعزية القاهرة ), the "Victorious City of al-Mu'izz", later simply called "al-Qahira", which gave us the modern name of Cairo . The city

15004-492: Was located northeast of Fustat and of the previous administrative capitals built by Ibn Tulun and the Abbasids. Jawhar organized the new city so that at its center were the Great Palaces that housed the caliphs, their household, and the state's institutions. Two main palaces were completed: an eastern one (the largest of the two) and a western one, between which was an important plaza known as Bayn al-Qasrayn ("Between

15128-454: Was only later that Cairo grew to absorb other local cities, including Fustat, but the year 969 is sometimes considered the "founding year" of the current city. Al-Mu'izz, and with him the administrative apparatus of the Fatimid Caliphate, left his former capital of Mahdia , Tunisia, in 972 and arrived in Cairo in June 973. The Fatimid Empire quickly grew powerful enough to stand as a threat to

15252-503: Was reconstructed by Badr al-Gamali between 1087 and 1092 about two hundred meters from the original site and was given its new name. Similarly, Bab al-Futuh was originally called Bab al-Iqbal, or "the Gate of Prosperity," and was later renamed Bab al-Futuh by Badr al-Gamali. Bab al-Nasr is flanked by two towers of square shape, with shield insignias carved into the stone, while Bab al-Futuh is flanked by round towers. The vaulted stone ceilings inside Bab al-Nasr are innovative in design, with

15376-479: Was used in the architectural decoration schemes of many ancient cultures. Examples of Egyptian , Minoan , and Etruscan stucco reliefs remain extant. In the art of Mesopotamia and ancient Persian art there was a widespread tradition of figurative and ornamental internal stucco reliefs, which continued into Islamic art , for example in Abbasid Samarra , now using geometrical and plant-based ornament. As

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