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101-445: 29°30′N 39°30′E  /  29.500°N 39.500°E  / 29.500; 39.500 Al-Jawf Province ( Arabic : منطقة الجوف Minṭaqat al-Jawf pronounced [alˈdʒoːf]), also spelled Al-Jouf , is one of the provinces of Saudi Arabia , located in the north of the country, partially bordered by Jordan to the west. It is one of the earliest inhabited regions of Arabian Peninsula , with evidence of human habitation dating back to

202-575: A collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the Iron Age . Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat al-Faw , in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as

303-435: A corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya . Arabic spread with the spread of Islam . Following the early Muslim conquests , Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish . In the early Abbasid period , many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom . By

404-1081: A dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet . The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek , Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian , have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish . Arabic has influenced languages across the globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian , Turkish , Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ), Kashmiri , Kurdish , Bosnian , Kazakh , Bengali , Malay ( Indonesian and Malaysian ), Maldivian , Pashto , Punjabi , Albanian , Armenian , Azerbaijani , Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog , Sindhi , Odia , Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa , Amharic , Tigrinya , Somali , Tamazight , and Swahili . Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to

505-431: A force of 2,000 chariots, there is some archeological evidence that supports the biblical account. Archeological excavations conducted by The Oriental Institute at Tel Meggido uncovered a large complex of stables. Some scholars suggest that these were not actually stables, but scholars such as Yadin, Finkelstein, and Ussishkin, say that they are indeed stables. The stables they uncovered housed 150 chariots and were dated to

606-686: A large area in the second half of the fifth century BC including southern Palestine , the Sinai Peninsula , the southern regions of eastern Jordan , and parts of the Hejaz . Both the Bible and Herodotus record that the Qederite Geshem the Arabian feuded with Nehemiah over whether to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem in 445 BC. Silver vessels have been uncovered near Pithom that bear

707-487: A lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world, and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users. It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims . In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic

808-690: A millennium before the modern period . Early lexicographers ( لُغَوِيُّون lughawiyyūn ) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran. They gathered shawāhid ( شَوَاهِد 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin ʾaʿrāb  [ ar ] ( أَعْراب ) who were perceived to speak

909-856: A part of the Shararat tribe settled in the region. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia signed an agreement with the Kingdom of Jordan which was known as the Amman Agreement in 1965 to delineate the borders in the north of the Hijaz and confirm the previous agreement. In 1991, the zoning system was issued during the reign of King Fahd bin Abdulaziz Al Saud , and the Qurayyat region merged with the Jawf region and Tabuk region. The system also resulted in

1010-594: A result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese , Catalan , and Sicilian ) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from

1111-462: A script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic . On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B , Thamudic D, Safaitic , and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic . Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic",

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1212-470: A single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages . This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for

1313-507: A type of Arabic. Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia , which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means

1414-507: A variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects , which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran , used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate . Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh ) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as

1515-476: A wider audience." In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism , pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted

1616-504: Is 135 km. It flows into the Valley of Sirhan , Wadi Al-Ayli is the largest of Harra Al-Harra and one of Siran valleys . There are also other valleys, such as: Wadi Al-Shuhatiyah, Wadi Al-Merir, Wadi Hasida, Wadi Baar, Wadi Al-Safa, Wadi Hadraj, Wadi Al-Moi, and Wadi Al-Bayer. Other than the valleys, there are Khabara ( Swamps ). The most famous one is Khabara Al-Amhas, which is a land where rainwater collects, some plants grow in, and

1717-737: Is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world . The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic , including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic , which is derived from Classical Arabic . This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā ( اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ "the eloquent Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā ( اَلْفُصْحَىٰ ). Arabic

1818-590: Is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak

1919-559: Is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor. Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula , as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece . In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It

2020-566: Is a subject of controversy among scholars, since it seems unlikely that the Kingdom of Israel could possess an army superior to that of the Kingdom of Aram-Damascus . The number of chariots in Ahab's forces was probably closer to a number in the hundreds (based upon archaeological excavations of the area and the foundations of stables that have been found). Although some scholars have argued that Israel under king Ahab would not have been able to muster

2121-534: Is an Akkadian term meant to symbolize any kind of alliance. The most famous example is in the Kurkh Monoliths , where an alliance of 11 kings are listed as 12 in the Assyrian document as fighting against Assyrian King Shalmaneser III in the battle of Qarqar. Shalmaneser's inscription describes the forces of his opponent Hadadezer in considerable detail as follows: The number of forces sent in by Ahab

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2222-478: Is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz , Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in

2323-691: Is bordered by three Saudi administrative regions which are the Northern Border region to the north and east, the Hail region to the southeast, the Tabuk region to the southwest, and one country is the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan to the north and northwest. There are many lava fields, hills and mountains in the region, such as: The Great Nafud desert is located in the Al-Jouf region, which

2424-408: Is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody . Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries. The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al - Kitāb , is based first of all upon

2525-472: Is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar , or an-naḥw ( النَّحو "the way" ), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants ( نقط الإعجام nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization ( التشكيل at-tashkīl ). Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn ( كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter ع "), and

2626-412: Is located in the desert of Hammad. There also are many Sabkhas . The most popular is Sabkah Hadhodha, which is located near Al-Issawiya and covers an area of 540 km2, thus making it the largest Sabkhas of the kingdom's. Al-Jouf is also famous for Dumat al-Jandal Lake, and it is 585 meters above sea level, with an area of one million and one hundred thousand square meters. Al-Jawf region falls within

2727-574: Is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film 'film' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy'). The current preference

2828-855: Is official in Mali and recognized as a minority language in Morocco, while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it. Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic ) Malta and written with the Latin script . Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic , though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not

2929-481: Is one of the most fertile regions in Saudi Arabia. The area around the town of Tabarjal is known as a national breadbasket due to the variety of crops grown there. Unlike most of the country, parts of Al-Jawf boast a moderate climate, fertile soil, and abundant groundwater, allowing for the unusually high levels of agricultural activity seen in the region. The province is famous for cultivating olive trees and

3030-546: Is responsible for approximately 67% of the olive oil made in the Kingdom. Al-Jawf is also home to the widespread cultivation of palm trees and produces approximately 150,000 tons of dates every year. The word "Al-Jawf" refers to land that has widened and collapsed into a broad cavity . The name is not unique in the Arabian Peninsula and is also used for Yemen's Al Jawf Governorate . The word has been used to refer to locations in Yamamah and Diyar Saad. Other regions bearing

3131-457: Is that the forces attributed to Ahab include those belonging to his allies, such as the Kingdom of Judah , the Kingdom of Tyre and the Kingdom of Moab , although those kingdoms are not named in the monolith. The Battle according to Shalmaneser: With the supreme forces which Aššur, my lord, had given me and with the mighty weapons which the divine standard, which goes before me, had granted me, I fought with them. I decisively defeated them from

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3232-572: Is the third most widespread official language after English and French, one of six official languages of the United Nations , and the liturgical language of Islam . Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media. During the Middle Ages , Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As

3333-590: Is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ( فُصْحَى fuṣḥá ) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that

3434-413: Is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots ( استماتة istimātah ' apoptosis ', using the root موت m/w/t 'death' put into

3535-524: Is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era , especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while

3636-445: The Lisān al-ʻArab ). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary

3737-722: The Islamic conquest of Al-Jawf . Following the region's Islamization it fell under the control of the Tayy tribe. Al-Jawf was incorporated into the third Saudi state at the time of its formation in 1932. In the 20th century the region was a site of conflict between the Al-Rashid family and the Al-Shaalan family, though it eventually came under the rule of King Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud . The Al-Jawf region

3838-700: The Stone Age and the Acheulean tool culture. Human settlement continued unbroken throughout the Copper Age , a period that saw the kingdom of Qidar fight against the Assyrian state for its independence. It is also in this period that references to Arabs first appear in historical texts. A Christian kingdom later emerged under the rule of the Bani Kalb tribe and survived until the arrival of Islam and

3939-568: The Xth form , or جامعة jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to

4040-494: The northern Hejaz . These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor , Proto-Arabic . The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence: On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic. Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic: Classical Arabic

4141-419: The "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Quran was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In

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4242-744: The "purest," most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah ( جمع اللغة 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries. Kitāb al-'Ayn ( c.  8th century ), attributed to Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi , is considered the first lexicon to include all Arabic roots ; it sought to exhaust all possible root permutations —later called taqālīb ( تقاليب ) — calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal ( مستعمَل ) and those that are not used muhmal ( مُهمَل ). Lisān al-ʿArab (1290) by Ibn Manzur gives 9,273 roots, while Tāj al-ʿArūs (1774) by Murtada az-Zabidi gives 11,978 roots. Battle of Qarqar The ancient town of Qarqar at which

4343-454: The 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus , the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression." According to James L. Gelvin , " Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to

4444-682: The 16th century. In 1521 the Ottoman Empire agreed to pay the Tayy tribe to cease their attacks on the Hajj route. Al-Jawf was incorporated into the first Saudi state in 1793 during the reign of Imam Abdul Aziz bin Muhammad . The incorporation of the region was not achieved peacefully; Imam Muhammad sent an army to the Al Jawf that conquered three towns, killed many local civilians, and besieged

4545-571: The 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ( Zabad , Jebel Usays , Harran , Umm el-Jimal ). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of

4646-834: The 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides , the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic —Arabic written in Hebrew script . Ibn Jinni of Mosul , a pioneer in phonology , wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif , Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab , and Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ    [ ar ] . Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized

4747-478: The 9th century BCE, which would align with the reign of King Ahab. If Ahab had stables of this size throughout his kingdom, it would suggest that he would be able to raise a substantial force. A building complex similar to the one at Megiddo was also uncovered at the city of Be’er Shiva . Archaeologist Nadav Na'aman believes it to be a scribal error in regard to the size of Ahab's army and suggested that he sent 200 instead of 2,000 chariots. Another possible explanation

4848-730: The Assyrians from Dumat al-Jandal. Esarhaddon accepted and appointed the Princess Tabua as Hazael's co-regent. Yatia succeeded Hazael as King of Qedarites and was quickly met with a rebellion demanding independence from the Assyrians. The rebellion was ultimately suppressed by Assyrian forces. King Yatia in turn rebelled against Esarhaddon while the latter was campaigning in Egypt against the Pharaoh Taharqa . Esarhaddon's army defeated Yatia and once again seized sacred relics from

4949-412: The Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises." Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around

5050-718: The Nabataean Kingdom was conquered by the Roman Emperor Trajan and turned into Arabia Petraea . The former Qaderite capital of Dumat al-Jandal continued to serve as a major regional urban center into the Byzantine era and was home to a major marketplace. Following Byzantine rule Al-Jawf came under the control of the Kalb tribe and then the Kingdom of Kinda . Muhammad invaded al-Jawf twice as part of his Arab conquests between 622 and 632. Following

5151-574: The Orontes river with their corpses as with a causeway. In the midst of the battle I took away from them chariots, cavalry, and teams of horses. However, the royal inscriptions from this period are notoriously unreliable. They never directly acknowledge defeats and sometimes claim victories that were actually won by ancestors or predecessors. If Shalmaneser had won a clear victory at Qarqar, it did not immediately lead to further Assyrian conquests in Syria. Assyrian records make it clear that he campaigned in

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5252-519: The Qedarites, but the move backfired as Abb Yatia backed Ashurbanipal's older brother Shamash-shum-ukin when he launched a rebellion to usurp the throne in 652 BC. Abb Yatia failed to enter Babylon with his army and was routed by forces loyal to Ashurbanipal . After once again pleading fealty to the Assyrian crown he was allowed to remain King of Qedar. Abb Yatia rebelled once again with the support of

5353-508: The Qederites, though Yatia himself survived. Esarhaddon was succeeded by his son Ashurbanipal in 668 BC, and following Ashurbanipal's ascension to the throne King Yatia travelled to Ninevah to request the return of the sacred relics and swear loyalty to the Assyrian state. Following the return of the relics, however, Yatia refused to pay tribute to Assyria and launched a revolt against Assyrian suzerainty. Ashurbanipal sent an army that crushed

5454-639: The Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into " Classical Arabic ". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz , which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra , most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from

5555-644: The Qurayyat region to Saudi Arabia and protect Saudi trade with Syria. That agreement was known as the Hada agreement. After the annexation of the Hijaz, the Qurayyat region was known as the "Emirate of Qurayyat and the Northern Border Inspectorate." At the end of 1931, King Abdulaziz appointed governor for the second time Turki bin Ahmed Al-Sudairy a prince on Al-Jouf, and he moved the capital from Dumat al-Jandal to Sakaka . One of

5656-576: The Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb , a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq , much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages. With

5757-416: The Saudi state. Ibn Battah was appointed a follower of Abdullah al-Tamimi, the emir of al-Jawf, The Emirate of Transjordan, however, rejected this. It saw that it was more deserving to rule the Qurayyat region, so it escalates with the Saudi state by demanding of establish a neutral zone between the two countries, the withdrawal of the Saudis from the Hijaz, and the return of the Al-Rashid family in Hail and

5858-459: The battle for the city of Kish in 703 BC. Queen Yatie's successor, Queen Te'el-hunu , was defeated by Sennacherib's forces and retreated to Dumat al-Jandal in 688 BC. Sennacherib captured her there along with the Princess Tabua and transported them to Nineveh . During the reign of the Assyrian King Esarhaddon the Qedarite King Hazael travelled to the Assyrian capital of Nineveh bearing gifts in an attempt to reacquire sacred relics taken by

5959-447: The battle took place has generally been identified with the modern-day archaeological site of Tell Qarqur near the village of Qarqur in Hama Governorate , northwestern Syria . According to an inscription later erected by Shalmaneser, he had started his annual campaign, leaving Nineveh on the 14th day of Iyar . He crossed both the Tigris and Euphrates without incident, receiving the submission and tribute of several cities along

6060-469: The cause was lost, surrendered and declared obedience to the Assyrian monarchy. Tiglath-Pileser III restored her to the throne and appointed an emmissary with an army of 10,000 men to monitor her. Hostilities continued under the reign of Queen Yatie , who supported of the Chaldeans under Marduk-apla-iddina II in their successful defense of Babylon against an Assyrian army commanded by King Sennacherib . Queen Yatie also sent her brother to participate in

6161-455: The city of Dumat al-Jandal . Archaeological remains indicate that Al-Jawf has been inhabited since prehistoric times . A 1966 expedition to the Columns of Rajajil found numerous stone tools and pottery fractures that were used to date the site to the fourth millennium BC . The Saudi Department of Antiquities and Museums discovered a site in 1977 near the center of Shuhitia dating to the Stone Age . In 1985, an archaeological team studying

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6262-412: The city of Qarqar to the city of Gilzau. I felt with the sword 14,000 troops, their fighting men. Like Adad, I rained down upon them a devastating flood. I spread out their corpses and I filled the plain. I felled with the sword their extensive troops. I made their blood flow in the wadis. The field was too small for laying flat their bodies; the broad countryside had been consumed in burying them. I blocked

6363-509: The conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum. It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced— epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after

6464-412: The emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of

6565-728: The eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around

6666-435: The evening, and it may reach below zero. In summer, temperatures reach 40 degrees Celsius in late July, and at night it drops to 19 degrees in the north of the region and 23 in the south. High and low temperatures adversely affect the region in water loss, plant wilt or frost formation and damage to agricultural crops. Rain falls in the region mostly between October and May in the fall and winter seasons, and it decreases during

6767-447: The fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic. The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel , and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the Namara inscription , an epitaph of the Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From

6868-434: The family of Al-Ayed in Asir to authority. This was rejected by Saudi state. As a reaction of that, Saudi forces crawled over the Jordanian villages until they reached Yadodah, a few miles away from the city of Amman. At that time Britain intervened by bombing the Saudi forces and forcing them to withdraw and return to the dialogue. Which was the case so the Saudi state agreed with Britain, which represents East Jordan, to give

6969-503: The first reference to the Arabs appears in the historical record on a monument built in 853 BC to memorialize of the Battle of Qarqar . The Qedarite Queen Zabibe is listed among the monarchs who had paid tribute to Assyrian King Tiglath-Pileser III . Queen Samsi of Qedar later rebelled against Tiglath-Pileser III in alliance with the King of Damascus. Assyria suppressed the rebellion, killing 9,400 Qedarite warriors and capturing thousands of prisoners of war . Queen Samsi, realizing that

7070-409: The formation of the District Council, which consists of 33 members, twenty of whom are residents of the region, and the rest are state employees. Population growth in the Al-Jouf region is generally high, with a population of 520,737 people, according to the report of the General Authority for Statistics for the year (2018). [58] [59] Al-Jouf region is located in the northwest of the Kingdom , and it

7171-511: The former Qedari King Yatia bin Hazael. This time, however, Ashurbanipal launched a major campaign against the Kingdom of Qedar, definitively ending the Qedarite resistance. The Assyrian Empire ceased to function shortly after the sack of Ninevah in 612 BC. It was replaced as the regional power in Al-Jawf by the Neo-Babylonian Empire , which at least initially led to a period of relative peace. This period of peace lasted until Nabonidus rose to power in 556 BC and sought to occupy several areas to

7272-510: The fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese , and French. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet , an abjad script that is written from right to left . Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language . Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed between Proto-Semitic and

7373-597: The inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League . These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward

7474-613: The language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries. The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about

7575-604: The late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd , probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra . During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ( c.  603 –689)

7676-420: The latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages ) in medieval and early modern Europe. MSA

7777-739: The major population centers until they pledged allegiance to the Saudi state. During the reign of Imam Saud bin Abdulaziz Al Saud , which lasted from 1803 to 1814, the area remained under Saudi control. In the mid-19th century the region became part of the Emirate of Jabal Shammar , which was ruled by the Rashidi dynasty and nominally affiliated with the second Saudi state . In 1838 Abdullah bin Ali Al Rashid sent an army of 3,000 men led by his brother Ubaid to attack al-Jawf and collect zakat , but

7878-883: The many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows , as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. Hassaniya Arabic , Maltese , and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition. Hassaniya

7979-535: The most important events that passed on Al-Jouf during this period is the protection of Sultan al-Atrash , the leader of the Great Syrian Revolution in Al-Jouf region from 1927 to 1932 .. In the year 1358 AH, governmental departments in the Qurayyat region moved from the village of Kaf to the village of Nabak (which later became known as the City of Qurayyat). In 1957 Tabarjal was established after

8080-589: The name Al-Jawf include the Jawf of Muammar in the Asir Region and Jawf Bani Hajir in Eastern Province . The Al-Jawf region was formerly known as Jawf al-Amr and was inhabited by the Tayy tribe. It is also known as Jawf Al-Sirhan, which refers to a valley in the province that extends from the northwestern tip of the An Nafud desert to eastern Jordan . The word al-Jawf is used locally to refer to

8181-610: The name of the Qederite King Qinu ibn Geshem, the king of Qidar, who is believed to be the son of Geshem the Arabian. References to the Qedarites start to be replaced in the historical record with references to the Nabataeans following Alexander the Great 's conquest of Gaza in 332 BC. The Nabataean Kingdom seized control of the regional incense trade in this period. In 106 AD, the last Nabataean King Rabbel II died and

8282-782: The need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah سَيَّارَة 'automobile' or bākhirah باخِرة 'steamship'). In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), Khartum  [ ar ] (1993), and Tunis (1993). They review language development, monitor new words and approve

8383-424: The one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on

8484-549: The overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior. The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab ( لسان العرب , "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290. Charles Ferguson 's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on

8585-715: The region during the reign of the Caliph Umar between 634 and 644. Marwan bin Al Hakam ruled Al-Jawf during the reign of the Caliph Uthman in the 640s and 650s. The Tayy tribe became dominant in the Al-Jawf region during the 10th century. The Al-Fadl family from the Tayy tribe ruled the area between the 12th and 14th centuries. The Tayy began raiding Al-Shami, a location on the Egyptian Hajj route, in

8686-707: The region is limited because the geographical location of the Jawf is far from the Red Sea , the Arabian Sea , the Arabian Gulf , and the winds through which it does not help in the rains. The Mediterranean is the sea that most affects the region. The region is one of the coldest regions in Saudi Arabia during winter. Temperature reaches only 15 Celsius during the day in January, it drops to two degrees in

8787-410: The region may be mutually unintelligible. Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within

8888-593: The region was not formally conquered at that time. In 1853 Talal bin Abdullah Al Rashid sent another army to Al-Jawf that conquered and incorporated the region within Jabal Shammar over the course of a two-year campaign. Muhsin al-Shaalan , Nuri Al Shalaan 's cousin, ceded the Qurayyat (Qurayyat al-Salt) region, which is the last remaining part of the al-Jawf region, and he ceded it in favor of

8989-780: The rest of the year. The average annual rainfall is about 80 mm. The rains are fluctuating, falling one year significantly, but little in another year. In general, however, when it is raining accompanied by the formation of hail , strong wind, thunderstorms, and torrential torrents. This fluctuation and changing factors are detrimental to the region and its agricultural economy. Fahrenheit (Celsius) (30.3) (32.6) (36.6) (40.4) (42.6) (45.0) (47.0) (46.7) (45.2) (40.2) (40.4) Arabic language Arabic (endonym: اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ , romanized :  al-ʿarabiyyah , pronounced [al ʕaraˈbijːa] , or عَرَبِيّ , ʿarabīy , pronounced [ˈʕarabiː] or [ʕaraˈbij] )

9090-551: The ruins uncovered an additional 16 sites in the vicinity, with most of the locations dating to the Assyrian Early Period . Al-Jawf has long held regional importance because of its strategic location on the Incense Road . The Assyrians considered the Kingdom of Qedar , whose capital of Dumat al-Jandal is located in Al-Jawf, to be a threat due to its hostility to Assyrian control. It was in this period that

9191-458: The same sentence. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese , Hindi and Urdu , Serbian and Croatian , Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. While there

9292-690: The second conquest led by Muslim leader Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf the region converted to Islam. When Abu Bakr became caliph in 632 he launched the Ridda wars against rebel Arab tribes in a number of regions, including Al-Jawf. In 633 a Rashidun Army under Khalid ibn al-Walid persecuted rebels in the region following al-Walid's victory at the Battle of Ayn al-Tamr . He successfully captured and occupied Dumat al-Jandal before retreating back to Al-Hirah . Imru Al Qais bin Al Asbagh Al Kalbi ruled

9393-402: The semi-tropical high pressure belt, which makes wind an influence in the region. In the winter, the arid northeast winds blow, making Al Jouf's weather stable and cool in this season. The astronomical location of the region may cause the development of air fronts as a result of the collision of the arid northeast winds with the humid southwest winds, causing Precipitation . The maritime impact on

9494-458: The sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of

9595-557: The south of Al-Jawf including Tayma , Lihyan , Khaybar , and Medina . While the specifics are not entirely clear, it is possible that the Qedarite Kingdom cooperated with Nabonidus in his conquest of the Kingdom of Tayma. The Neo-Babylonian Empire collapsed and Nabonidus' reign was terminated when Babylon was captured by the Achaemenid King Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. The Kingdom of Qedar came to rule

9696-563: The standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language . This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of

9797-501: The towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to

9898-481: The uprising and forced Yatia into exile. Resistance to Assyrian power continued under Yatia's successors King Amoladi and Queen Attia, who had also previously been married to Yatia. The new king launched a failed attack on the Assyrian state and was captured by King Kamish of Moab . Amoladi and Attia were taken to Nineveh where they were punished by Ashurbanipal. Ashurbanipal then appointed Abb Yatia Bin Tari King of

9999-568: The way, including Aleppo . Once past Aleppo he encountered his first resistance from troops of Irhuleni , king of the Luwian state of Ḥamā (called in Hebrew Ḥamāth ), whom he defeated; in retribution, he plundered both the palaces and the cities of Irhuleni's kingdom. Continuing his march after having sacked Qarqar, he encountered the allied forces near the Orontes River . Twelve Kings

10100-451: The world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages , Middle Eastern studies , and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study

10201-500: Was previously known as Sand Alaj. It extends from Al-Jouf in its west to Hail in the east, and its area is approximately 64,630 km2. There are many short and large valleys in the region, but the most famous one is the Sirhan Valley . It is the most important valley of Al-Jouf, its length is 180 km, and it has an importance in agriculture in the region. There are several other important valleys such as Wadi Fajr and its length

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